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Following on from our discussions on Friday about Natural and Man-made disasters please read through this article.
Make notes on this article drawing comparisons between natural and man-made disasters.
You could create a T-Chart or mind-map or present your information in any way you please.

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Earthquakes, floods and landslides, etc. are natural environmental hazards of disastrous consequences.

In recent years these hazards took toll of thousands of lives and caused massive destruction of property.

These have adversely affected the vital sectors of our development as agriculture, communication, irrigation, power projects and rural and urban settlements.

The time and cost overrun in some cases have been enormous but their indirect impact on our economy has never been calculated. India is among the world's most disaster prone areas and a large part of the country is exposed to natural hazards, which often turn into disasters causing loss of life and property. The unique geo-climatic conditions have exposed this country to natural catastrophes.

Disasters can be defined as a sudden, accidental event of great magnitude that causes considerable damage to life and property. They are sudden, drastic and normally occur without any alarm or warning. Some disasters may be short lived such as earthquakes and some other may be of long duration, such as floods.

However, irrespective of the duration of a disaster, the damage in the form of deaths, injuries and losses of property is immense. The magnitude of the disasters can be judged by the fact that only during the past two decades, occurrences of floods, earthquakes, landslides, cyclones, etc. have killed several million people.
Most of the disasters have a natural origin, however, some disasters are manmade as well. On this basis, disasters can be broadly classified into two groups: Natural disasters:
When disasters occur due to natural forces they are called natural disasters, over which man has hardly any control. Some common natural disasters are earthquakes, landslides floods, droughts, cyclones, etc. Tsunamis, volcanic eruptions and wildfires are also included under natural disasters. These disasters cause enormous loss to life and property.
Man-made disasters:
When the disasters are due to carelessness of human or mishandling of dangerous equipment's they are called man-made disasters. Common examples of these disasters are train accidents, aero plane crashes, collapse of buildings, bridges, mines, tunnels, etc.

Natural Disasters:
Some of the common natural disasters, their impact on environment, and their prevention, control and mitigation are discussed below:
Earthquakes:

An earthquake is the shaking of the earth's surface caused by rapid movement of the earth's crust or outer layer. Ever since it came into existence 4.6 billion years ago, the earth has been a dynamic, evolving system. The position of the different continents and oceans that we see today, has changed a number of times in the earth's history.
The earth is primarily composed of three layers:
1. The outer crust,

2. The middle mantle, and

3. The inner core

The Earth's outer layer or crust is made up of a number of zig-saw pieces like structures that interlock into one another. These pieces are called tectonic plates. These plates are in continuous motion over the mantle, which is known as tectonic movements. These tectonic processes are also responsible for the mountain building processes.

The plates that are moving past over one another are slowed by friction along their boundaries. Due to this, the rocks are under strain. When the stress on the rocks exceeds certain limits, the rocks rupture and form a fault along which the rocks are displaced during tectonic movements. This sudden rupture of the rocks releases energy in the form of earthquake waves (Fig. 18.1).

Thus earthquake is a form of energy, which is transmitted to the surface of the earth in the form of waves called seismic waves. The study of earthquakes and the waves they create is called seismology (from the Greek seismos, "to shake"). Scientists who study earthquakes are called seismologists. The instrument that records the seismic waves is called seismograph.

The exact spot under the earth surface at which an earthquake originates is called the focus or hypocenter. The point on the earth surface above the focus is called the epicenter. The Richter scale is used to measure the intensity of earthquakes. The intensity is measured on a scale of 0 to 8 and above (Table 18.1).
Impact of Earthquake on the Environment:
The destruction, an earthquake causes, depends on its magnitude and duration or the amount of shaking that occurs. In the last 500 years, earthquakes around the world have killed several million people. Earthquake is one of the most catastrophic natural disasters. Massive loss of life and property occurs due to collapse of buildings. Besides, roads, bridges, canals, electric poles, etc. are severely damaged. Certain regions of the earth are more prone to earthquakes.
The major impacts of earthquakes are as follows: Shaking of the ground and surface rupture:
These are places located in the unstable regions of the earth crust, which are subjected to tectonic activities. Countries like Japan, parts of Southeast Asia, Turkey, Iran, Mexico, etc. are affected by severe earthquakes. In India, the entire Himalayan region, parts of the Gangetic Plain, Kutch and Andaman and Nicobar islands are in the earthquake hazard zone (Table 18.2).
Liquefaction:
This is the main cause of destruction in which buildings, bridges, roads, canals and other structures are damaged.
Landslides:
Earthquakes make sands and silts to transform from a solid to liquid state. This also results in building collapse.
Fires:
Earthquakes of high intensity often trigger many landslides in the hilly regions.
Changes in the land elevation:
It is a major hazard associated with earthquakes. The shakings of the ground and building damage often break the gas pipes and electric lines that cause fires.
Tsunami:
The surface topography of a region and groundwater conditions are altered after an earthquake.

It is a Japanese term meaning 'harbour waves'. Tsunamis are massive sea waves that are mainly caused due to earthquakes in the ocean floor or possibly due to an undersea landslide or volcanic eruption. When the ocean floor is tilted or offset during an earthquake a set of waves is created similar to the concentric waves generated by an object dropped into the water.
Prevention and Mitigation: Hazard reduction programmes: These include the following:
These waves are massive in size and gain height as they approach the seashore. Tsunamis up to the height of 30 m are recorded (Fig. 18.2). Tsunamis are the most catastrophic among natural disasters as they affect a very wide geographical area. The tsunami of 26 December, 2004 killed around three lakh people and affected parts of Indonesia, Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India, Sri Lanka and even Somalia.

Despite the advances made by modem science, the exact time and place where an earthquake may strike cannot be predicted. Hence, the occurrence of an earthquake cannot be prevented. However, there are certain regions that are earthquakes prone and so the administration must work before hand to minimize the damages due to occurrence of earthquakes in such areas. The control and mitigation measures in earthquake prone regions include hazard reduction programmes, development of critical facilities and proper land use planning.

i. Earthquake education and evacuation plans.
Development of critical facilities: These include the following:
ii. Use of proper construction material that is not injurious even if the structures collapse.

iii. Construction of quake resistant buildings having proper structural design.

i. Establishment of earthquake regulatory agencies for fast relief.

ii. Establishment of specific health care units for treating earthquake injuries Proper land use planning.

iii. Mapping of faults and weak zones in earthquake prone areas.

iv. Buildings such as schools, hospitals, offices, etc. should be in areas away from active faults.

Floods:

Floods refer to the 'inundation of large parts of land which otherwise remain dry by water for some duration of time'. Floods are one of the most common natural disasters occurring in many parts of the world every year. Floods occur due to heavy rainfall within a short duration of time in a particular region which causes the rivers and streams to overflow.

Since most of the precipitation occurs within span of two to three months during the rainy season, most floods occur during that time. The floods in the mountainous regions due to cloudbursts or damming of streams are referred to as flash-floods. In flash-floods, the water drains away quickly but only after causing extensive damage. The plain areas of a region which are drained by a number of rivers, are the places most affected by floods.
Impact on the Environment: Floods not only damage property and endanger if lives of humans and animals, but have other effects as well, such as:
In India, states like Assam, Bihar and parts of Gangetic Uttar Pradesh are quite prone to floods during the rainy season (Fig. 18.3). The Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers and their tributaries are most susceptible to floods. However, heavy rains cause occasional floods in parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Flooding, in India, is a major problem and some part or the other is affected by the fury of floods usually during the months from July to September.

Floods cause untold miseries to the affected regions in the form of huge losses of life and property. There is great damage to agriculture and livestock. Flood affected areas face acute shortages of food and drinking water. Besides, floods cause a number of water borne diseases such as diarrhea, gastroenteritis, jaundice, malaria, etc.

Though the lives lost in floods may not be as high as in case of earthquakes or cyclones, the damage to the environment is immense. The problem is further aggravated if the floods last for a longer duration of time.

1. Floods cause the spread of many epidemic diseases.

2. Rapid runoff causes soil erosion.

3. Wildlife habitat and forests are often destroyed.
Prevention, Control and Mitigation: Land use planning: Proper land use planning in flood prone areas includes:
4. Manmade structures like buildings, bridges, roads, sewer lines, power lines, etc. are damaged.

5. Floods cause widespread damage to the standing crops and degrade the agricultural land.

6. Flood affected areas are faced with acute shortage of food and drinking water.
Building of physical barriers: Flood can be prevented by building certain structures, such as:
Though floods are a natural hazard, it is sometimes intensified due to undesirable human activities. The measures that can be taken to control the extent of flood damage include land use planning, building of physical barriers, preventing human encroachment and use of technology for relief.

1. Demarcation of the flood-prone areas that are first inundated during floods.

2. Construction work and concentration of human population should be avoided in the floodplains.
Preventing human encroachment: Human encroachment should be avoided in the following areas:
3. Afforestation on the upper reaches of the river (catchment areas) to control soil erosion and excessive runoff.

1. Embankments along the banks of rivers in densely populated areas.
Use of technology for relief: Advanced technology can be used in the following ways:
2. Building of reservoirs to collect excess water during floods.

3. The construction of channels that divert floodwater.

1. Floodplains and catchment areas.

2. This would control deforestation and soil erosion which would prevent excessive runoff.

1. Advanced communication techniques for flood forecasting and warning.

2. Fast evacuation of people.

3. To provide relief in temporary shelters.

4. Immediate supply of medicines, drinking water, food and clothes.

5. Epidemic diseases must be controlled through spraying, vaccination, etc.
Impact on the Environment: Drought causes serious environmental imbalances, which are summarized below:
Drought:

Drought is a condition of abnormally dry weather within a geographic region. Drought refers to the lack or insufficiency of rain for an extended period of time in a specific region. During droughts, rainfall is less than normal causing a water imbalance and resultant water shortage. It occurs when the rate of evaporation and transpiration exceeds precipitation for a considerable period. Drought should not be confused with dry climate, as in the Sahara or Thar Desert. It is marked by an unusual scarcity of water and food for the humans as well as animals.

Certain regions of the world, such as parts of Central Africa, are characterized by low amount of rainfall resulting in perennial drought-like conditions. Some part of India is often affected by drought even during the rainy season. As India is primarily an agricultural country, droughts cause untold miseries to the common people.

Many Indian farmers are still totally dependent on rainfall for irrigation and because of abnormally dry spells there is extensive crop damage. The main drought prone areas of the country are parts of Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Chhattisgarh. However, sometimes drought-like conditions also prevail in the Gangetic Plain also.

The severity of the drought is gauged by the degree of moisture deficiency, its duration, and the size of the area affected. If the drought is brief, it is known as a dry spell or partial drought.

1. Water-supply reservoirs become empty, wells dry up and there is acute water shortage.
Prevention, control and mitigation: Management of water resources: These include the following:
2. Groundwater level is also depleted because of less recharge.

3. Soil degradation and erosion occurs. Soil cracks because of shrinkage during desiccation (Fig. 18.4).
Proper agricultural techniques: These include the following:
4. There is extensive crop damage.

5. People become impoverished and there are diseases due to malnutrition.

6. Widespread damage to flora and fauna air including domestic animals.
Relief measures: Immediate relief to the drought-affected people should be provided in the form of:
Rains are caused by a number of natural factors like air currents, wind direction, etc. Thus, droughts are a natural phenomenon, beyond human control and prevention. Though, global warming may have changed the pattern of rainfall in the recent times. In modem times, by the use of satellites, we can predict the weather pattern over a particular area. Drought-like conditions can be overcome by better water harvesting techniques. Certain precautions can be taken in drought prone areas, which relate to management of water resources, proper agricultural techniques and relief by different agencies.

1. Conservation of water through rainwater harvesting, building check dams, bunds, etc.

2. Construction of reservoirs to hold emergency water supplies.

1. Increased use of drought resistant crops.

2. Proper irrigation techniques, such as drip and trickle irrigation that minimize the use of water.

3. Over-cropping and overgrazing should be avoided.
Impact on the Environment:
1. Employment generation programmes, like 'food for work' in the drought affected areas.
The impact on the environment is severe, some of which are as under (Fig. 18.5):
2. To provide fodder for domestic animals.

Cyclones:

Cyclone is an area of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by a wind system blowing in anti-clockwise direction, formed in the northern hemisphere. In common terms, cyclone can be described as a giant circular storm system. In a cyclone, the wind speed must be more than 119 km/hr. Cyclones generate in the seas and oceans and move with a very high speed towards the land.

Cyclones form when moisture evaporates from the warm oceans during the hot season. The air rises, condenses and gathers momentum as it moves over the ocean. Due to the extreme low pressure in the centre, more and more air rushes inwards and it grows to a considerable size and intensity.

It strikes the land with a devastating force and gradually withers off on land when they are cut from their source of ocean moisture. Cyclones are named variously depending on their source of origin. They are called hurricanes in the Atlantic, typhoons in the Pacific, cyclones in the Indian Ocean and willy-willies aroimd Australia.

Cyclones are quite common in the Bay of Bengal and often cause much damage in Bangladesh and coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Bangladesh has been devastated by cyclones a number of times. In November 1970, a severe cyclone caused a 6 m rise in sea-level and the consequent flooding killed approximately three lakh people.
Prevention, Control and Mitigation: Use of Advanced Technology:
Another cyclone in 1971 killed more than one lakh people. The cyclone that hit Orissa in 1999, is the worst recorded natural disaster in India. Even an advanced country like America recorded more than 10,000 deaths and huge financial losses when New Orleans was hit by a hurricane named Katrina, during August 2005. Cyclones cause devastation when they hit the landmass in the form of very strong winds, heavy rains and storm tides.

1. The coastal low lying areas are most affected.

2. The affected areas are inundated both with rainfall and the surge of seawater.
Hazard reduction initiatives:
3. Devastation is also increased due to the accompanying high velocity winds.

4. Widespread damage in the form of uprooted trees, blown-off roof tops, standing crops, injuries and death to humans and animals.
Relief measures:
5. Many shipwrecks occur during cyclonic storms.

6. The affected areas are impoverished and are followed by spread of epidemic and diseases.

The occurrence of cyclones is a natural phenomenon, over which humans have no control, hence it cannot be prevented. However, some scientists have speculated that rise in global warming may cause an increased occurrences of cyclones. The devastating effects of cyclones can only be controlled and mitigated through some effective policies such as use of advanced technology, hazard reduction initiatives and relief measures.

1. Satellites can easily forecast the origin of cyclones in advance.

2. Satellite images can track the movement and intensity of cyclones.
The important factors responsible for landslide occurrence are as follows:
3. Installation of early warning systems in the coastal areas.

1. Increasing public awareness regarding cyclones.

2. Increasing the public response to cyclone warnings through training.

3. Development of underground shelter belts in the cyclone prone areas.

1. Rushing relief to the affected areas in the form of medicines, food, clothes, etc.
Avalanche:
2. Checking the spread of epidemic water borne diseases as cyclones are generally accompanied by flooding.
Impact on the Environment: The impact on the environment is manifested in the form of:
Landslides:

Landslides refer to a rapid down-slope movement of rocks or soil mass under the force of gravity. It is also known as slope failure and mass wasting. Landslides may be typed as mudflow where there is down-slope movement of soil and debris flow, which is the down-slope movement of coarse material and rocks. Landslides may occur when water from rain and melting snow, seeps through the earth on a sloppy surface and encounters a layer of loose, unstable material such as clay.

Landslides mostly occur on unstable hillsides by the action of rain or snow that seep through the soils and rocks (Figs. 18.6 and 18.7). This results in the sliding of earth and rock masses down the hill slopes. These are further triggered due to deforestation and human encroachment on unstable slopes. All the hilly regions of our country are prone to landslides.

1. Stability of slopes

2. The type of earth and rock material
Prevention, Control and Mitigation: Providing slope support:
3. The type of vegetation
Minimizing human encroachment:
4. The role of ground water conditions and precipitation

5. Presence of streams, etc.

It is a type of landslide involving a large mass of snow, ice and rock debris that slides and fall rapidly down a mountainside. Avalanches are initiated when a mass of snow and ice begins to rapidly move downhill because of the overload caused due to a large volume of new snowfall. This result in internal changes of the snow pack, producing zones of weakness along which fissure occurs.

Landslides, though local in nature, occur quite often in many parts of the world. Landslides occur in the hilly regions; the Himalayan region in India is particularly prone to landslides. Every year landslides occur, especially during the monsoon season and cause much damage to life and property. For example, Malpa landslide in 1999 in the Kumaon hills, took the lives of many pilgrims who were going to Mansarovar in Tibet.

1. Uprooted trees and degraded soil
Man-made disasters are mainly of two types:
2. Buried building and settlements

3. Damage to crops and plantation
Industrial and technological disasters:
4. Frequent roadblocks in the hilly areas
Impact on the environment:
5. Injuries and death to humans and animals
Prevention, control and mitigation Man-made disasters can be minimized to a large extent by adopting the following measures: :
Though landslides are a natural phenomenon and may occur without human interference, in certain cases human activities like deforestation, mining, etc. can also induce landslides. Landslides can be controlled, to some extent, by adopting initiatives, such as providing slope support and minimizing human encroachment.

i. By building retaining walls made of concrete, gabions (stone filled wire blocks) and wooden and steel beams, etc.

ii. By providing drainage control measures so that water may not infiltrate into the slope

i. Mining activities should be monitored in the hilly, unstable regions.

ii. Plantation of trees should be undertaken on the unstable hilly slopes.

iii. By preventing human encroachment in the form of buildings, roads, agriculture, grazing, etc. on unstable slopes.

Man-Made Disasters:

Man-made disasters are the result of carelessness or human errors during technological and industrial use. The disasters are in the form of accidents, which occur all of a sudden and take a huge toll on life and property. Mostly such disasters cause injuries, diseases and casualties where they occur.

Local disasters:

These are small-scale disasters such as train accidents, plane crashes and shipwrecks.

These are much larger in scale and are the result of technology failures or industrial accidents. Such disasters affect both local population and may even cover a much larger area. Industrial disasters result due to accidental leakage of water or air pollutants. Many of the chemicals are extremely toxic and carcinogenic which affect the human population in an adverse way. Some people die instantly while others are crippled for whole life in the form of blindness, paralysis and many other chronic diseases.

Leakage of toxic chemicals from the industries and accidents in the nuclear reactors has short-term and long-term effects on the environment and human health. Short-term effects on human health relate to casualties and diseases like blindness, cancer, paralysis, heart trouble, gastric and respiratory abnormalities. Long-term effects include genetic imbalances in humans and its impact on the future generations. Soil and water sources also remain polluted for long durations of time.

1. Proper training of personnel working in the hazardous industries.

2. Proper maintenance and care of safety measures.

3. Removing human encroachments around hazardous industries.

4. Making the people aware about the first-aid methods in case of accidents.

5. Applying wet cloth over the mouth and nose in case of gas leakages minimizes the health hazards.

6. Remaining indoors in case of radioactive accidents.

7. Providing the people with proper medical care, in some cases throughout their life.

8. Providing adequate compensation to the affected people by way of money and employment.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy (BGT):

The most serious industrial disaster occurred on December 3, 1984 at Bhopal, India, which is known as the Bhopal Gas Tragedy (BGT). The Bhopal gas tragedy occurred due to leakage of methyl isocyanide (MIC) gas from the factory of Union Carbide of India Ltd. MIC gas is used as an ingredient in pesticides.

It leaked from the factory and formed the deadly cloud over Bhopal. People living in slums in the vicinity of the factory were the most affected and more than 5000 people were killed, half of them due to direct exposure and other half due to after affects. MIC is a colourless gas which causes severe irritation, violent coughing, swelling of the lungs, bleeding and death due to direct inhalation. It also caused loss of eye-sight in more than 1000 people. More than 50,000 people were affected with respiratory, eye, gastric, neurological and gynaecological problems (Figs. 18.8 and 18.9).

Another technological disaster is due to the potential damages of nuclear fallout. An example is the Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster.

Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster:

This nuclear disaster occurred at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, which was one of the largest power plants in the Ukrainian Republic of erstwhile USSR, on April 26, 1986. It is the worst nuclear disaster recorded in a nuclear power plant. This nuclear power plant had four reactors of 1000 megawatt each for electricity generation. A sudden power surge resulted in two explosions, which destroyed the reactor core and blasted a large hole in the roof of the reactor building.

The Radioactive debris moved up through that hole to heights of 1 km. Approximately 100 to 150 million curies of radiation (radioactive isotopes of iodine and caesium) escaped into the atmosphere. To reduce emissions, the rescue team bombarded the reactor with 5,000 metric tonnes of shielding material consisting of lead, boron, sand and clay. Soviet officials placed the toll of human lives to 31.

However, according to western estimates, 2000 people were killed. Large areas of the Ukrainian, Byelorussia Republics of the USSR and even parts of Poland, Denmark and Sweden were contaminated. Around 200,000 people had to be evacuated and resettled. The after affects lasted for many years and a rise in the incidence of thyroid and blood cancer has been observed in a wide group of people. Other affects on the human health included skin diseases, hair loss, nausea, anemia, respiratory and reproductive diseases.

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Natural and Man-Made Disaster and their Impact on Environment

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ADVERTISEMENTS: Earthquakes, floods and landslides, etc. are natural environmental hazards of disastrous consequences. In recent years these hazards took toll of thousands of lives and caused massive destruction of property. These have adversely affected the vital sectors of our development as agriculture, communication, irrigation, power projects and rural and urban settlements.

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As with so many things, Sweden seems to lead the way when it comes to managing the seasons.

Winter is dealt with by the law book: drivers are required to fit their vehicles with winter tyres, local authorities to keep the roads clear, and shop owners to ensure the pavement outside their business is non-treacherous.

But snow-readiness is as deeply ingrained in the national psyche as it is in the statutes. "The houses in Sweden are built for this kind of weather and most of them have triple glazing, which makes a big difference," said a spokeswoman for the Swedish embassy in London.

"The clothes are also more suitable for cold weather. All Swedes have a summer coat, an autumn coat, a winter coat, and a spring coat. The shoes people wear will have a proper sole on them so that you don't freeze. As soon as there's snow or ice, the councils are out putting salt on the streets as a legal requirement. In the very north of Sweden, that doesn't work, so they get out the snowploughs instead."

When things get really bad, she added, the snow chains come out and warm sand is scattered over airport runways.

Still, she mused, plummeting mercury and freezing flurries are always treated with Scandinavian sangfroid.

"It's very much another day - even if it's -10 or -15C. All the kids will be out playing and all the schools will be open. We've been living like this for a very long time and we're used to it."

What do Swedes make of the annual British snow panic? "We smile and go, 'That wouldn't happen in Sweden.'"

The Canadians, too, are well adjusted to the cold.

According to David Phillips, a senior climatologist with Environment Canada, the country is the snowiest and second coldest nation on earth, with an average of 200cm of snow falling each year.

"We know how to deal with snow," he said. "But with the first snowfall in October or November, we have to learn to drive all over again - and the snowplough drivers have to learn their new routes."

Snow tyres, chains and studs are snapped up, some streets are declared no-parking zones because they lie on snowplough routes, giant snow melters are fired up for the winter, and caravans of snowploughs are dispatched to runways and highways.

Although snow control is a billion-dollar business in Canada - the average life of a snow shovel there is just two-and-a-half years - Phillips pointed out that the weather had its advantages.

"We make more out of snow than it costs us when it comes to skiing, tourism and recreation."

Across the chilly water, on the bleak Svalbard archipelago in the Norwegian arctic, winter temperatures can drop to -55C.

"If the wind is blowing a lot, we have problems with the snow in some places," said Mary-Ann Dahle, who runs a hotel in the town of Longyearbyen.

"Then you get your good clothes on but you don't go out much. You can't go out on snowmobiles, so you cover your face and you cover everything."

When it's really cold, though, you do have to be a little more careful.

"I went out on the ice when it was -50C once and the cold got into my eyes and I had problems for two years," said Dahle. "We don't have problems with the cold; the tourists do. [But] -10C? That's not cold at all."
Topics

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Snow problem! How other nations deal with winter weather

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As with so many things, Sweden seems to lead the way when it comes to managing the seasons. Winter is dealt with by the law book: drivers are required to fit their vehicles with winter tyres, local authorities to keep the roads clear, and shop owners to ensure the pavement outside their business is non-treacherous.

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An online activity

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SEGway On-line Activity: Search for Ice and Snow

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On-line science lesson (grades 7 - 12) - use Space Shuttle images to find ice and snow on Earth. Using an Earth Image database (Space Shuttle images), students try to find places on Earth where there is ice and snow. For some communities in arid, drought prone regions finding enough water is a problem.

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http://astro.uchicago.edu/cara/southpole.edu/flaky.html

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Scholastic.com | Online Activities: Weather Watch

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Winter storms are among nature's most impressive weather spectacles. Their combination of heavy snow, freezing rain, and high winds can totally disrupt modern civilization: closing down airports and roads, creating power outages, and downing telephone lines. Winter storms remind us how vulnerable we are to nature's awesome power.

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Here's a website with loads of different Maths activities.

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Koch Snowflake | Penguin Math | Snowflake Activities | Snowman Problem Solving | Literature Connections | Winter Glyphs | Winter Data Collection | Gingerbread Math Activities | Winter Coordinate Graphing | Holiday Problem Solving | Student Work: Winter Math Activities | Student Work: Holiday Math Activities|

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Immobilizing snowfalls and subzero temperatures can have long-lasting effects on travel and commerce, as well as cause absences from work and school, especially in major metropolitan areas. While some cities only see a few inches of snow annually, others get hammered with multiple feet.

Each city on our list receives an annual average of at least 90 inches of snow. While snowfall depth is hard to calculate worldwide, the top 10 cities are ranked based on how many inches they receive per year. 9. Buffalo, N.Y., U.S.

Famous for annual snowfalls and located east of Lake Erie, Buffalo kicks off the list with an annual average of 95 inches of snow. The city is home to 259,384 residents and sits at the head of the Niagara River. President William McKinley was shot in the chest twice during an assassination attempt by anarchist Leon Czolgosz at the Pan-American Exhibition in Buffalo on Sept. 6, 1901. McKinley would die of his wounds days later; Vice President Theodore Roosevelt would then take up the presidency.

8. Rochester, N.Y., U.S.

Rochester slides into the number nine spot with an annual average of 99 inches of snow. The city is home to more than 260,000 people and is located south of Lake Ontario. One of the first anti-slavery publications ever produced was founded in Rochester in 1847 before the American Civil War. The North Star newspaper was created by famous abolitionist Frederick Douglass. Douglass, always striving to expand upon his education, taught himself how to read and write.

7. Akita, Tōhoku, Japan

Located east of the Sea of Japan in the Akita Prefecture, Akita is home to more than 320,000 residents. An average of approximately 107 inches of snow covers the region each year. The region also features the famous Akita Castle built in 733 A.D.

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6. Saguenay, Quebec, CanadaRecently formed in 2002 as a merger between municipalities and cities including Chicoutimi, Saguenay is home to more than 145,000 residents. The region receives approximately 123 inches of snow annually.

5. (Tie) Syracuse, N.Y., U.S., and Quebec City, Quebec, Canada

Tying for fifth place, Syracuse, N.Y., and Quebec City both receive an annual average snowfall of approximately 124 inches. Syracuse is the economic epicenter for much of central New York with more than 145,000 residents. The city is home to Syracuse University, which ranked number two on AccuWeather's list for top 10 snowiest colleges. Quebec City is the second-largest city in Quebec province with a population of 491,140 people. It is one of the oldest cities in North America, and features a mix of museums and cultural attractions that celebrate the city's rich European heritage.

4. St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada

Originally claimed as an English colony, the island of Newfoundland houses St. John's, one of the oldest and most historically significant cities in North America. Each year average snowfalls bring approximately 131 inches along the eastern edge of the Avalon Peninsula to more than 100,000 residents.

3. Toyama, Hokuriku, Japan

Located in central Honshu, the largest island which comprises most of Japan's landmass, Toyama is home to more than 417,000 residents and is the capital city of the Toyama Prefecture. Positioned along the coast of the Sea of Japan in the north, Toyama receives more than 143 inches of snow per year, making it one of the snowiest locations in Japan. The Toyama prefecture is also near the Tateyama Kurobe Alpine Route, Yuki no Otani, where the highway cuts through walls of snow creating a canyon to the feet of snow the region receives each year.

2. Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan

Holding the rank of fourth-largest city in Japan, Sapporo is home to more than 1.9 million residents and famous for its annual Sapporo Snow Festival. The festival features food, snow sculptures and cultural snow-related activities. The city itself is located on the northernmost Japanese island, Hokkaido. Annual snowfalls average approximately 191 inches. In 1972, Sapporo hosted the XI Olympic Winter Games.

1. Aomori City, Tōhoku , Japan

Aomori City is located in the Aomori Prefecture in the northeast region of Honshu. Embedded between Aomori Bay, Mutsu Bay and the Hakkōda Mountains in the South, the city, which is home to more than 299,000 people, is slammed with the heaviest annual snowfall in world. With an average of 312 inches, Aomori tops the list of major cities for snowfall worldwide. Japan's geographical location, oceanic position, high elevations of the mountains and the country's proximity to cold air from northeast Asia make it one of the snowiest locations on the planet.
Note: All research was conducted utilizing data and referrals from AccuWeather's team of meteorologists and from information obtained from the Japan Meteorological Agency and The Weather Network. The top 10 snowiest cities in the world were selected based on populations totaling more than 100,000 people. Because of varying snow depth records around the world, some information was not available. Report a Typo

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Top 10 snowiest major cities around the world

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Immobilizing snowfalls and subzero temperatures can have long-lasting effects on travel and commerce, as well as cause absences from work and school, especially in major metropolitan areas. While some cities only see a few inches of snow annually, others get hammered with multiple feet.

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218 B.C.. Alps. Avalanches decimate Hannibals armies as they try to cross the Alps with elephants. Twenty thousand soldiers and many elephants are lost.

1618. Plurs, Switzerland. A snowslide (known as the Rodi avalanche) buries the town of Plurs, claiming 2,427 victims.

1910. Wellington, Wa. A large avalanche crushes two trains, killing 97 passengers. It is one of the worst train disasters in U.S. history.

1916. Tyrol. During World War I, a series of avalanches kills at least 10.000 Austrian and Italian soldiers over a 48-hour period. During the war, soldiers from both sides also use avalanches as weapons, setting off slides with explosives to kill the enemies downhill.

1950-1951. Austrian, Swiss and Italian Alps. An exceptionally snowy winter brings a series of avalanches that kill more than 200 people.

1954. Blons, Austria. An avalanche destroys the small village of Blons. Nine hours later, a second avalanche hits the town burying the rescuers. The total death toll is higher than 200.

1962, Ranrahirca, Peru. On January 10t a huge mass of snow breaks loose from 22,000-foot-high Mt. Huascarn, wiping out the villages of Ranrahirca and Yungay. Compressed air produced by the avalanche also destroys other villages downhill, killing about 4,000 people. It is the worst snow disaster in peacetime.

1979, Lahaul Valley, India. A series of avalanches bury the valley, leaving at least 200 victims .

1991, Bingol, Turkey. An avalanche hits several towns, killing 255 people.

2002, Republic of North Ossetia, Caucasus. A 20-million-ton avalanche from Mt. Kazbek kills 150 people, including emerging Russian movie star and director Sergei Bodrov Jr., and members of his location filming crew.

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218 B.C.. Alps. Avalanches decimate Hannibals armies as they try to cross the Alps with elephants. Twenty thousand soldiers and many elephants are lost. 1618. Plurs, Switzerland. A snowslide (known as the Rodi avalanche) buries the town of Plurs, claiming 2,427 victims. 1910. Wellington, Wa. A large avalanche crushes two trains, killing 97 passengers.

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IRISH weather forecasters have said a red warning is likely towards the end of the week as Ireland prepares for the big freeze.
Ireland is potentially bracing for snowfall not seen for the last 36 years.

Temperatures are set to drop to as low as -7 this week as the 'Beast for the East' hits the country.

Met Éireann, the Irish National Meteorological Service, has issued a five day forecast with the country currently on a status yellow weather warning.

The Irish Government is meeting today to assess what measures will be needed over the coming week to deal with the onslaught of cold weather and snow.

Taoiseach Leo Varadkar said some disruption is likely as the country braces for snow - the likes of which has not been seen since 1982.

Cold snap coming this week, from Tuesday. The Government's Task Force will meet tomorrow morning to assess the situation. Please listen out for updates and take care. Some disruption is likely.

- Leo Varadkar (@campaignforleo) 25 February 2018

Cathal Nolan, an Offlay-based meteorologist from the Midland Weather Channel, has predicted snowfall in excess of 30cm this week.

"The latest models continue to indicate the development of the coldest spell of weather since 2010, and possibly the snowiest weather event since 1982," he said.

"While snowfall amounts will vary from place to place I do expect that some places in the East Midlands will see in excess of 30cm of snow or more by Friday afternoon.

"Some areas such as Wicklow, Dublin, and Kildare could see in excess of 45cm of snow depending upon the track of an Atlantic depression on Friday."

Here's what you can expect from the weather this week according to Met Éireann:

Very cold with some bright or sunny spells. Snow flurries are likely in eastern coastal counties. Very cold and frosty overnight with lowest temperatures -2 to -5 C.

Rain and sleet showers in Leinster and east Munster during the day. Very cold and frosty at night with snow showers across Leinster, east Ulster and southeast Munster. Temperatures will fall to as low as -5 degrees.

Extremely cold, with further snowfall. Snow showers will be heaviest and most frequent in the east of the country especially in east Leinster. Top temperatures only -1 to +2 C. Overnight frost will be severe nationwide, with temperatures falling to between -5 and -7 degrees.

Bitterly cold. Top temperatures just -1 to +1 C with a gusty easterly wind. Overnight there will be heavy disruptive snow moving up from the southeast. Expect 'significant accumulations' over the southern half of the country. Blizzard conditions.

Heavy and disruptive snow for a time on Friday, mainly over central and northern parts of the country.

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Ireland bracing for levels of snow not seen since 1982 | The Irish Post

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IRISH weather forecasters have said a red warning is likely towards the end of the week as Ireland prepares for the big freeze. Ireland is potentially bracing for snowfall not seen for the last 36 years. Temperatures are set to drop to as low as -7 this week as the 'Beast for the East' hits the country.

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(Image: PA)

The government has ruled out doubling the fuel allowance for this week, but is still telling householders to turn up the heating dial.

The social welfare payment for the elderly and low income families is €22.50 per week, but that won't go far enough as temperatures plunge to below freezing, campaigners insist.

Age Action spokesman, Justin Moran, said: "The best way to ensure older people aren't afraid to keep the heat on during this cold weather is to announce a one-off, double-payment, of the fuel allowance.

"This would give them the assurance they need that keeping warm isn't going to mean bills they cannot pay."

The organisation says that cold weather is a factor in the death of up to 2,000 elderly people every winter.

Pensioners are at a greater risk of heart and breathing illness and tend to live in older, less energy efficient, homes.

The average cost of a bag of coal is €17.50 and pensioners who cannot drive can expect to pay an extra 50 cent for delivery.

A spokeswoman for the Department of Social Protection defended the decision not to increase the payment, saying there already are adequate supports in place.

"There are two additional mechanisms in place and these are through our Community Welfare Service, the Exceptional Needs Payment, which is a means tested payment.

"But also we have the Urgent Needs Payment, so that is payable to a person who may not normally qualify for social welfare support, but they have an urgent need due to these severe weather conditions."

There is widespread criticism from the opposition.

Sinn Féin's Social Protection spokesperson, John Brady TD, said: "I have heard Government representatives referring to the Exceptional Needs Payment and the Urgent Needs Payment.

"However these are not guaranteed payments, instead they are at the discretion of Community Welfare Offices.

Labour's Social Protection spokesperson, Senator Ged Nash, said: "We've heard Minister Daly indicate that older people should keep their heating on 24 hours a day during this snap.

"A double payment would amount to an extra €22 or so but would make a huge difference to those on lower incomes."

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Government rules out doubling fuel allowance as Storm Emma hits

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The government has ruled out doubling the fuel allowance for this week, but is still telling householders to turn up the heating dial. The social welfare payment for the elderly and low income families is €22.50 per week, but that won't go far enough as temperatures plunge to below freezing, campaigners insist.

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Some ways in which the country is dealing with the snow

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Additional beds are to be made available for people sleeping rough, ahead of exceptionally cold weather which is forecast for the next week.

Met Éireann is warning of exceptionally cold weather this week with "disruptive" snow showers to hit the country on Tuesday.

Minister for Housing Eoghan Murphy has said the Department of Housing has been asked to make contact with local authorities and homeless agencies in relation to people sleeping rough.

Additional bed spaces will be made available in the Dublin, Cork, Galway, Limerick and Waterford.

The Dublin Region Homeless Executive has secured an additional 84 beds, and 'one night only' beds will remain open on a 24-hour basis.

"Rough sleepers require additional supports and the Government is working hard to implement solutions. Extensive efforts have been made to deliver new accommodation with over 200 new beds provided in the Dublin region towards the end of 2017," said Mr Murphy.

Two outreach teams will be working on the streets to encourage rough sleepers to come into shelter.

The Government Task Force on Emergency Planning is to meet tomorrow, with significant wind chill and severe frosts forecast for the week ahead.

A Status Yellow low temperature warning is in place for tonight with temperatures to fall as low as -3C.

A Status Yellow weather warning is also in place from today until Saturday.

"Air and ground temperatures will be five to ten degrees below normal, with significant wind chill and penetrating severe frosts," according to Met Éireann.

"Snow showers, mainly affecting eastern areas on Tuesday, will progressively become more widespread and heavier through midweek, with significant and disruptive accumulations."

Ok so y'all remember when I tweeted that picture of the reddest chart I'd ever seen in work? And everyone lost their minds? Well... #cold #snow #weather Watch out for those in need; #elderly #Homeless #AnimalWelfare pic.twitter.com/uYs6ET15m2
- Joanna Donnelly (@JoannaDonnellyL) February 25, 2018

Met Éireann meteorologist Joanna Donnelly said: "Strong winds will sweep through Ireland during the week. There will be sub-zero temperatures during the day on Thursday with strong winds and heavy snowfall."

She said the bad weather is due to a Siberian easterly, anti-cyclone which is centred over Scandinavia at the moment.

Ms Donnelly said that Dublin and the east coast are likely to get the most snow.

"When it does snow in the east, we tend to get more of it," said Ms Donnelly.

The reason for this, said Ms Donnelly, is because of the onset of cold easterly weather. Ireland usually gets westerly winds with mild, damp conditions.

Whilst it is cold today, even colder air is going to move in from the Eurasian Arctic this week causing temperatures to drop further pic.twitter.com/F61gjBRsEP
- Met Office (@metoffice) February 25, 2018

Irish Water has mobilised its crisis management arrangements to deal with operational impacts of the expected weather.

For advice on preparing for and dealing with extremely cold conditions and snow, see winterready.ie.

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Additional beds for rough sleepers ahead of cold snap

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Additional beds are to be made available for people sleeping rough, ahead of exceptionally cold weather which is forecast for the next week. Met Éireann is warning of exceptionally cold weather this week with "disruptive" snow showers to hit the country on Tuesday.

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Irish weather website

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