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Career News | by Dr. Shai L. Butler

It was 1996 and the then affirmative action officer at the university where I was employed approached me and asked if I'd consider joining a campus women's group. She (Gloria) was a senior level employee who I knew reported directly to the president of the university. I was a young African-American graduate student working as a first-year residence hall director. With no prior experience in residence life, I was green and optimistically clueless about what a career in student affairs, my chosen profession would ultimately produce. My professional immaturity didn't seem to matter to Gloria. But it was the words that followed her invitation that I was in no way prepared for when she said, "we are a group of all white women and we need a woman of color to offer us a different perspective." That moment made a lasting impact on my life and career. From that day till now, I have found myself straddling the professional worlds between colleagues of color and white colleagues, men and women, Christian and non-Christian, gay and straight, and the list goes on; in order to bring people together to build mutual understanding. Understanding, not agreement, not tolerance, not appreciation and not celebration, simply understanding. Understanding starts with listening. Difference must be in the room if you are to hear and eventually understand the lives and experiences of others beyond the sound bites.

In the beginning, that courageous nod of affirmation and agreement from Gloria to go into a room of faculty and middle to senior-level white female administrators was a huge step. I was venturing into unknown and apparently not often treaded (at least at that university) territory. But there I went, and what happened next has been a lesson that has served me well in both my professional and personal life. The introductory meeting went absolutely fine. I was welcomed with graciousness and curiosity. Yes, I was a new woman; yes, I was different; but I was not a strange phenomenon because someone on the inside vouched for me and gave me access. Access? Was the group exclusive? No, not in any way. Their meetings were publicized and literally, any woman on campus could have shown up. There were however, not too many women that would have taken that step without a personal invitation and particularly, not a black woman at that university in the 1990s.

What was it about me that they found of interest? Why was I tapped for entry? Green though I was, Gloria took me under her wing and told me that "I had great potential, she could see it and she was rarely wrong about these things." I didn't know it at the time but she became my mentor, one of the first in my career. I was happy to role model myself after this poised, stately woman who carried herself with such confidence and grace. Gloria was, and remains, a great public speaker, mediator, and activist with the gift of diplomacy. She encouraged me to seek opportunities for public speaking. She said that I had a story to tell and a great voice with which to tell it. So, when the time came, it was Gloria who gave me the opportunity to give remarks at the women's group's premier campus event. She coached me, encouraged me, and calmed my nerves when I was overwhelmed. The day of the event she sat in the front row as I delivered my remarks and she watched and listened with great pride. That speech was titled "Paying It Forward" and in addition to my now mentoring women in higher education, this article is another way in which I continue to live that principle.

You see, before Gloria, other than women supervisors, I never had any interaction with a white woman who wasn't a teacher, professor, or supervisor. Coming from urban poverty in a major city that was diverse yet racially stratified, I'd never been a part of any women's group, let alone a group of white women. Some of my peers of color asked me flat out, why that group and why not the professional black staff group on campus. I didn't think that I had to choose. I mean, why couldn't I do both? Ultimately, I did become a member of both and later the president of that black staff group while also co-chairing another women's group on campus that was populated predominately by my white female colleagues.

The experiences that I have had during membership in gender and racial/ethnic interest groups actually prepared me for the professional role that I would later hold as a chief diversity officer. I discovered a new interest in learning more about women's issues, advocacy, and leadership. I do not profess to be a women studies or gender expert. I am simply a higher education leader who believes in the power of working across lines of difference for the benefit of gaining a deeper understanding between individuals. Understanding can spark a desire to increase one's awareness and learn about the experiences of the other. If we start by putting ourselves in another woman's stilettos or Birkenstocks then we can come to terms with the fact that we are stronger together. Women helping women, people helping people, no matter one's race, ethnicity, or gender identity. Take a chance, reach out to mentor a woman who is different from you. One who may not share your race, religion, socioeconomic status, or your culture. Learn to get comfortable with discomfort, knowing that there may be moments on this barrier-breaking journey where one of you may offend the other, misinterpret motives, diminish trust. Push through it, extend grace to one another, be patient, be authentic, be you, and know on the other side of this is the gradual evolution of a better society.

There have been many other women mentors since Gloria: black women like myself, Hispanic women, and white women, including my current president. In between there have even been white and black males. They've all shared one thing in common -- a desire to develop and advance a person with untapped potential who was eager to learn and understand. I have also had the benefit of mentoring women from various racial and ethnic backgrounds. Each person met along the way has had a lifelong impact. It is for them that I write this article, particularly during this rise in American xenophobia and tribalism. It is for them, and for you that I pay it forward.

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Paying It Forward... Mentoring across Lines of Difference

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Career News | by Dr. Shai L. Butler It was 1996 and the then affirmative action officer at the university where I was employed approached me and asked if I'd consider joining a campus women's group. She (Gloria) was a senior level employee who I knew reported directly to the president of the university.

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Tomlinson Report

Increase opportunity for students at FE colleges and post 16.

Articles main focus is on students with SEN.

Wants to focus more on an institutions ability to cater for a students needs rather than just labelling a student.

Differentiating for all students to ensure that they are able to learn effectively and overcome barriers to learning. This will make learners fell more positive about their provision.

Due to policies and legislation over the past 40 years - some older students wouldn't have had a 'proper' education and so their idea of education may not be very good.

Report wants to provide people with SEN the opportunity to develop life and work based skills so that they can live and work independently and contribute toward the economy in the future.

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2017 - Ann Hodgson: New report recommends extending upper secondary education

A new report from the Centre for Post-14 Education and Work at the UCL Institute of Education (IOE) explores the idea of extending upper secondary education in England to 14-19, rather than the current 16-19.

Co-authored by Dr Lynne Rogers, Professor Ken Spours and Professor Ann Hodgson, the report argues that the current socioeconomic context in England, together with raising the participation age (RPA) to 18, requires a re-examination of upper secondary education in England. The researchers note that there is relatively low employer engagement in the education of 14-19 year olds in England, in comparison with some other European countries.

The report suggests that an extended and more unified phase would better aid young people’s transition from child to adult, more fully support individual transition needs and offer a meaningful choice to all young people. Increased opportunities for work experience or placements during this phase would support young people in making positive decisions about their futures based on authentic understandings of different professional and technical occupations.
If these changes were to come into effect, the report recommends that an expanded and extended 14-19 phase should involve the broadening of general education learning and the enrichment of vocational learning. It also suggests that this system should be served by strong local learning systems underpinned by heightened social partnership and institutional collaboration.
Speaking of the report, Dr Rogers said:

“Putting the curriculum at the centre of 14-19 education whereby all students have access to theoretical and practical learning would enable all young people to progress to their full potential. This would require building on the strengths of successful institutions but expecting them to work in a collaborative manner with social partners in their localities to deliver a more comprehensive and cost-effective provision for all 14-19 year olds.”

The researchers also explore reducing the emphasis on summative assessment at age 16+. They note that selection at 16 could have detrimental effects on post-16 participation and attainment because it forces young people to reach a certain level of attainment in general education at a single point, rather than when they are ready.

www.ucl.ac.uk. 2017. New report recommends extending upper secondary education. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/ioe/news-events/news-pub/jul-2017/new-report-recommends-extending-upper-secondary-education. [Accessed 27 February 2018].

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2011 - Wolf Review of Vocational Education

The independent Wolf Review into vocational education, commissioned by Education Secretary Michael Gove, was published on March 3 2011
Professor Alison Wolf reports that her conclusions are that;

• Many 14 to 16 year olds are on courses which the league table systems encourage but which lead children into dead-ends. Many young people have not been told the truth about the consequences of their choice of qualification.
• A quarter to a third (300,000 - 400,000) of 16 to 19 year olds are on courses which do not lead to higher education or good jobs.
• High-quality apprenticeships are too rare and an increasing proportion are being offered to older people not teenagers.
• There are many good quality courses and institutions but they exist "in spite of” the current funding and regulatory system. Attempts to fix the system over the past decade have failed. For example, the Diploma was intended to solve the long-term problem but did not (there has been less than one per cent take-up).
• Only 45 per cent of the cohort get a ‘C’ in GCSE English and maths at 16 and very few (four per cent) of those who fail then go on to achieve this from 16 to 19.
• There has been a growing crisis in the youth labour market for years.
• There is no evidence that vocational qualifications for 14-16 year olds motivate them to succeed in other subjects and prevent them becoming NEETs
Professor Wolf recommends a radical change of direction.
There are four main principles for reform:
• The system must stop ‘tracking’ 14 to 16 year olds into ‘dead-end’ courses• The system must be made honest so young people are not pushed into damaging decisions • The system must be dramatically simplified to remove perverse incentives
• We should learn best practice from countries doing things better than us, such as Denmark, France and Germany

The proposals include:
• Ensuring anyone who fails to achieve at least a ‘C’ in GCSE English or maths must continue to study those subjects post-16. This would apply to about half the annual cohort
• Removing the perverse incentives, created by the funding system and performance tables, to enter students for low-quality qualifications. High quality vocational qualifications can and should be identified by the Government. Only those qualifications - both vocational and academic - that meet stringent quality criteria should form part of the performance management regime for schools. This is then to say that ministers and not Ofqual should decide which qualifications count in school league tables However, schools should also be free to offer whatever other qualifications they wish from regulated awarding bodies. It is also the case that existing courses could also be amended to meet the new criteria and thus become eligible to be included in performance tables
• Making performance measures reinforce the commitment to a common core of study at Key Stage 4, with vocational specialisation normally confined to 20 per cent of a pupil’s timetable; and should remove incentives for schools to pile up large numbers of qualifications for ‘accountability’ reasons.
• Making funding on a per-student basis post-16 as well as pre-16.
• Regulation moving away from qualification accreditation towards oversight of awarding bodies.
• Removal of the obligation for qualifications for 16 to 19 year olds to be part of the Qualifications and Credit Framework.
• Increasing Continuing Professional Development (CPD) for maths teachers.• Allowing 14 to 16 year olds to be enrolled in colleges so they can benefit from high-quality
vocational training available there.
• Employers being directly involved in quality assurance and assessment activities at local level, which is the most important guarantor of high quality vocational provision.
• Recognising that high quality apprenticeships offer great opportunities but there are problems with the system. The Department for Education and the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills must work together to fix the funding and other problems
• Work experience should wait until post 16• Subsidising employers if they offer 16 to 18 year old apprentices high-quality, off-the-job
training, and an education with broad transferable elements. • Essential general subjects must not be crowded out
Mr Gove said Prof Wolf’s report was "brilliant and ground-breaking”. He immediately accepted four recommendations:
• To allow qualified further education lecturers to teach in school classrooms on the same basis as qualified school teachers.
• To clarify the rules on allowing industry professionals to teach in schools.• To allow any vocational qualification offered by a regulated awarding body to be taken by 14-
to19-year-olds.
• To allow established high-quality vocational qualifications that have not been accredited to be offered in schools and colleges in September 2011.
Michael Gove said he would now consider how best to implement Professor Wolf’s remaining recommendations.

www.aschofield.wordpress.com. 2011. Summary of findings of the Wolf Report into vocational education. [ONLINE] Available at: https://aschofield.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/summary-of-findings-of-the-wolf-report-into-vocational-educationx.pdf. [Accessed 27 February 2018].

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2009 - Nuffield Review (Spours)

How children became customers
Warwick MansellTue 9 Jun 2009 00.01 BST

The biggest review of 14-19 education in 50 years says corporate values now rule schools. By Warwick Mansell

Are corporate values now running education? Have schools been taken over by the language of management consultancy? And does this imply an undermining of a central purpose of teaching: to encourage a sense of inquiry and morality in young people?
These are some of the questions raised - and answered in the affirmative - by a new report published today, which is billed as the largest investigation into education and training for 14- to 19-year-olds in England and Wales for 50 years.
The Nuffield 14-19 review, based at Oxford University, has taken six years to compile. Its report, which runs to 230 pages, attacks the "relentless change" in education as often counterproductive; renews calls for a baccalaureate system for secondary schools; asks why many young people drop out of education and training in their late teens, and calls for the government to rethink plans to "coerce" them into staying on; and offers contrasts between England's approach to school reform and that which has operated in Wales since devolution.
It also finds space to praise ministers for, among other things, their commitment to raising participation rates among 16- to 18-year-olds and their investment in school buildings.
But it is what it has to say on the often troubled relationship between schools and business in England that is, perhaps, most eye-catching, raising questions about the philosophy that has governed schools policy for many years.

Serving the economy
In a section on "aims and values" of the education system, the report says that one set of goals - the need to improve schooling to serve the requirements of the economy - has been given prominence. It cites a speech by Tony Blair in 2005 in which he said: "The country will succeed or fail on the basis of how it changes itself and gears up to this new economy, based on knowledge. Education is now the centre of economic policymaking for the future."
The government, says the report, has therefore laid down a set of aims that are dominated by the need to develop skills for the economy. This comes across not just in the set of exam results-based performance indicators by which schools are judged, but in the language that is used to describe education policy and its implementation.
The report says that growing central control of education has helped to produce a drive to talk about schooling from a "performance management" perspective, which is borrowed from business.
It says: "The consumer or client replaces the learner. The curriculum is delivered. Aims are spelt out in terms of targets. Audits (based on performance indicators) measure success defined in terms of hitting the targets."
It adds: "As the language of performance and management has advanced, so we have proportionately lost a language of education which recognises the intrinsic value of pursuing certain sorts of question ... of seeking understanding [and] of exploring through literature and the arts what it means to be human."
The report cites the decision by ministers, when they were developing a system of performance management for teachers in the late 1990s, to bring in management consultants Hay-McBer to define what constituted good teaching. Another consultancy, McKinsey and Company, was seen as the authority on effective teaching after producing a report in 2007 looking at outstanding practice around the world.
The assumption behind much of education policy - that performance targets are set for teachers in the form of pupils' test and exam success, and the means by which they reach them are less important - is also borrowed from industry. But the report adds that the "means" (typically, how much pupils become interested in the particulars of a subject) are vital. "There may well be spin-offs from the teaching of Macbeth (the meeting of externally imposed targets and the passing of exams)," it says, "but the educational value lies in the engagement with a valuable text."
Describing the language of targets and delivery as "impoverished", the report ends with a further flourish. "The Orwellian language of 'performance management and control' has come to dominate educational deliberation and planning, namely the language of measurable 'inputs', 'outputs', of 'performance indicators' and 'audits', of 'customers' and 'deliverers', of 'efficiency gains' and 'bottom lines'. Perhaps George Orwell's 1984 should be made the essential reading for all trainee teachers."
The inquiry's starting point was to ask: "What counts as an educated 19-year-old in this day and age?" The answer it comes up with embraces intellectual development, practical capability, community participation and a sense of social justice, self-awareness, and even a perhaps unfashionable suggestion that young people should be imbued with a sense of "moral seriousness". Education, it says, has an essentially "moral purpose": to help young people to develop as human beings. This will include preparation for work.
Richard Pring, professor of educational studies at Oxford and the inquiry's leader, says it is more difficult for these rounded qualities to be developed under the current system. He says: "Once performance management takes over, it does begin to narrow the educational experiences on offer, classically through teaching to the test in the pursuit of performance targets.
"I suppose many newly trained teachers may just take the language of performance management for granted these days. If you go back 20 years, it would be seen as foolish."
The inquiry is not alone in making these criticisms. In February, the Cambridge review of primary education attacked the marginalisation of creativity in schools in favour of literacy and numeracy lessons as "utilitarian and philistine".

Corporate language
And examples of corporate language in education are not difficult to come across. Minutes of meetings of the board of Ofsted, the schools and childcare inspectorate, speak extensively of performance goals and the need to build Ofsted's "brand".
Last year, a report for the School Teachers' Review Body appeared to confirm the view criticised in the Nuffield Review that, in education, "outcomes", rather than anything intrinsic to teaching quality, are what matter. The STRB said: "Our strongly held view is that teachers are accountable for outcomes, not inputs or activities, and that this principle should be supported by robust performance management." And last week, a speech made by a leading figure in school assessment referred frequently and uncritically to pupils being teachers' "customers".
The Nuffield report goes on to argue that education policy may be based on a misunderstanding of the truth behind employer-school relationships. Ministers talk about education, training and skills being important to business success, and say these are essential to developing the "knowledge-driven economy".
The implication is that employers are willing to devote large amounts of time, energy and resources to improving young people's skills levels. The reality, says the report, is that they have generally proved reluctant to do so.
In addition, the review says the very notion of a knowledge-driven economy is "at least in part, a mirage" because there is still a large demand for low-paid jobs in, for example, retailing, wholesaling and cleaning, which do not require many qualifications. Thus young people may be acting rationally in not bothering to stay in education and training beyond the age of 16.
Government policies that try to improve staying-on rates, through reforms such as the diploma, may miss the point, says the report: if pupils do not see the benefits of such courses in the labour market, they will not take them. The government, it concludes, might be better off making certain qualifications a requirement to enter certain industries, rather than seeking constantly to reform qualifications, or to "coerce" 17- and 18-year-olds into staying in education and training.
Ruth Lea, a former head of policy at the Institute of Directors and an adviser to the Arbuthnot Banking Group, says: "The public sector has been administered on a very basic, and misleading, interpretation of how the private sector operates. If you are a salesman, you have sales targets, but if you are in, for example, human resources or legal services, you have a job description and you do it, without targets. Education is not just a matter of turning sausages out of a sausage machine and hitting targets - and that's where it's gone wrong."

www.theguardian.com. 2009. How children became customers [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/education/2009/jun/09/14-19-education-further-education [Accessed 27 February 2018].

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2004 - Coffield - Fashion victims

Peter KingstonTue 4 May 2004 02.22 BST
Could tests to diagnose 'learning styles' do more harm than good, asks Peter Kingston
Mind if I ask you a personal question? Are you a left-brainer or a right-brainer? When it comes to learning, what style best suits you? Are you a pragmatist, theorist, activist or reflector?
If you've no idea, that's no problem. Just fill in this questionnaire. Or if you prefer, there is this other questionnaire - in fact, we've got a whole sheaf of the things. Take your pick . . .
The current buzzes in further education about "differentiation" and "individualised learning" have created perfect conditions for anyone peddling tests purporting to diagnose students' learning styles.
But according to new research, most of these processes, designed to pinpoint the best way for an individual to learn, are deeply flawed, and for teachers to act on the diagnoses they produce could be damaging for students.
"I learned that I was a low auditory, kinaesthetic learner. So there's no point me reading a book or listening to anyone for more than a few minutes," was the perhaps ironic reflection, quoted in the report, from one student after using a product on the market.
The report, Should we be using learning styles?, by a team at Newcastle University, concludes that only a couple of the most popular test-your-learning-style kits on the market stand up to rigorous scrutiny. Many of them could be potentially damaging if they led to students being labelled as one sort of learner or other, says Frank Coffield, professor of education at Newcastle University, who headed the research on behalf of the Learning and Skills Development Agency.
"You find you have four different types of learner in the classroom and you match your teaching accordingly, but our research indicates that there's as much evidence to show that matching teaching and learning styles doesn't work as to show that it does," he says.
The team began its investigation by setting out to establish how many different tests were on the market. "We found 71, which amazed us," says Coffield. "We decided to look at 13 of the most popular and influential. We found that only two of them could be recommended in higher education and none that were immediately relevant for post-16."
The researchers did not have to go far to find the techniques being deployed in colleges. Megan, for instance, is a communications lecturer in a college, studying for a BA in post-16 education. Inspired by some sessions on learning style in her own course she decided to administer a well known learning styles inventory, or checklist, to her own class of students doing an access course for higher education entry.
She analysed the questionnaires they filled in and grouped the students into four learning styles. She decided to adapt her teaching over the year to suit all four learning styles, with the aim of turning them all into "rounded learners".
This might be considered "good practice", the report concludes. But does it really measure learning style at all, or is it actually a personality test? And even if the test does do what it says on the bottle, how should teachers respond?
Some, like Megan, might decide to satisfy the mélange of supposed learning styles in her class so everyone gets everything. Others might try to aim techniques at students to fit their styles, though this ends up with the teacher spread very thin and chopping up time into very small parcels.
Others again identify a student's learning style as, say, kinaesthetic - "perceiving through an awareness of body movements" - and decide that what he or she needs is to be taught in the diametrically opposite style, whatever that is, in an effort to counter a supposed weakness.
And others still, perhaps because there was a learning styles session in their initial teacher training or because the inspectors mention learning styles in their reports, do as did the teacher on an advanced level catering course, cited in the research. He handed round questionnaires to the 30 mostly 16- to 19-year-old students and told them he wanted them to reflect on their learning styles. They spent 15 minutes scoring each item, which asked them to tick or put a cross against such statements as "I prefer learning things from books". They then categorised each answer into four groups: pragmatist, theorist, activist or reflector. The teacher asked Craig his result.
"I'm a pragmatist and a bit of something or other - activist."
"What do you reckon that tells you about your learning style, then?"
"Well, I'm gobby and like talking a lot and I don't like all that boring stuff in books, or when lecturers waffle on and it's not relevant to catering at all."
The teacher urged the group to look at the statements they had put crosses against and develop them over the two years "because the idea is to have a spread of styles . . ."
The matter is never raised again during the course but the course leader is able to claim in the self-assessment form for the forthcoming inspection that the college "diagnoses students' learning styles". Six months later inspectors commended this practice in their report.
Kinaesthetic is by no means the most exotic term in a field overflowing with dichotomies. There are, theorists would claim, convergers or divergers, verbalisers or imagers, holists or serialists, adaptors or innovators, deep or surface learners, non-committers or plungers, assimilators or accommodators . . .
"This field suffers from serious conceptual confusion and a lack of accumulated theoretical knowledge," says Coffield. "It's deeply confusing even for psychologists attempting to make sense of it."
There are all the hallmarks of an "area at an early stage of development" even though there is research on the tests going back at least 50 years." This problem is worsened by a tendency for academics to build reputations by setting out clearly individual territories which they vigorously defend. This form of intellectual trench warfare, while common throughout academia, is a particular feature of the learning styles movement, which militates against cumulative knowledge and cooperative research," Coffield says.
"The commercial gains for creators of successful learning styles instruments are so large that critical engagement with the theoretical and empirical bases of their claims tends to be unwelcome."
Why are they so popular, particularly in business? "They've got intuitive appeal. You ask someone to fill in a questionnaire of two pages and at the end of that you've apparently got an insight into how they think and learn."

www.theguardian.com. 2004. Fashion victims. [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/education/2004/may/04/furthereducation.uk1. [Accessed 27 February 2018].

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1997 - The Dearing Report

Higher Education in the Learning Society is in fact a collection of reports. The main one is more than 460 pages long. In addition there is the separate report of the Scottish Committee, 14 reports from the various working groups and 5 appendices (one with specific recommendations for Northern Ireland). This brief provides a short summary of some of the inquiry's key recommendations in its main report.
The Inquiry makes a total of 93 recommendations, 49 of which are addressed to the Government. Funding bodies, student unions, employers and research councils are other bodies to whom recommendations are addressed.

Funding for Higher Education
In an introduction to the report, Sir Ron Dearing singles out the issue of funding: "We express here our concern that the long term well-being of higher education should not be damaged by the needs of the short term. We are particularly concerned about planned further reductions in the unit of funding for higher education... We believe that this would damage both the quality and effectiveness of higher education.... We therefore recommend that students enter into an obligation to make contributions to the cost of their education once they are in work."
The Inquiry estimates that an additional £350 million in funding is required in 1998-99 and a further £565 million in 1999-2000. In 20 years' time additional funding of almost £2 billion is thought by the Committee to be required to pay for an expansion in student numbers, provide more support for part-time students, ensure an adequate infrastructure for higher education, provide proper funding for research, improve maintenance support for students and increase higher education pay in line with average earnings. The Inquiry recommends that public spending on higher education should increase with the growth in the Gross Domestic Product.
The Inquiry recommends to Government that it shifts the balance of funding away from block grants towards a system of funding which follows the student, with a target of distributing at least 60 per cent of total public funding to institutions according to student choice by 2003.
After examining different options for the funding of student tuition and maintenance costs, the Inquiry sets out various options. The Inquiry favours a combination of student tuition fees (on a loan basis) and the continuation of means-tested maintenance grants and student loans as the best way to seek contributions from higher income families and graduates in work.
It recommends that the Government introduces arrangements for graduates in work to make a flat rate contribution of around 25 per cent of the average cost of higher education tuition, through an income-based mechanism. The Inquiry recommends that such a mechanism should be established by Government by 1998/99. The tuition costs for students would be proportional to the number of years of study, although the Inquiry conceded that Government bursary or scholarship arrangements may be needed for longer courses. A discount for upfront payment or a modest rate of interest is recommended for those who can afford to make a contribution at the time of study. The Inquiry recommends that the Inland Revenue should be used as the principal route for the collection of contributions from students, on behalf of the Student Loans Company.
The Inquiry would like to see an assurance that the proportion of tuition costs to be paid cannot be increased without an independent review and an affirmative resolution of both Houses of Parliament, and that the money raised should go back into higher education.
In terms of low-paid students, the Inquiry recommends that from 1998/99 institutions should be able to waive tuition fees for part-time students in receipt of jobseekers' allowance or certain family benefits, that the Government includes in its review of the social security system the interaction between part-time benefits and part-time study and that eligibility for Access Fund payments to part-time students be extended from 1998/99.
The Inquiry also proposes the setting up of a Student Support Agency to bring together all the various bodies providing financial support for students.

Expansion
The Inquiry recommends that the Government should allow for the expansion of higher education by lifting the cap on full-time sub-degree places immediately and should lift the cap on full-time undergraduate places over the next two to three years. No particular target is set - the Inquiry sees student and employer demand as the main determinant of the level of participation in higher education.
The expansion of sub-degree provision is proposed as a priority in further education colleges but the Inquiry recommends that there should be no growth in degree level qualifications offered by further education colleges.
In order to address the underrepresentation of certain groups, the Inquiry recommends a range of measures including giving priority in the allocation of funds to those institutions who are committed to widening participation and have a strategy to do so and pilot projects to allocate funds to institutions who enrol students from particularly disadvantaged areas.

Teaching
The Inquiry recommends the setting up of a professional Institute for Learning and Teaching in Higher Education which would accredit professionals in teaching, commission research into learning and advise institutions on using IT for learning and teaching.
The Inquiry recommends that all new full-time academic staff with teaching responsibilities are required to achieve at least associate membership of the Institute for Learning and Teaching in Higher Education for the successful completion of probation.
It is proposed that the teacher training responsibilities of the Higher Education Funding Council for England and the Teacher Training Agency are reviewed in drawing up proposals for a General Teaching Council.
On staff pay and conditions, the Inquiry recommends that an independent review committee report by April 1998 on the framework for determining pay and conditions of service of staff in higher education.

Standards
The Inquiry proposes a broad framework of qualifications which it believes will be well understood within and outside the sector and incorporates provision for the accumulation of credits which could be transferred from one institution to another. It recommends limits on the franchising of courses by institutions and the establishment of criteria for franchising arrangements.
The Inquiry recommends that institutions develop a programme specification for each course they offer to outline the intended outcomes of the course and stopping-off points.
In addition the Inquiry supports a change to the remit of the Quality Assurance Agency so that it is responsible for quality assurance and public information, standards verification, maintenance of the qualifications framework, and arrangements for institutions to adopt a code of practice by 2001/02.

The Future
Dearing urges further funding to be urgently found for research to put right past under-investment. The Inquiry proposes allowing institutions to opt out of the Research Assessment Exercise in order to seek a lower level of non-competitive funding to support research and scholarship which underpins teaching and the establishment of a £400-£500million fund to support a limited number of top quality research departments.
The Inquiry proposes that by 2000/1 all students should have open access to a networked desktop computer and by 2005/06 access to their own portable computer.
The Inquiry recommends that higher education institution governing bodies should review their own effectiveness and performance at least every five years.
The Inquiry recommends that in five years' time and then every ten years, the Government constitutes a UK-wide Dearing-style inquiry to assess the state of higher education, advise on its financing and further development and any changes in the level of student support or contributions from graduates in employment.

www.bbc.co.uk. 1997. The Dearing Report. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/politics97/news/07/0723/dearbrief.shtml. [Accessed 27 February 2018].

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1996 - The Tomlinson Report

Mon 18 Oct 2004 11.00 BST

Key points of the Tomlinson report into replacing GCSEs and A-levels
· Replace GCSEs, A-levels and vocational qualifications with a new single diploma over 10-year period of reform.
· Slash the number of exams pupils have to take.
· Replace all coursework with a single extended project. Some hands-on courses, such as art and design, would still have project-based work, but this would be done in school - rather than independently - to reduce cheating. Cheats would also be weeded out when they had to sit an oral exam.
· The diploma would come at four levels: entry (equivalent to pre-GCSEs), foundation (GCSEs at grade D-G), intermediate (GCSE A*-C) and advanced (A-level).
· Students would be able to progress at their own rate, paving the way for mixed-aged classes.
· Advanced-level students would be able to sit extra hard questions to get even higher marks than are currently available under the A-level system to add extra "stretch". These would be introduced to A-levels as A-plus and A-double plus before the diploma was introduced.
· The diploma would be made up of the modules, which would be adapted from the existing A-level and GCSE modules.
· Students could pick their own combination (open diploma) or opt for one of the 20 pre-designed combinations (specialised diploma). This should give stronger and more respected vocational qualifications.
· Introduce a new "core" which all pupils would have to do to pass the diploma, made up of: "functional" - maths, ICT and communication skills, an extended essay, and "wider activities" - work experience, paid jobs, voluntary work and family responsibilities.
· "Graduates" of the diploma would be given a transcript of their achievements, including a breakdown of individual module marks, which would be available to employers and universities online.

www.theguardian.com. 2004. Key points: the Tomlinson report. [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/education/2004/oct/18/1419education.furthereducation1. [Accessed 27 February 2018].

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Frank Coffield -
General idea is that 'teaching and learning' should be at the forefront of an educational establishments focus and not targets, inspections, funding etc.

Coffield believes that a switch in focus would enhance student engagement, relationships between learners and tutors. In relevance to professionalism, Coffield also notes that their could be an increase if there was a switch in view from an institution run as a business and instead as a centre for lifelong learning.

Coffield mentions that there is currently nothing in place where those who enact policy are able to respond on the strengths and weaknesses and the impact on teaching and learning and that this has a negative impact curriculum/s and the people on the front-line.

He suggests a number of improvements toward CPD and the impact that this would have on professionalism

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Oxford Reference description of the Tomlinson Report (1996) - http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803104859254

"The Tomlinson Report Inclusive Learning played a key role in the post‐compulsory sector's widening participation agenda. Where the Kennedy Report of 1997 examined ways of improving learning opportunities for all, the Tomlinson Report explored widening participation specifically for learners with learning difficulties or disabilities. Tomlinson found that students with special educational needs were underachieving in the post‐compulsory sector; were unable to access the wider curriculum; and were, for the most part, lacking in confidence, possibly because of their previous school experience of education and learning. The Report found that historically learners with learning difficulties or disabilities were excluded from mainstream opportunities in the post‐compulsory sector. It also found that this form of exclusion affected the culture of learning providers such as further education colleges.

Tomlinson recommended that the responsibility should be on the educational institution to empathize and respond to the individual, and to address the needs of that individual learner. Among the Report's recommendations was a requirement that institutions should publish their own disability statements, with information regarding entry and openness of access, which should operate regardless of age, gender, ethnicity, or disability. The Report envisaged that such a focus on inclusive learning would improve the quality of learner experience for students with difficulties or disabilities, and, indeed, change the culture of educational establishments by focusing on planning with and supporting the needs of individuals."

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From: Shain, F. (1999) 'Changing notions of teacher professionalism in the Further Education sector'. Available at: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/000000939.htm. Accessed: 02/03/18

Central to the processes of regulation and intensification is the discourse of managerialism that has pervaded the new management of FE in an attempt to elicit the compliance of workers in new modes of control over their work. Ostensibly, managerialism has been introduced into Education and the public sector as a rational process, linked with new principles of funding, efficiency and professionalism. A number of features of managerialism have been outlined in recent research (Pollit 1993, Fergusson 1994; Clarke & Newman 1997) which associate its economic rationalism with ulterior motives. These include on the one hand, its control over professionals, by reasserting ‘management’s right to manage’. On the other, it conveys the notion that good management resides only in the private sector and by implication, that the public sector is characterised by liberalism, and dogged sloth. This ‘economising of education’ brings with it the discipline of the market into the workplace, and the legitimising language that goes with it (Kenway 1994). Through its discourse of Human Resources Management (HRM) and Total Quality Management (TQM) such ‘economising’ represents a powerful mechanism for both the internalisation of control, and surveillance of workers. Another controlling feature is the way in which managerialism turns senior professionals, who might be resistant to loss of professional autonomy, into managers, ‘by giving them budgets or by setting them adrift as quasi-autonomous business units’ (Hoggett, cited in Avis 1996:109). This led to a shift in the locus of control from the centre to the local college site with power invested in the Principal as manager for the state in face to face relations (Ozga 1995).

In short - FE colleges being run as businesses (in the market) and therefore having management positions (for financial and quality reasons).

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Key Findings and Recommendations of the Tomlinson Report
The central recommendation is the development of a more inclusive further education sector.
Other key findings and recommendations towards that goal include:
Develop an adequately funded, nationally co-ordinated staff training initiative for inclusive learning to cover teacher training, management training, and organisational development.

Encourage colleges to produce long-term strategy and action plans on inclusive learning.

Encourage colleges to establish inclusive learning managers.

FEFC to continue recognising the costs of providing effective individual student assessment, promote wider understanding of its funding methods, and consider allocating funds to cover new costs which may arise as a result of ensuring effective assessments for inclusive learning.

FEFC to ensure its funding arrangements continue to enable colleges to meet the costs of individual support for learning.

New regional sub-committees to recommend funding new provision where there is evidence of emerging need and/or it can be done more effectively than at specialist colleges.

Any review of funding methodology should promote inclusive learning and participation.

Colleges to measure their progress towards inclusive learning through self-assessment.

Colleges to be inspected on how they provide learning which is inclusive.

Recognise all students' achievements within a national framework which gives value to their learning, including developing a pre-foundation award called Skills for Adult Life relevant to all students.

Take a wider view of the meaning of progression to include transferring and maintaining knowledge, skills and understanding.

Create and define a framework for collaboration between the FEFC, government departments and other agencies to provide a 'seamless robe' of provision and support services and opportunities to move in and out of learning as needed.
Colleges to be required to take more systematic account of local needs and to receive help with strategic planning to take account of under-represented groups of adult learners, including those with multiple difficulties, mental health difficulties, and emotional and behavioural difficulties.

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New Managerialism: The Impact on Education Kathleen Lynch

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New Managerialism: The Impact on Education Kathleen Lynch

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Marketization & Managerialism

The process of applying market forces of consumer choice to education....

In the public sector, it involves the prioritization of private (for-profit) sector values of efficiency and productivity in the regulation of public bodies, on the assumption that the former is superior to the latter. It gives primacy to product and output over process and input, and it endorses strong market-type accountability in public sector spending. The attainment of financial and other targets is a priority, and success in meeting targets is measured through public audits of the quality of service delivery. The development of quasi-markets for services is also a key goal; this operates as a further form of control through competition and public surveillance (Clarke, Gewirtz and McLaughlin, 2000).

Lynch, K, 2014. New Managerialism: The Impact on Education. Concept, 5, 1.

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The evidence from a lecturer questionnaire circulated at Cityshire suggests that staff reject the values represented by these developments and are opposed to the threat they perceive to the professional culture of FE. The outcome of the various processes currently taking place at Cityshire and across the sector as a whole suggest that the deprofessionalization and, indeed, the ‘proletarianization’ of the FE lecturer may be taking place.

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Managerialism has become the predominant ideology in English educational management. Although there are different definitions of managerialism, as a fad and buzzword, it has been given various names including, New public Management, New Managerialism, Entrepreneurial Governance and Neo-Taylorism" (Power 1997 cited in McGrah. 2004)

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Explore to what extent the managerialist model of management and leadership adopted in England and Wales has influenced management culture in China and the impact that this has had on my management and leadership style.

Introduction

Managerialism is a set of beliefs and practices, and it assumes that better management can solve the various problems existing in the public sectors (Pollitt,1993). In either England and Wales or China, Managerialism has been a stable indispensable ingredient in the policy of government in order to operate state schools, in contrast to the traditional bureaucratic ideals, it provides high priority to management and leadership (Pollitt 1993).

Leadership, is a complex social phenomenon, and it has been studied and developed over many years. It is a process in which an individual influences the group of individuals to accomplish the common goals and targets. Leadership is born in an organization context, that is to say if there is no organization or group then there can be no leadership. Leadership includes attention to goals, which means leadership impacts in contexts where everybody is moving toward a goal. So leadership seems like a power relationship existing between leaders and followers (Northouse ,2007).

Management is defined realistically in the context of an organization. That is to say that management is a process which enables organizations to set and achieve their objective by planning organizing and controlling their recourses, including gaining motivation from their employees.

Although it is being argued that the application of some managerialist approaches cause problems, in England and Wales, education is overseen by the Department for Education according to managerialist principles. Almost all state-funded schools are maintained schools funded by the government in which the local authority, Ofsted and the TDA are influential partners.

Proponents of the new managerialism in education argue that managerial methods are necessary to respond to the demands of a changed environment with dramatically increased degrees of uncertainty in a knowledge-dependent society. In this paper, I argue that the ongoing changes in education management are better understood in England and Wales as well as in China. I will focus on as follows:

To explore and contrast how government in England and China control schools in their respective countries.

To compare and contrast how leadership is exercised in schools in China and England. (trait, style, transformational leadership)

To reflect on what leadership theory I might be able to apply when I return to China.

Literature review

2.1)Managerialism in English Education

Managerialism has become the predominant ideology in English educational management. Although there are different definitions of managerialism, as a fad and buzzword, it has been given various names including, New public Management, New Managerialism, Entrepreneurial Governance and Neo-Taylorism" (Power 1997 cited in McGrah. 2004)

Managerialism was introduced to English education in 1980s and there has been as a belief that effective leadership and management is considered as the most important element for operating successful schools and colleges (Bush 2004 cited in McGrath).

Bush (2004) summarised its typical traits as follows: managerialism , Firstly, it empowers managers' right to manage, which is raising the process of management above that which is to be managed. Secondly, it uses cost centres and devolved budgets to achieve greater financial control. Thirdly, managerialism uses contracts instead of the high-trust relationship to organise sub-units. Fourthly, managerialism uses performance assessment to link the individuals' aim and the objectives of organisation. Last but not least, "a virtual-market environment is created , it promotes competition and transforms students into customers".

In regards to the features of managerialism mentioned before, better management and leadership have become requirements and a trend. Pollitt (1993:49) stated that "managerialism is the acceptable face of new-right thinking concerning the state. It is an ingredient in the 'pot pouris' which can attract support beyond the new right itself."

During the last two decades, Bush (1986, 1995, 1999, and 2004) also consistently claimed that effective leadership and management play a crucial role in the successful operation of schools and colleges. Bush (2004:2) suggested "successful management requires a clear link between aims, strategy and operational management. In his view there are three aspects which should be clear, that is: formal aims, organizational or individual aims and the determination of aims. Gunter (1997) accepted the same conception that managerialism has to emphasise managerial efficiency rather than the direction at the achievement of educational objectives.

Although opposition to managerialism has never stopped, the government continually emphasises the effective management and leadership in schools, colleges and universities as the means by which governmental and organisational goals may be achieved (Simkins cited in Mcgrath 1999). However, the fact that managerialism has affected the development of education and society and the trend has shown that it will continue to play an important role in education system.

2.2) Managerialism in Chinese education

In China education is a state-run system of public education run by the Ministry of Education. In the basic education, the Chinese government established a uniform standard for basic education, to control the national curriculum, the system of enrolment examinations, and teacher qualifications level. The Chinese education system is reforming, through studying advanced educational counties and excessive government control is being reduced.

Similarity with all most countries in the world, education is a long-term priority in China, it has never been ignored by Chinese government Since the founding of New China, the Chinese government has always attached great importance to education, It is establishing the world's largest education system (Basic Education in China(2010)). The Ministry of Education (2009) stated that "China has been unremitting efforts to explore a path of educational development with Chinese characteristics".

It is well-known that education system is controlled by central government who was in charge of basic education and high education before the market economy replaced the planning economy in 1985. In short, the curriculum and leaders and teachers management were all administrated by government.

After 1985, the educational system was no longer compatible with the prevailing economic system and social needs, there was a transition that happened in the highly centralized administrative system of education(Su 2004). The National Conference on Education stated that "The reforms were intended to expand their management and decision-making powers", this policy gave administrators the necessary encouragement and authority to ensure smooth progress in educational reform. Lee (2006) gave a clear explanation that local governments were given some administrative powers. The basic education was mainly the responsibility of local governments. In higher education and vocational education, colleges and universities were more independent decisions-making power than before. Furthermore, the investment system underwent a gradual change under which the state made unified development plans and provided budgetary appropriations for education.

In 1993 after the greatest reform in Education happened in china. The Education Law of the People's Republic of China states that "the Ministry of Education is responsible for formulating guiding principles for education, establishing regulations, planning the progress of educational projects with expanded administrative scope and power and it is co-ordinating the educational programs of different departments, and standardization educational reforms". In short, The Ministry of Education is highest power of education in China.

As followed years, the simplification of administration and delegation of authority were made the bases for improving the education system. This devolution of management from central government to the autonomous regions, provinces, and special municipalities made local governments have more decision-making power.

Despite that the new Ministry assumed a central role in the administration of education, the reform decentralized much of the power it previously wielded but decided-power just belongs to local governments. That is to say, the local government establishes curriculum and admissions policies in response to the State Planning Commission's requirements.

In summary, local management is running in basic education and excessive central government control over colleges and universities was reduced than before, but the location management is more power to control colleges and universities.

2.3) Compare and contrast

Admittedly, government control in education system has been placed at a different level in England and China. Su (2003) analysed that In the Chinese context, the remaking of public play the role of top policy makers, there should be a dilemma in between the state hierarchy and market mechanisms and the controversy of property rights. During the reform era, the top Chinese policy makers have been trying to gain not only a realistic policy making role for the party-state at the macro level, but also feasible approaches in the remaking of public management at the micro levels.

Although State Council (central government) still played a central role in the administration of education and the new ministry of education is in charge of all organisations, there has been decentralisation to constituent educational bureaus and local governments. These local organisations have the power to establish curriculum and admissions policies. Education law of the people's republic of China (Article 14) states that:

The State Council and all local People's government at different levels shall supervise and manage the educational work according to the principle of management by different levels and division of labour with individual responsibility.

Secondary and lower education shall be managed by the local People's government under the leadership of the State Council.

Higher education shall be managed by the State Council and the People's government of province, autonomous region or municipality directly under the central government.

Similar reforms china stated later , in England and Wales, "the school leaderships are reduced to implement the policies and values of government and its agencies" (Bush 2004.p 4). "The government is very appreciative of school leadership who continue to give their time and energy to the voluntary work of serving on school governing bodies.

Although governments have the constitutional power to impose their will but successful innovations require the commitment of those who have to implement these chances in the England and Wales (Bush 2004.p 4). He explained if the teachers and leaders believe the policies are not suitable for teaching and learning, which should give rise to a lack of passion and enthusiasm to implement an initiative. Therefore, government should encourage schools to have visionary leadership as long as the visions and values of school are close to government imperatives.

Bush(2004) argued that to what extent the leadership is able to modify government policy depends on school-level values and vision. Different ideas , Furlong (2002) claimed that the professional status of teachers has been reduced because of increased government control of education. That is to say, in England and Wales, professionalism is allowed to exist only by the grace of central government due to the central monitoring of teacher performance. (Bush, 2004 p5)

Governing bodies and individual governors should also review their effectiveness and carry out self evaluation of their own skills and evaluate the skill set possessed by the governing body as a whole so that any skills gaps can be met. Governors should also receive defined information to enable them to challenge and hold the school leadership team to account

2.4 Leadership theories in common use in England schools

Undoubtedly, managerialism needs high quality management or leadership and policy maker have placed great emphasis on the good leadership. So the model of leadership has been promoting. Although there is no unified definition of leadership at present, it is different from management. Yukl(2002) and Northhouse (2007) described that leadership is an influenced process where individual influences a group or organization through his or her actions and motivation. Bush(2004) clarified this by suggesting three dimensions to define leadership. that is, "leadership as influence", "leadership and values" , and "leadership and vision" .

Because the significance of effective leadership has been increasingly acknowledged, not true beause its important new therories have been developed researchers never stop to study and analyse leadership theories. In consequence, there are many leadership theories according to different concerns the style approach emphasized on and various social context. However, in England, every leader has their own leadership style which very often can be analysed using trait, style and transformational leadership.

Trait theory is leadership theory with long history. It originated in the 19th century, is based on the Great Man theory of leadership. Where from The Great man theory believes that a successful leader should have certain innate characteristics that make them special and concentrate on their success. Trait theory developed out of the Great man theory and emphasises the identification and analysis of the superior qualities of leaders. This theory concentrate on the personality which are innate traits that a leader requires. (Power 1997 cited in McGrath. 2004)

As a theory, the traits leaders should hold have been studied since its birth. Although no one has been able to provide the definitive list of traits which are different between leaders and non-leaders, there are seven typical traits that have been considered important. That is: self-confidence, intelligence, helicopter effect (explain it) , persistence, integrity, motivation and responsibility, which emphasise what qualities a leader should have. ( McGrah. 2004)(reference)""

For the reason that trait theory is still important at present, two strengths should be mentioned. The greatest one is that it is very easy to understand, people likely think about what their leader is and what their leaders should be like. Another great function of trait theory is that trait theory can be used to filter candidates and identify those with leadership qualities. These strengths also affect following new theories, but as a theory, the greatest weaknesses also constrict its development. The greatest weakness is that the definitive list of traits has not been agreed. That is to say, if a new list is identified the recognized leader should be in dilemma, because they likely do not have all the traits specified. ( McGrath. 2004 )(quotation if u copy other words say situation some

Compared with trait theory that focus on the personality, style theory concerned with the behaviour. Northouse (2007) comments that generally there are two kinds of behaviour which should be considered. One is task theory which aids goal achievement and other is relational theory which assists interpersonal support. Style theory seeks a way to help leaders to effectively combine these two behaviours. As a theory, the greatest strength is that it established the idea that the leader's style is composed of two major components- task and relationship, more importantly, the key to good readership is finding the right balance, which changes the focus of research to what leaders do and how they act while it provides leaders with an insight into how others see them. However, there are three doubts about this theory. First, how does style of leadership impact on performance and attitude of staff? Secondly, whether there is a style that is effective in all situations? Thirdly, it does not take account of the context or situation in which leadership is exercised (Northouse 2007).

Currently, the Transformation Leadership theory (TL) has become popularised in the educational leadership field. Transformation Leadership theory focuses on values, ethics standards and long-term goals. A connection leaders create is characterized by raising the level of motivation and morality in both the leader and followers.

Caldwell and Spinks (1992) commented that transformation leadership theory is crucial for self-managed schools.

As opposite to them, Bennett et al(2003) argued that because this theory put too much on the top leader as a "heroic" figure and encourage manipulation of followers, it gave rise to overemphasis on conception of distributed leadership. ( for leadership )Similarly, Bush(2004) discussed that transformational model is popular in the literature but the contemporary policy climate cannot provide enough condition for its growth, because "the English system increasingly requires school leaders to adhere to government prescriptions which affect aims, curriculum, content and pedagogy as well as values"(Bush 2004,p78). Bottery (2001) holds a the same view that "the more centralized , more directed, and more controlled educational system that has dramatically reduced the possibility of realising a genuinely transformational education and leadership." (2001: page) However, transformational leadership theory is consistent with the collegial model in which a challenge should be faced is that leaders and staffs have shared values and common interests.

2.5) Management and leadership approaches used in China

Government control, on the one hand, built a solid basis of education; on the other hand, it produced a constriction on leadership. Although being one of the major public policies, educational decentralization is a popular reform of governments around the world including China. Admittedly, there are considerable autonomy and variations in and among the autonomous regions, provinces, and special municipalities, but decentralization is by no means an entirely new policy initiative or a recent policy product. Leadership has to be impacted by local government and it has to adopt diversified strategies to obedience to authority. (reference ? why )

Indeed, in China, leaderships in school are strategic compliers of policy and government. The reason is that "what is extent of which the government policy can be changed by leaderships who develop alternative approaches based on school-level.

In general, the aim of schools for basic education is to enter higher school and the target of high education is to be in business in China, In face of increasing financial constraints and under increasing pressure of government inspect and social intervention., on balance, leaderships in school have to pursue three "Es" (efficiency, effectiveness, and economy) to follow the policy of government.

2.6 Reflection: what extent could that trait, style and transformational leadership used in China

Despite a fact that government control, to some extent, impacts the development of leadership in China, with managerialism development, leadership theories also exerted influence on leadership style. Trait, style and transformational leadership theories are paid attention more. Exactly, trait theory is the oldest theory and the earliest used in china, this theory is not solely copy of the Great Man theory, but it is based on Great Man theory, summarized the common traits of successful leaders.

Up to now in China, likelihood, if an organization wants to look for a leader or someone want to work as a leader in educational institution, the basic qualities as first sieve should be required, these traits are as followed:

Intelligence: leaders should have professional knowledge and be intellect to deal with issues and problems.

Self-confidence: it is quite different between leaders and their followers. No matter how hard the leaders confront with challenges, leaders should be confident to tackle them, it is not fake it but positive to seek effective way due to a believe you can deal with them.

Helicopter effect: China is a country whose thought is more collective, as a leader, she or he should be able to encourage everyone's aim to be same with organization. leaders need to motivate not only themselves but also staff.

Persistence: as good quality, the leader must have it. As leaders in education, they should meet challenges, obstacles and results that are not expected. Never giving up and keeping forward are ever objectives.

Integrity: it come from respect and trust and integrity is foot of respect and trust.

Responsibility: leaders should put responsibility before accountability.

Reference here who wrote it With popularity of transformational leadership theory in western, this theory is permeating to China. It is part of the new leadership paradigm that give more attention to the charismatic and effective elements of leadership. It meets the needs of today's work groups who want to be inspired and empowered to succeed in times of uncertainty, because this theory focus on the intrinsic motivates and follower's development. It provide easier way for leaders to combine the aim of organization and individuals targets. It is more humanism, and it consider emotions, values, ethics, standards and long-term goals and includes assessing followers motives, satisfying their needs and treating as full human beings. That is why this theory is broad researched and applied in China.

These three theories have their own strengths and weaknesses, how to exert their advantages and avoid their disadvantages is strategy and tactic.

Conclusion : 500

In conclusion, therefore, it can be seen that despite widespread opposition to managerialism. It is common sense that there are two sides for everything in the world, although opposition of managerialism has never stopped, managerialism has become a dominant ideology in educational management either in England and Wales as well as in China. It is a production of development of society even though the application of managerialist approach can cause some problem.

However, managerialism emphasizes on manager's right to manage. It is typified by a set of practice including the assumptions, techniques, ideas and behaviours, so the practice of management is raised above importance of the function being managed. So the introduction of manageriamlism led to a greater emphasis being place on management and leadership as these skills were necessary to meet the new requirements. Reference here who said quotation

According to managerialism, government needs the good management and leadership to control education. However, the government policy cannot be changed by leaderships who develop alternative approaches based on school-level. In other words, governments in England and Wales have the constitutional power to impose their will but successful innovations require the commitment of those who have to implement these changes; while in China, central government controls and manages at different levels. On the one hand it keeps educational development stable; on the other, it limits innovation.

Management and leadership

As a predominant ideology in educational management, managerialism needs the effective management and leadership which are required by governmenal and organizational. Management is of mind so it is important. As a science, it is concerned with now and here, which means manager need to do things right; while leadership is concerned with future, as a art, leadership is sole and heart, it need to do right things. So management and leadership, in most time, could not be divided.

Indeed, leadership theories have provide a dramatically different view of the driving forces behind leadership. As is mentioned before that in England the trait, style and transformational leadership are very often analysed by most leaders even if they have their own leadership style. During the process of development of leadership theory, the researchers and leaders have been looking for the best way to obtain the sense and avoid their weakness. This is why some good strengths of old theory (traits and style theory) are still important for today. With the development of leadership theory, the new theories always fit requirement of age in order to fit effective management and leadership.

Areas of weakness in what you have done

I have done my best to show the educational management and leadership in England and Wales and China. Because the aims of education are more diffuse and contested. As is known, the educational aims are tied up with people's values and beliefs, so educational management and leadership should be different with other public areas. In addition, because of the differences of context and tradition in different countries, management and leadership in China and England are in different way, although it is in very subtle, implicit ways. The analysis and discussion have been shown; some of these were somewhat out of date. Although it is not clear which leadership style is the best for England and China, at least, the strengths and weakness mentioned before are meaningful for further research if it is merely reflecting way for me to see my own leadership style.

However, in the long run, negative effect of managerialiam and leadership theories should be attractive my eyes. As we know that things will change, but only slowly. Research in these areas is important, the eventual solution would identify the better way to manage schools, colleges and universities - in other words, a greater respect for aims of education to look for a fittest management method. (3982)

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Managerialism is a set of beliefs and practices

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Keywords: education privatization, marketization of education

Marketization of education refers to privatization of the education industry in the process of providing educative services. Economic advantage is the main driving force for the emergence of this style of education. An instance involves the period 1998, where the government published a report comparing the GCSE and Standard Assessment Tests of Schools giving parents a choice between different competing schools (Bates, 2011; Friedman, 2003).

This meant that Schools performing well attracted high number of parents, resulting to increased revenues from fees. In analyzing this aspect of education, my key concern is if this process meets the objective of providing the best educative services, and an equal opportunity for students.

To answer this question, we need to identify and analyze the concerns of this aspect of the education system, and inclusion is economic revolution. Economic revolution came as a result of industrial revolution in Europe, and it brought changes in the systems of governance making economic gains an issue in evolution of education.

Friedman (2003) in his analysis of Marketization of education agrees with this notion. He argues that the evolution of this style of education is as a result of the liberalization of the structures of government including economic structures (Friedman, 2003). Liberalism is an aspect of governance which Karl Marx, many centuries ago predicted will limit the interference of government in the provision of education services.

The concepts of economics as a motivator to marketization of education are highly criticized by Lauder (2006). In Lauderââ‚¬â„¢s analysis, he argues that economic factors have replaced the learning aspects of education to more material oriented learning processes, whereby schools concentrate on how they can achieve customer satisfaction as opposed to impartation of knowledge and skills (Lauder, 2006).

This happened because of decentralization of the structures of government, and less regulation of the education system due to liberalization of the economy where organizations are allowed to offer services without regulation from the government (Dewey, 1998).

Lauder further argues that marketization of education arose due to the emergence of the class system. Parents from rich backgrounds saw the need of taking their children to special schools, because they offered quality education than state schools (Lauder et al, 1999).

This aspect caused rift between the rich and the poor in the educative process in terms of acquisition of knowledge. Bates et al (2011) and Kishan (2008) observe that parents with low income struggle to take their children to state schools, and this accelerates the process of social segregation.

In socialist states, education is controlled by the government and it develops school curriculums which are strictly followed. This is as opposed to the liberalized states such as America and Britain.

The European Research institute of education conducted a research on marketization of education in Europe. They found that the state had lost its ability to regulate the education system in Europe (Kishan, 2008). This proves that governance and politics are the main motivators of this approach to education, and not economics.

Another aspect of marketization of education is the changing needs of the society that the education system needed to address. This issue is vague in its description, because education is age old, and issues affecting the society are the same.

Lauder (2006) agrees with this notion and notes that the education system concerns itself with impartation of skills necessary for an individual to survive in the world. This was the objectives of the education system in the former centuries, the needs of the society is always the same, but how to solve such needs differ.

The main needs of the society are survival in a fierce competitive environment, and an education system that offers mechanisms and skills to survive in such an environment is welcome. Government schools also offer such skills and those who argue that this style of education emerged due to changes in the needs of the populace are misguided.

The schooling system has evolved to an extent that business organizations make a commercial presence in schools, and this is evidenced by the commercial advertisements on teaching materials. On this notion, educative services are seen as a business opportunity.

To Friedman, marketization of education arose due to the need of allowing free flow of education. Friedman notes that the combination of marketization, liberalization and privatization in the education sector ensures that the development prosperity and cooperation is achieved in the world, because information is shared freely.

Without marketization of education, Friedman argues that government institutions can interfere with the process of free flow of information (Friedman, 2003; Bates, 2011). Lauder (2006), argues against this system of education and maintains that marketization of education is a replacement of instructive thoughts to economic thoughts.

He argues that instead of preparing students for social and personal development, the education system concerns itself with aspects of client satisfaction, cost effectiveness and competitiveness. Bridgehouse (2011) asserts that marketization of education has resulted into the neglect of children with special needs for schools and focuses on how to minimize costs (p.32). This is because schools aim at profit making and see the need of hiring specialized staff as costly.

In conclusion, Marketization of education is the emerging trend of education system in the world but it does not provide equity in the provision of educative services. The poor are disadvantaged and due to lack of economic might, their children do not have an access to high cost schools which have superior teaching resources as compared to state schools where majority of economically disadvantaged parents take their children.

This inequality in the education system develops the class system brought about by industrial revolution. Schools do not concentrate in imparting skills to their students instead; they are concerned with profit making and client satisfaction at the expense of offering knowledge. Government should regulate the education system and ensure quality education is offered at all levels of the education system by state and private schools.

Bibliography:

Bates, J,.Lewis, Sue and Pickard, Andy.(2011). Education Policy, Practice and

Professional.Continuum: Continuum International Publishers.

Friedman, M. I. (2003). Educators' handbook on effective testing. Columbia, SC:

InstituteforEvidence-Based Decision-Making in Education.

Bridgehouse, H. ( 2007). On Education.United States of America: Routledge Publishers.

Kishan, N. R. (2008). Privatization of education. New Delhi: A.P.H Pub. Corp..

Lauder, H. (2006).Education, globalization, and social change. Oxford: Oxford

UniversityPress.

Lauder, H and Hughes, D ., eds ( 1999). Trading in Futures, Why Markets in Education

Donââ‚¬â„¢t Work.Buckingham: Open University Press.

Ozmon, H., & Craver, S. M. (1986).Philosophical foundations of education (3rd ed.).

Columbus: Merrill Pub. Co..

SAMPLE PAPER 2

Experiential Learning

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Many learning institutions have introduced the concept of learning through experience, referred to as experiential learning. This process of learning can either be dramatic or open and it was advocated by scholars such as Aristotle and Kolb. To Aristotle, learning to do things through experience is better than learning through teaching (Curren, 2000).

While, Kolb defines experiential learning as a process that involves real life experience in acquisition of knowledge and skills, its elements are experience, observation, reflection and experimentation (Ozmon and Craver, 1986). In Experiential learning, the question is, does it require the guidance of a practioner for learning to take place? Practioners are always necessary in any process of learning, and experiential learning is not an exception.

To acquire new knowledge from experience, an individual has to have problem solving skills which enable him/ her to make decisions. This skill is essential to enable a student to apply skills gained through the experience undergone while learning (Maxwell, 2011). Experience as an issue in experiential learning is not the main factor that a student can acquire knowledge from.

To Aristotle, passing through experience, acquiring skills and inability to implement the skills gained is not the objective of education. By learning, a student has to acquire the ability to apply skills gained in real life situations and challenges (Curren, 2000). The applicative part of skill acquisition is the problem and for a student to implement a skill, he/she needs guidance and this normally comes from the practitioners.

The idea of learning through experience has a long historical perspective and it is John Dewey who proposed it. Dewey (1998) states that experience is an integral part of learning; and practitioners play an important role in this process, to ensure students are able to apply knowledge gained from an experience in different perspectives of their lives.

This notion of Dewey, clearly agrees with my views of experimentation as an aspect of experiential learning. It is necessary for practitioners to introduce the curriculum when students are taken to the outdoor learning with supervision from educators; this would allow students to learn from a series of real life adventures.

Dewey (1998) in his analysis of experiential learning observes that reflection must occur in this process. Students must engage actively in the learning, and reflect on the experience to grasp the new ideas instilled. Its only after effective reflection that skills are acquired.

Reflection as an issue of experiential learning is not beneficial without supervision. There are many aspects of reflective tendencies during the process of experiential learning. However, it has some drawback (Palmer and Cooper, 2003); student will not think deeper into the meaning of the experience passed as he/she might take it as play attained.

It might involve lack of concentration from the student. According to Kolb, learning is a multidimensional process (Palmer and Cooper, 2003) and it involves four stages that are to experience, observe, reflect and experiment. Kolb advocates for supervision of a learner during the process of reflection.

After a period of time, learning will have taken place as students had gained an educative experience with useful guides given from the practitioners. The reason is that constantly, the student will reflect on the experience he/she has just gained and consider the advice given from the practitioners (Maxwell et al, 2011).This process of experiential learning requires a practitioner at all stage to facilitate studentââ‚¬â„¢s learning. Therefore practitioners play an important role and their input should not be neglected.

Experiential learning was formally recognized as a field of education in 1970s and a great achievement for advocators of experiential learning was made in 1977 when the association of experiential education was established (Palmer and Cooper, 2003). It is in the 20th Century that educating through experience has been appreciated as a vital foundation of the learning process and it was precipitated by the work of John Dewey in 1998.The ideas of experiential learning are relevant to the concepts of adult learning.

David Kolb (Palmer and Cooper, 2003) argue that experiential learning is a four stage process and he identifies Dewey as the main pioneer of this learning system. Kolb (Palmer and Cooper, 2003) discusses experience and reflection as issues in experiential learning. He gives an analysis of the steps of experiential learning which are experience; observation, reflection and experimentation.

To Kolb, experience and reflection are necessary for learning to take place but with guidance of a practitioner while to Dewey, the guidance of a practioner is not necessary (Dewey, 1998).However, Rousseau Palmer et al, 2003) state experiential learning is an important aspect of education and notes that education comes from nature, men and environmental surroundings thus everything plays an important role in the impartation of knowledge.

Rousseau argues a child obtains passivity by being taught and resent from punishment and therefore the best way for a child to learn is through experience which allows him to see the consequences of his actions. To Rousseau, experience coupled with tutorship is the best form of education since passivity in learning will be removed and therefore leaning becomes a process of mutual understanding and consent (Ozmon and Craver, 1986).

Experiential learning has been adopted in the curriculum in many schools across the country. The new curriculum emphasizes the importance of children learning through experience and thereby developing skills from out of class activities. It is used to denote various models and due to the differences of value and thoughts, educators develop curriculums and programs that fit their understanding of experiential learning.

To gain knowledge and skills in the process of experiential leaning, guidance given from practitioners to student is necessary. Practitioners must be trained in all aspects of education in order to be skillful in applying knowledge acquired through experiences in their practice.

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