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The most impressive thing in this lecture is the case study of Yakult. There is a fun fact that even though the Lacticaseibacillus casei(LcS) in Yakult can reach and survive in the gut of the Chinese, it is hard to persist once we stop consuming it. Moreover, I thought people need to continuously drink Yakult to maintain a healthy population of gut microbiota but all we know is that it contains much sugar so it actually adds up the risk of obesity, heart disease, and diabetes at the same time. The effectiveness of Yakult is really doubtful.

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The relevance of microbes to our daily lives

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The relevance of microbes to our daily lives

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In this lecture, we've learned about good, and bad bacteria and the main difference between viruses and bacteria. The virus unexpectedly is nonliving but still poses a significant threat to humans like the coronavirus we are facing. Although bacteria and viruses have contrasting sizes, composition structure, and treatment methods, there is one thing we can be sure of: prevention of the ‘bad guy’ is keeping hygiene such as hand washing. We touch hundreds of surfaces every day which contain their little worlds of microbes. From the video above, we know that they can get into our bodies in different ways and eventually cause infection and diseases so hand washing is the most simple method to avoid healthcare-associated infections.

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Slippers made by mycelium

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＾Click it!! 微生物用途多多，將化身環保新選擇：未來拖鞋、椅子和皮包可能都是「蘑菇做的」

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Apart from the ‘bad guy’, I’m surprised some microbes can provide convenience and help in humans' life. In 2017, a microbe museum called Micropia in Nederland exhibited chairs, slippers, and other household items made by Fungi. The mycelium(菌絲體) of fungi is applied instead of wood, leather, or even plastic. Different fungi can be used to produce different materials such as hard, elastic, permeable, or heat-resistant. It could also reduce the use of chemical substances and the overexploitation of natural resources. I expect this type of technology can be widely used in the near future for sustainable development.
(216 words)

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社企流 | 華文界最具影響力的社會創新主題平台

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微生物用途多多，將化身環保新選擇：未來拖鞋、椅子和皮包可能都是「蘑菇做的」 | 社企流 | 華文界最具影響力的社會創新主題平台

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在未來，腳上踩的拖鞋、手中捧的碗、出門背的皮革包，甚至是你所居住的房子，都有可能是由不起眼的微生物所製成。

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Research: The role of the gut microbiome in the healthy adult status

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Microbiome is the main topic of this lecture. I’ve realized how important our gut microbiome is. Our health status is basically equal to the diversity of our microbiome which can contribute to the immunity to resist bad microbes.

The gut contains the most microbes including bacteria in the human body. According to the above research, many physiological functions require a healthy microbial composition so the less bacterial diversity we have the higher opportunity to get obesity, immune and inflammation-related diseases.

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Highlights

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Humans, together with their microbiota, are considered "superorganisms".

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The gut microbiome is essential for human health and physiology.

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Next-generation sequencing is increasing knowledge about metagenomics.

*

Microbiome alterations have been linked to several diseases.

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Microbiome manipulation could lead to novel therapeutic approaches.

Abstract

The gut microbiome, which hosts up to 1000 bacterial species that encode about 5 million genes, perform many of the functions required for host physiology and survival. Consequently, it is also known as "our forgotten organ". The recent development of next-generation sequencing technologies has greatly improved metagenomic research. In particular, it has increased our knowledge about the microbiome and its mutually beneficial relationships with the human host. Microbial colonization begins immediately at birth. Although influenced by a variety of stimuli, namely, diet, physical activity, travel, illness, hormonal cycles and therapies, the microbiome is practically stable in healthy adults. This suggests that the microbiome plays a role in the maintenance of a healthy state in adulthood. Quantitative and qualitative alterations in the composition of the gut microbiome could lead to pathological dysbiosis, and have been related to an increasing number of intestinal and extra-intestinal diseases. With the increase in knowledge about gut microbiome functions, it is becoming increasingly more possible to develop novel diagnostic, prognostic and, most important, therapeutic strategies based on microbiome manipulation.

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The role of the gut microbiome in the healthy adult status

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Humans, together with their microbiota, are considered "superorganisms". * The gut microbiome is essential for human health and physiology. * Next-generation sequencing is increasing knowledge about metagenomics. * Microbiome alterations have been linked to several diseases. * Microbiome manipulation could lead to novel therapeutic approaches.

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After this lecture, we know that infants born by Caesarean section and vaginally delivered have big differences in microbes. For example, children born by C-sections are dominated by opportunistic bacteria and have less bifidobacterium, enhancing the immune system. Unfortunately, I was born by C-section(Thank you for everything my mum has done for me!) but I do not think my immunity is weak than others. It could be attributed to my living environment. I live in a village from birth and easily accessible nature. Therefore, I believe that environmental exposure can improve the colonization of the gut microbiota. It also means that absolute cleanliness is not conducive to building up a high diversity in our microbial community and parents should allow a little dirt to their children. (207 words)

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糞菌移植 FMT 產業現況和 3 大挑戰-第五屆亞洲微生物體趨勢論壇

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The technique of Fecal microbiota transplantation(FMT) came as a shock to me. I understand the fecal from the selected donor can introduce healthy bacterial flora and restore the colonic microflora. However, I cannot accept directly transferring fecal matter into the intestinal tract through pills or colonoscopy. I hope that the professional can study other methods to transfer healthy bacterial flora and improve universal access of this technique.

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由圖爾思生物科技公司舉辦的第五屆亞洲微生物體趨勢論壇於今日（1/16）早上在中研院展開。大會專題演講由大會主席暨台大醫院 吳明賢 院長分享。

醫學微生物研究第一個黃金時期，由第一個發現微生物的 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek、發現炭疽桿菌、結核桿菌和霍亂弧菌的 Robert Koch、創造狂犬病和炭疽病疫苗的 Louis Pasteur 三位微生物專家開啟。

3 歲以前的微生物發展很重要，決定人的一生

地球約有 5X 1030 個微生物，人類腸道菌有 1014 個，人類基因體數約 3X109（約 1 萬本書），微生物基因體數有 3X1013（約 100 萬本書）。人類 3 歲以前的微生物體發展非常重要，3 歲時，微生物和其基因體會定型，稱為原生性基因體（primary genome）。3 歲以後，主要是由其他微生物和其衍生性基因體（secondary genome）變化影響人體。

腸道菌透過代謝、免疫、血液、腸腦軸等路徑調控人體

腸道菌負責人體代謝和免疫，例如，藉由將食物代謝短鏈脂肪酸、膽酸等路徑，就像人類的金融體系負責能量的儲存和消耗，或者微生物相關分子（microbe-associated molecular patterns, MAMP）來活化免疫系統，就像司法體系的辨認敵我、懲奸除惡。腸道菌也會透過周邊血液來影響免疫系統，近來更發現，腸道菌會透過腸腦軸（gut-brain axis）影響大腦。

然而，當腸道菌失衡時，容易造成發炎性疾病，如關節炎、過敏性發炎、胰臟炎、自體免疫性腦炎等。另外，腸道菌與神經系統（自閉症）、腦神經疾病（巴金森氏症）、肝病、呼吸疾病、自體免疫性、腫瘤、代謝疾病、心血管疾病有關。

如何拯救我們的腸道菌？

可以透過飲食、抗生素、異生物質（xenobiotic）來調控我們的腸道菌。其中，天然食物，如大蒜，抑制紅肉 TMA，對心臟很好，高纖低肉和地中海飲食也會對人體也有益。反之，人工甘味，人工添加食品，對腸道菌平衡不好。

由一個臨床案例得知，在抗生素給後，改變腸道菌，治療淋巴癌。其他研究指出，抗生素治療非感染性疾病，如大腸激躁症（irritable bowel syndrome, IBS）、發炎性腸道疾病（inflammatory bowel disease, IBD）、肝性腦病變（Hepatic Encephalopathy）等。

呷賽也能治病：糞菌移植 （fecal microbiota transplant, FMT）

已知，FMT 可用來治療偽膜性腸炎、發炎性腸病、腸躁症、代謝症候群。也有研究指出，過濾後的無菌糞水也能治療困難梭狀芽孢桿菌感染症（Clostridium difficile infection, C. difficile 感染）。

除了腸道疾病之外，以 FMT 治療神經疾病、免疫性疾病、代謝症候群、癌症、體重控制（減重或增重）的研究或臨床試驗也越來越多。
FMT 副作用及可能疑慮？
FMT 真的百利無一害嗎？吳院長表示，未必，過去有二個 FMT 死亡案例，主因是產生 E-Coli 相關抗藥性，造成藥物失效。其他研究也指出，FMT 可能導致腹部不舒服、其他病原體感染、誘導慢性病（糖尿病、代謝症候群等）、巴金森症風險等副作用。

FMT 衍生問題，包含供體（donor）選擇、作用機轉（Black Box）、長期安全性等。例如，捐贈者腸道菌狀況好壞的認定，不知道作用機轉，十年後的狀況判定。

一個好的 FMT 治療，會面臨到製造過程、病患的原生（Pre-existing）微生物體、疾病期望的效果這 3 個大挑戰。

1. 製造過程
FMT 來源有自體 FMT、家人親戚、單一糞便銀行（stool bank）、多位捐贈者混合、糞便產品無菌分離、經過醫學臨床試驗的益生菌（probiotics）。因此，選擇合適的捐贈者或菌種，確認理想分類學組成，施打方式（口服膠囊、灌腸、內視鏡），都是必須要解決的挑戰。

2. 患者的原生微生物體
在 FMT 之前，須確認患者的微生物體狀況，以及多發性抗藥性患者是否優先 FMT？另外，患者出現 C. difficile 感染，需考慮更換方式。也可考慮先使用抗生素治療患者，除去壞菌，再使用 FMT

3. 疾病期望的效果
FMT 之後，可能會影響宿主的營養、代謝、免疫、發炎狀況，進而影響療效。
FMT 演變進化
FMT 一開始就像中藥的黃龍湯，進展到第二階段有標準化的產品，第三階段為精準化，到現在特徵配方菌，如基因編輯菌、生物合成菌等。

次世代微生物體的發展以全譜微生物組產品和合理選擇微生物產品為主。以微生物為基礎的藥物研發代表性公司，如下

在一項第 3 期臨床試驗中，與安慰劑相比，Seres 的 SER-109 糞便純化製劑可顯著降低C. difficile 復發風險 30% 以上。在一項第 2 期臨床試驗中，Finch 的 CP101能顯著預防 C. difficile 復發風險。

另外，各大藥廠也透過收購生技公司或與他們合作，開發相關 EMT。例如，Gilead 支持 Second Genome，Takeda支持 Enterome，Janssen支持 Vedanta。

最後，上述的研究最重要的一點，還是要回歸到微生物的培養。養出菌，才能分析，釐清其功能和機制，以及其因果關係，最終才能在推動精準醫學的發展有所貢獻。
©www.geneonline.news. All rights reserved. 基因線上版權所有 未經授權不得轉載。合作請聯繫：service@geneonlineasia.com

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糞菌移植 FMT 產業現況和 3 大挑戰-第五屆亞洲微生物體趨勢論壇 | GeneOnline News

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由圖爾思生物科技公司舉辦的第五屆亞洲微生物體趨勢論壇於今日（1/16）早上在中研院展開。大會專題演講由大會主席暨台大醫院 吳明賢 院長分享。 醫學微生物研究第一個黃金時期，由第一個發現微生物的 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek、發現炭疽桿菌、結核桿菌和霍亂弧菌的 Robert Koch、創造狂犬病和炭疽病疫苗的 Louis Pasteur 三位微生物專家開啟。 3 歲以前的微生物發展很重要，決定人的一生 地球約有 5X 1030 個微生物，人類腸道菌有 1014 個，人類基因體數約 3X109（約 1 萬本書），微生物基因體數有 3X1013（約 100 萬本書）。人類 3 歲以前的微生物體發展非常重要，3 歲時，微生物和其基因體會定型，稱為原生性基因體（primary genome）。3 歲以後，主要是由其他微生物和其衍生性基因體（secondary genome）變化影響人體。 腸道菌透過代謝、免疫、血液、腸腦軸等路徑調控人體 腸道菌負責人體代謝和免疫，例如，藉由將食物代謝短鏈脂肪酸、膽酸等路徑，就像人類的金融體系負責能量的儲存和消耗，或者微生物相關分子（microbe-associated molecular patterns, MAMP）來活化免疫系統，就像司法體系的辨認敵我、懲奸除惡。腸道菌也會透過周邊血液來影響免疫系統，近來更發現，腸道菌會透過腸腦軸（gut-brain axis）影響大腦。 然而，當腸道菌失衡時，容易造成發炎性疾病，如關節炎、過敏性發炎、胰臟炎、自體免疫性腦炎等。另外，腸道菌與神經系統（自閉症）、腦神經疾病（巴金森氏症）、肝病、呼吸疾病、自體免疫性、腫瘤、代謝疾病、心血管疾病有關。 如何拯救我們的腸道菌？ 可以透過飲食、抗生素、異生物質（xenobiotic）來調控我們的腸道菌。其中，天然食物，如大蒜，抑制紅肉 TMA，對心臟很好，高纖低肉和地中海飲食也會對人體也有益。反之，人工甘味，人工添加食品，對腸道菌平衡不好。 由一個臨床案例得知，在抗生素給後，改變腸道菌，治療淋巴癌。其他研究指出，抗生素治療非感染性疾病，如大腸激躁症（irritable bowel syndrome, IBS）、發炎性腸道疾病（inflammatory bowel disease, IBD）、肝性腦病變（Hepatic Encephalopathy）等。 呷賽也能治病：糞菌移植 （fecal microbiota transplant, FMT） 已知，FMT 可用來治療偽膜性腸炎、發炎性腸病、腸躁症、代謝症候群。也有研究指出，過濾後的無菌糞水也能治療困難梭狀芽孢桿菌感染症（Clostridium difficile infection, C.

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On the other hand, I learned a new concept which is gut-brain-connection. As the gut microbes are responsible for 90% of the messaging to our brain and it relates to both mental and physical health, I think we should value our guts. For example, Zinc has positive properties on mood and may help against mood swings and smaller depression so we can eat steak or crab high in Zinc as a dietary intervention.
(239 words)

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In this lecture, we know more about health from a macroscopic perspective which is climate change. Many people may think it is far from them but it is already around us. According to the data from World Health Organization, climate change is expected to cause approximately 250 000 additional deaths per year, from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhea, and heat stress between 2030 and 2050. Therefore, Climate change can be seen as the biggest health threat facing humanity. Due to coal-fired power generation, industrial development, and other emissions of greenhouse gases,  low air quality, and abnormally high temperatures led to diseases and even death. We have to reflect on our behavior which puts the ecosystem out of balance and take action to improve it as soon as possible instead of just warning people about the seriousness of climate change.

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Key facts

Climate change is directly contributing to humanitarian emergencies from heatwaves, wildfires, floods, tropical storms and hurricanes and they are increasing in scale, frequency and intensity.

Research shows that 3.6 billion people already live in areas highly susceptible to climate change. Between 2030 and 2050, climate change is expected to cause approximately 250 000 additional deaths per year, from undernutrition, malaria, diarrhoea and heat stress alone.

The direct damage costs to health (excluding costs in health-determining sectors such as agriculture and water and sanitation) is estimated to be between US$ 2-4 billion per year by 2030.

Areas with weak health infrastructure - mostly in developing countries - will be the least able to cope without assistance to prepare and respond.

Reducing emissions of greenhouse gases through better transport, food and energy use choices can result in very large gains for health, particularly through reduced air pollution.

Overview

Climate change presents a fundamental threat to human health. It affects the physical environment as well as all aspects of both natural and human systems - including social and economic conditions and the functioning of health systems. It is therefore a threat multiplier, undermining and potentially reversing decades of health progress. As climatic conditions change, more frequent and intensifying weather and climate events are observed, including storms, extreme heat, floods, droughts and wildfires. These weather and climate hazards affect health both directly and indirectly, increasing the risk of deaths, noncommunicable diseases, the emergence and spread of infectious diseases, and health emergencies.

Climate change is also having an impact on our health workforce and infrastructure, reducing capacity to provide universal health coverage (UHC). More fundamentally, climate shocks and growing stresses such as changing temperature and precipitation patterns, drought, floods and rising sea levels degrade the environmental and social determinants of physical and mental health. All aspects of health are affected by climate change, from clean air, water and soil to food systems and livelihoods. Further delay in tackling climate change will increase health risks, undermine decades of improvements in global health, and contravene our collective commitments to ensure the human right to health for all.

Climate change impacts on health

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) concluded that climate risks are appearing faster and will become more severe sooner than previously expected, and it will be harder to adapt with increased global heating.

It further reveals that 3.6 billion people already live in areas highly susceptible to climate change. Despite contributing minimally to global emissions, low-income countries and small island developing states (SIDS) endure the harshest health impacts. In vulnerable regions, the death rate from extreme weather events in the last decade was 15 times higher than in less vulnerable ones.

Climate change is impacting health in a myriad of ways, including by leading to death and illness from increasingly frequent extreme weather events, such as heatwaves, storms and floods, the disruption of food systems, increases in zoonoses and food-, water- and vector-borne diseases, and mental health issues. Furthermore, climate change is undermining many of the social determinants for good health, such as livelihoods, equality and access to health care and social support structures. These climate-sensitive health risks are disproportionately felt by the most vulnerable and disadvantaged, including women, children, ethnic minorities, poor communities, migrants or displaced persons, older populations, and those with underlying health conditions.
Figure: An overview of climate-sensitive health risks, their exposure pathways and vulnerability factors. Climate change impacts health both directly and indirectly, and is strongly mediated by environmental, social and public health determinants.
Although it is unequivocal that climate change affects human health, it remains challenging to accurately estimate the scale and impact of many climate-sensitive health risks. However, scientific advances progressively allow us to attribute an increase in morbidity and mortality to global warming, and more accurately determine the risks and scale of these health threats.

WHO data indicates 2 billion people lack safe drinking water and 600 million suffer from foodborne illnesses annually, with children under 5 bearing 30% of foodborne fatalities. Climate stressors heighten waterborne and foodborne disease risks. In 2020, 770 million faced hunger, predominantly in Africa and Asia. Climate change affects food availability, quality and diversity, exacerbating food and nutrition crises.

Temperature and precipitation changes enhance the spread of vector-borne diseases. Without preventive actions, deaths from such diseases, currently over 700 000 annually, may rise. Climate change induces both immediate mental health issues, like anxiety and post-traumatic stress, and long-term disorders due to factors like displacement and disrupted social cohesion.

Recent research attributes 37% of heat-related deaths to human-induced climate change. Heat-related deaths among those over 65 have risen by 70% in two decades. In 2020, 98 million more experienced food insecurity compared to the 1981-2010 average. The WHO conservatively projects 250 000 additional yearly deaths by the 2030s due to climate change impacts on diseases like malaria and coastal flooding. However, modelling challenges persist, especially around capturing risks like drought and migration pressures.

The climate crisis threatens to undo the last 50 years of progress in development, global health and poverty reduction, and to further widen existing health inequalities between and within populations. It severely jeopardizes the realization of UHC in various ways, including by compounding the existing burden of disease and by exacerbating existing barriers to accessing health services, often at the times when they are most needed. Over 930 million people - around 12% of the world's population - spend at least 10% of their household budget to pay for health care. With the poorest people largely uninsured, health shocks and stresses already currently push around 100 million people into poverty every year, with the impacts of climate change worsening this trend.

Climate change and equity

In the short- to medium-term, the health impacts of climate change will be determined mainly by the vulnerability of populations, their resilience to the current rate of climate change and the extent and pace of adaptation. In the longer-term, the effects will increasingly depend on the extent to which transformational action is taken now to reduce emissions and avoid the breaching of dangerous temperature thresholds and potential irreversible tipping points.

While no one is safe from these risks, the people whose health is being harmed first and worst by the climate crisis are the people who contribute least to its causes, and who are least able to protect themselves and their families against it: people in low-income and disadvantaged countries and communities.

Addressing climate change's health burden underscores the equity imperative: those most responsible for emissions should bear the highest mitigation and adaptation costs, emphasizing health equity and vulnerable group prioritization.

Need for urgent action

To avert catastrophic health impacts and prevent millions of climate change-related deaths, the world must limit temperature rise to 1.5°C. Past emissions have already made a certain level of global temperature rise and other changes to the climate inevitable. Global heating of even 1.5°C is not considered safe, however; every additional tenth of a degree of warming will take a serious toll on people's lives and health.

WHO response

WHO's response to these challenges centres around 3 main objectives:

Promote actions that both reduce carbon emissions and improve health: supporting a rapid and equitable transition to a clean energy economy; ensuring that health is central to climate change mitigation policy; accelerating mitigation actions that bring the greatest health gains; and mobilizing the strength of the health community to drive policy change and build public support.

Build better, more climate-resilient and environmentally sustainable health systems: ensuring core services, environmental sustainability and climate resilience as central components of UHC and primary health care (PHC); supporting health systems to leapfrog to cheaper, more reliable and cleaner solutions, while decarbonizing high-emitting health systems; and mainstreaming climate resilience and environmental sustainability into health service investments, including the capacity of the health workforce.

Protect health from the wide range of impacts of climate change: assessing health vulnerabilities and developing health plans; integrating climate risk and implementing climate-informed surveillance and response systems for key risks, such as extreme heat and infectious disease; supporting resilience and adaptation in health-determining sectors such as water and food; and closing the financing gap for health adaptation and resilience.

Leadership and Raising Awareness: WHO leads in emphasizing climate change's health implications, aiming to centralize health in climate policies, including through the UNFCCC. Partnering with major health agencies, health professionals and civil society, WHO strives to embed climate change in health priorities like UHC and target carbon neutrality by 2030.

Evidence and Monitoring: WHO, with its network of global experts, contributes global evidence summaries, provides assistance to nations in their assessments, and monitors progress. The emphasis is on deploying effective policies and enhancing access to knowledge and data.

Capacity Building and Country Support: Through WHO offices, support is given to ministries of health, focusing on collaboration across sectors, updated guidance, hands-on training, and support for project preparation and execution as well as for securing climate and health funding. WHO leads the Alliance for Transformative Action on Climate and Health (ATACH), bringing together a range of health and development partners, to support countries in achieving their commitments to climate-resilient and low carbon health systems.

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WHO fact sheet on climate change and health: provides key facts, patterns of infection, measuring health effects and WHO response.

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Humans should unite to fight climate change. Everyone changes a small habit that can result in tremendous help. For example, resisting fast fashion. If we can buy fewer new clothes and wear them longer, carbon emissions could significantly decrease because the fashion industry accounts for 8-10 percent of global carbon emissions and it is an unnecessary 'sacrifice'. People changing this small habit can not only avoid the health problem caused by climate change but also save money.
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As United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres said at the recent UN Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP26), "Our fragile planet is hanging by a thread. We are still knocking on the door of climate catastrophe. It is time to go into emergency mode - or our chance of reaching net-zero will itself be zero."

The outlook can seem depressing. But the good news is that there is a lot we can still do as individuals to change this narrative.

"The climate emergency demands action from all of us. We need to get to net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 and everyone has a role to play," said Niklas Hagelberg, UNEP's Climate Change Coordinator. "We, as individuals, must change our consumption habits and pressure those who represent us - our employers, our politicians - to move rapidly to a low-carbon world."

Here are 10 ways you can be part of the climate solution:

1. Spread the word

Encourage your friends, family and co-workers to reduce their carbon pollution. Join a global movement like Count Us In, which aims to inspire 1 billion people to take practical steps and challenge their leaders to act more boldly on climate. Organizers of the platform say that if 1 billion people took action, they could reduce as much as 20 per cent of global carbon emissions. Or you could sign up to the UN's #ActNow campaign on climate change and sustainability and add your voice to this critical global debate.

2. Keep up the political pressure

Lobby local politicians and businesses to support efforts to cut emissions and reduce carbon pollution. #ActNow Speak Up has sections on political pressure and corporate action - and Count Us In also has some handy tips for how to do this. Pick an environmental issue you care about, decide on a specific request for change and then try to arrange a meeting with your local representative. It might seem intimidating but your voice deserves to be heard. If humanity is to succeed in tackling the climate emergency, politicians must be part of the solution. It's up to all of us to keep up with the pressure.

3. Transform your transport

Transport accounts for around a quarter of all greenhouse gas emissions and across the world, many governments are implementing policies to decarbonize travel. You can get a head start: leave your car at home and walk or cycle whenever possible. If the distances are too great, choose public transport, preferably electric options. If you must drive, offer to carpool with others so that fewer cars are on the road. Get ahead of the curve and buy an electric car. Reduce the number of long-haul flights you take.

4. Rein in your power use

If you can, switch to a zero-carbon or renewable energy provider. Install solar panels on your roof. Be more efficient: turn your heating down a degree or two, if possible. Switch off appliances and lights when you are not using them and better yet buy the most efficient products in the first place (hint: this will save you money!). Insulate your loft or roof: you'll be warmer in the winter, cooler in the summer and save some money too.

5. Tweak your diet

Eat more plant-based meals - your body and the planet will thank you. Today, around 60 per cent of the world's agricultural land is used for livestock grazing and people in many countries are consuming more animal-sourced food than is healthy. Plant-rich diets can help reduce chronic illnesses, such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes and cancer.

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10 ways you can help fight the climate crisis

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While climate change is accelerating, there is still a lot individuals can do to combat the warming of the planet.

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It is the first time that I know grass has pollen and the quantity of grass pollen could be more than other flower pollen. According to the above video, allergy to timothy grass pollen is one of the most common allergies worldwide. As the growing seasons are shifting under global warming, Spring is arriving earlier and winters are shorter. These climate changes affect the timing of many life cycle events, such as the period of flower bloom being extended. Therefore, people with these types of allergies are affected for a longer time including suffering from itchy eyes, allergic asthma, and even hives. Developing pills and treatments for people with allergies is essential but the key is addressing the root causes. We should stop global warming from getting worse to prevent the increasing number of pollen.

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Recombinant allergens for diagnosis of allergies to Timothy grass

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In this lecture, we also know about thunderstorm asthma. It is unbelievable that thunderstorms can suddenly cause asthma in people. This asthma led to a disaster in Victoria before because thousands of people suddenly had asthma attacks and needed urgent asthma treatment at one time. It was hard for emergency services to help everyone so we hope it will not happen again in the world.
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暴風雨對氣喘患者可能是致命威脅

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颳風下雨的日子，天氣陰陰濕濕的，誰都沒有好心情，但如果有嚴重過敏或氣喘，暴風雨天氣可能不僅影響心理，也有可能對生命構成嚴重威脅。 1983 年 7 月初，英國伯明罕及周邊地區暴風雨前後有許多人氣喘突然發作，病患數是平常 5 倍，為「 風暴性氣喘 」（Thunderstorm Asthma）最早記載。當時空氣中真菌孢子數量大量增加，推測可能是強風颳來大量孢子引起氣喘病發。 當暴風雨引起的氣喘病患過多，醫療系統短時內無法醫治突然湧進的急性氣喘病患，有些患者可能得不到適當的治療而喪失生命。2016 年 11 月一個溫暖春天的午後，澳洲墨爾本遭遇強烈暴風雨。時值春暖花開季節，強風暴雨可能讓花粉碎得更細小。由於風雨使空氣過敏原大量增加，約 1 萬人因氣喘發作湧進急診，當地醫療量能不堪負荷，至少 8 人因氣喘死亡。 當暴風雨氣流將花粉、孢子帶上雲層，可能因雲層電壓差異或水分吸收，碎裂或膨脹裂成更小碎片。如黑麥草花粉經過淘洗，直徑會由 35 微米縮到 3 微米。大量微小顆粒會隨著下降氣流和陣風吹回地面。極細小顆粒吸入人體後，鼻腔和呼吸道的過濾作用完全失效，當微小顆粒長驅直入進入肺部支氣管，就容易引起過敏反應使氣喘發作。 過去 30 年，風暴性氣喘在世界各地發生約 20 次，包括澳洲、義大利、北美、中東、亞洲和英國。由於發生頻率不高，科學觀察數據不足幫助科學家準確預測風暴性氣喘何時發生，但風暴性氣喘大多發生在春夏兩季，推測與當時空氣過敏原含量較高有關。 全球暖化導致極端氣候，未來幾年風暴性氣喘可能更頻繁產生。雖然目前的預測模型並不準確，但經過改進後可能會成為有用的預警系統。墨爾本經歷 2016 年爆發後，已部署一套結合花粉計數和氣象數據的線上預警系統。此外，透過衛教宣導，鼓勵有氣喘體質的民眾平時就做好病情控管，也可避免風暴來襲時手足無措。 雖然風暴性氣喘導致死亡的人數仍屈指可數，但面臨極端氣候威脅的今天，未來卻有可能更頻繁發生，故減少碳排放及延緩地球暖化也能避免風暴性氣喘威脅。 （首圖來源： Unsplash ）

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After this lecture, it is unbelievable that there are advantages of climate change. While climate change has many negative impacts, it can also have some positive effects in some regions, such as an increase in wine production. However, this is only true for certain types of wine, and only in specific regions where the climate is suitable.

Then, I try to find other advantages of climate change on the internet and I discover that agricultural productivity is increased in certain regions due to longer growing seasons or higher levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

However, it's important to note that these perceived benefits are short-term and localized, and they are far outweighed by the long-term and global negative impacts of climate change, including more severe weather events, rising sea levels, increased risk of wildfires, loss of biodiversity, and negative impacts on human health and well-being. Therefore, we still need to put effort to prevent the situation from deteriorating.

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On This Page:

Overview

Agriculture is an important sector of the U.S. economy. The crops, livestock, and seafood produced in the United States contribute more than $300 billion to the economy each year. When food-service and other agriculture-related industries are included, the agricultural and food sectors contribute more than $750 billion to the gross domestic product.

Agriculture and fisheries are highly dependent on the climate. Increases in temperature and carbon dioxide (CO2) can increase some crop yields in some places. But to realize these benefits, nutrient levels, soil moisture, water availability, and other conditions must also be met. Changes in the frequency and severity of droughts and floods could pose challenges for farmers and ranchers and threaten food safety. Meanwhile, warmer water temperatures are likely to cause the habitat ranges of many fish and shellfish species to shift, which could disrupt ecosystems. Overall, climate change could make it more difficult to grow crops, raise animals, and catch fish in the same ways and same places as we have done in the past. The effects of climate change also need to be considered along with other evolving factors that affect agricultural production, such as changes in farming practices and technology.

Impacts on Crops

Crops grown in the United States are critical for the food supply here and around the world. U.S. farms supply nearly 25% of all grains (such as wheat, corn, and rice) on the global market.[4] Changes in temperature, atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO ₂), and the frequency and intensity of extreme weather could have significant impacts on crop yields.

For any particular crop, the effect of increased temperature will depend on the crop's optimal temperature for growth and reproduction. In some areas, warming may benefit the types of crops that are typically planted there, or allow farmers to shift to crops that are currently grown in warmer areas. Conversely, if the higher temperature exceeds a crop's optimum temperature, yields will decline.

Higher CO₂ levels can affect crop yields. Some laboratory experiments suggest that elevated CO₂ levels can increase plant growth. However, other factors, such as changing temperatures, ozone, and water and nutrient constraints, may counteract these potential increases in yield. For example, if temperature exceeds a crop's optimal level, if sufficient water and nutrients are not available, yield increases may be reduced or reversed. Elevated CO₂ has been associated with reduced protein and nitrogen content in alfalfa and soybean plants, resulting in a loss of quality. Reduced grain and forage quality can reduce the ability of pasture and rangeland to support grazing livestock.

More extreme temperature and precipitation can prevent crops from growing. Extreme events, especially floods and droughts, can harm crops and reduce yields. For example, in 2010 and 2012, high nighttime temperatures affected corn yields across the U.S. Corn Belt, and premature budding due to a warm winter caused $220 million in losses of Michigan cherries in 2012.

Dealing with drought could become a challenge in areas where rising summer temperatures cause soils to become drier. Although increased irrigation might be possible in some places, in other places water supplies may also be reduced, leaving less water available for irrigation when more is needed.

Many weeds, pests, and fungi thrive under warmer temperatures, wetter climates, and increased CO₂ levels. Currently, U.S. farmers spend more than $11 billion per year to fight weeds, which compete with crops for light, water, and nutrients. The ranges and distribution of weeds and pests are likely to increase with climate change. This could cause new problems for farmers' crops previously unexposed to these species.

Though rising CO₂ can stimulate plant growth, it also reduces the nutritional value of most food crops. Rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide reduce the concentrations of protein and essential minerals in most plant species, including wheat, soybeans, and rice. This direct effect of rising CO₂ on the nutritional value of crops represents a potential threat to human health. Human health is also threatened by increased pesticide use due to increased pest pressures and reductions in the efficacy of pesticides.

Impacts on Livestock

Americans consume more than 36 million metric tons of meat and poultry annually. Livestock and poultry account for over half of U.S. agricultural cash receipts, often over $100 billion per year. Changes in climate could affect animals both directly and indirectly.

Heat waves, which are projected to increase under climate change, could directly threaten livestock. In 2011, exposure to high temperature events caused over $1 billion in heat-related losses to agricultural producers. Heat stress affects animals both directly and indirectly. Over time, heat stress can increase vulnerability to disease, reduce fertility, and reduce milk production.

Drought may threaten pasture and feed supplies. Drought reduces the amount of quality forage available to grazing livestock. Some areas could experience longer, more intense droughts, resulting from higher summer temperatures and reduced precipitation. For animals that rely on grain, changes in crop production due to drought could also become a problem.

Climate change may increase the prevalence of parasites and diseases that affect livestock. The earlier onset of spring and warmer winters could allow some parasites and pathogens to survive more easily. In areas with increased rainfall, moisture-reliant pathogens could thrive.

Potential changes in veterinary practices, including an increase in the use of parasiticides and other animal health treatments, are likely to be adopted to maintain livestock health in response to climate-induced changes in pests, parasites, and microbes. This could increase the risk of pesticides entering the food chain or lead to evolution of pesticide resistance, with subsequent implications for the safety, distribution, and consumption of livestock and aquaculture products.

Increases in carbon dioxide (CO₂) may increase the productivity of pastures, but may also decrease their quality. Increases in atmospheric CO₂ can increase the productivity of plants on which livestock feed. However, the quality of some of the forage found in pasturelands decreases with higher CO₂. As a result, cattle would need to eat more to get the same nutritional benefits.

Impacts on Fisheries

American fishermen catch or harvest five million metric tons of fish and shellfish each year. U.S. fisheries contribute more than $1.55 billion to the economy annually (as of 2012). Many fisheries already face multiple stresses, including overfishing and water pollution. Climate change may worsen these stresses. In particular, temperature changes could lead to significant impacts.

The ranges of many fish and shellfish species may change. In waters off the northeastern United States, several economically important species have shifted northward since the late 1960s. The three species shown in [the figure to the left] (American lobster, red hake, and black sea bass) have moved northward by an average of 119 miles.

Many aquatic species can find colder areas of streams and lakes or move north along the coast or in the ocean. Nevertheless, moving into new areas may put these species into competition with other species over food and other resources, as explained on the Ecosystems Impacts page.

Some marine disease outbreaks have been linked with changing climate. Higher water temperatures and higher estuarine salinities have enabled an oyster parasite to spread farther north along the Atlantic coast. Winter warming in the Arctic is contributing to salmon diseases in the Bering Sea and a resulting reduction in the Yukon Chinook Salmon, Finally, warmer temperatures have caused disease outbreaks in coral, eelgrass, and abalone.

Changes in temperature and seasons can affect the timing of reproduction and migration. Many steps within an aquatic animal's lifecycle are controlled by temperature and the changing of the seasons. For example, in the Northwest warmer water temperatures may affect the lifecycle of salmon and increase the likelihood of disease. Combined with other climate impacts, these effects are projected to lead to large declines in salmon populations.

In addition to warming, the world's oceans are gradually becoming more acidic due to increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO ₂). Increasing acidity could harm shellfish by weakening their shells, which are created by removing calcium from seawater. Acidification also threatens the structures of sensitive ecosystems upon which some fish and shellfish rely.

International Impacts

Climate change is very likely to affect food security at the global, regional, and local level. Climate change can disrupt food availability, reduce access to food, and affect food quality. For example, projected increases in temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns, changes in extreme weather events, and reductions in water availability may all result in reduced agricultural productivity. Increases in the frequency and severity extreme weather events can also interrupt food delivery, and resulting spikes in food prices after extreme events are expected to be more frequent in the future. Increasing temperatures can contribute to spoilage and contamination.

Internationally, these effects of climate change on agriculture and food supply are likely to be similar to those seen in the United States. However, other stressors such as population growth may magnify the effects of climate change on food security. In developing countries, adaptation options like changes in crop-management or ranching practices, or improvements to irrigation are more limited than in the United States and other industrialized nations.

Any climate-related disturbance to food distribution and transport, internationally or domestically, may have significant impacts not only on safety and quality but also on food access. For example, the food transportation system in the United States frequently moves large volumes of grain by water. In the case of an extreme weather event affecting a waterway, there are few, if any, alternate pathways for transport. High temperatures and a shortage of rain in the summer of 2012 led to one of the most severe summer droughts the nation has seen and posed serious impacts to the Mississippi River watershed, a major transcontinental shipping route for Midwestern agriculture. This drought resulted in significant food and economic losses due to reductions in barge traffic, the volume of goods carried, and the number of Americans employed by the tugboat industry. The 2012 drought was immediately followed by flooding throughout the Mississippi in the spring of 2013, which also resulted in disruptions of barge traffic and food transport. Transportation changes such as these reduce the ability of farmers to export their grains to international markets, and can affect global food prices.

Impacts to the global food supply concern the United States because food shortages can cause humanitarian crises and national security concerns. They also can increase domestic food prices.

References
[6] CCSP (2008). The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture, Land Resources, Water Resources, and Biodiversity in the United States. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. Backlund, P., A. Janetos, D. Schimel, J. Hatfield, K. Boote, P. Fay, L. Hahn, C. Izaurralde, B.A. Kimball, T. Mader, J. Morgan, D. Ort, W. Polley, A. Thomson, D. Wolfe, M. Ryan, S. Archer, R. Birdsey, C. Dahm, L. Heath, J. Hicke, D. Hollinger, T. Huxman, G. Okin, R. Oren, J. Randerson, W. Schlesinger, D. Lettenmaier, D. Major, L. Poff, S. Running, L. Hansen, D. Inouye, B.P. Kelly, L Meyerson, B. Peterson, and R. Shaw. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA. [8] USDA (2012). 2012 Census of Agriculture: Volume 1, Chapter 1: U.S. National Level Data, Table 33. U.S. Department of Agriculture.

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Climate Impacts on Agriculture and Food Supply

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Agriculture is an important sector of the U.S. economy. The crops, livestock, and seafood produced in the United States contribute more than $300 billion to the economy each year. When food-service and other agriculture-related industries are included, the agricultural and food sectors contribute more than $750 billion to the gross domestic product.

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Climate change is a global issue that requires a collective effort to address. While some people may be aware of the issue, many do not fully understand the severity of its consequences. To address this, governments and global organizations have a responsibility to promote the real consequences of climate change and motivate people to take action to save our planet. This can be achieved through various means, such as education campaigns, policy changes, and incentives for individuals and businesses to adopt sustainable practices and save our planet.
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SAVE PLANET | Global Warming - Climate Change

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Healthy diet is good for us and the environment

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Healthy diet is good for us and the environment

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I learn that a healthy and balanced diet can enhance our health and healthy planet in this lecture. Choosing lean proteins such as fish, poultry, and plant-based sources such as tofu and beans can promote good health while reducing the environmental impact of our diet. I read some research showing that animal-based proteins are often associated with high carbon emissions and land use, while plant-based proteins are generally more sustainable.

In addition to the direct health benefits of a healthy and balanced diet, it is good news that choosing sustainable food sources can also have a positive impact on the planet. Sustainable agricultural practices, such as organic farming and regenerative agriculture, can help promote soil health and biodiversity because they reduce the use of pesticides and other harmful chemicals. By choosing sustainably produced foods, we can support these practices and help reduce the negative impact of food production on the environment.

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ABSTRACT

Plant-based diets in comparison to diets rich in animal products are more sustainable because they use many fewer natural resources and are less taxing on the environment. Given the global population explosion and increase in wealth, there is an increased demand for foods of animal origin. Environmental data are rapidly accumulating on the unsustainability of current worldwide food consumption practices that are high in meat and dairy products. Natural nonrenewable resources are becoming scarce, and environmental degradation is rapidly increasing. At the current trends of food consumption and environmental changes, food security and food sustainability are on a collision course. Changing course (to avoid the collision) will require extreme downward shifts in meat and dairy consumption by large segments of the world's population. Other approaches such as food waste reduction and precision agriculture and/or other technological advances have to be simultaneously pursued; however, they are insufficient to make the global food system sustainable. For millennia, meatless diets have been advocated on the basis of values, and large segments of the world population have thrived on plant-based diets. "Going back" to plant-based diets worldwide seems to be a reasonable alternative for a sustainable future. Policies in favor of the global adoption of plant-based diets will simultaneously optimize the food supply, health, environmental, and social justice outcomes for the world's population. Implementing such nutrition policy is perhaps one of the most rational and moral paths for a sustainable future of the human race and other living creatures of the biosphere that we share.

WHAT ARE SUSTAINABLE DIETS?

In the arena of environmental sustainability, the focus of this article, 2 important dimensions are considered: efficiency and environmental protection. Efficiency is a measure of how natural resources are used to obtain the foods of a given diet and is quantified by the ratio of inputs to outputs. Environmental protection addresses the preservation of ecological systems that allow life on earth: the biosphere. It is measured by environmental indicators such as global warming potential, biodiversity, and eutrophication. Thus, both key dimensions of environmental sustainability, the efficient use of natural resources, and the avoidance of environmental degradation in the production, preparation, and disposing of the food consumed are to be considered in assessing the sustainability of a diet.

ARE CURRENT FOOD PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION PATTERNS SUSTAINABLE?

Agriculture is the practice of producing crops and raising livestock. From an ecological perspective, agriculture involves managing resources to capture solar energy and the transferring of it to people for their use. For millennia, agriculture was a spatially complex system of polycultures, and a variety of crops and animals inhabited the same farm lands. Compared with output (food produced), inputs were low and consisted of solar energy, rain water, and animal waste for fertilizer ( 4). By efficiency standards, the system was sustainable. With the advent of industrial agriculture, farms became a monoculture enterprise, with a single farm generally producing a single food item ( 5). The main inputs are nonrenewable energy from fossil fuel and high amounts of chemicals, and oil is also used to produce nitrogenous fertilizers and irrigation water ( 5). These enormous inputs of energy in modern agricultural practices have greatly increased food production but have resulted in an energy imbalance.

EFFICIENCY: ANIMAL COMPARED WITH PLANT FOODS

ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS: ANIMAL COMPARED WITH PLANT FOODS

Research has been conducted on individual food items to determine the impact of production and consumption on the environment. The production of food for human consumption, particularly by industrialized agricultural practices, causes significant emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). These may occur directly from carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel use on the farm or in the supply chain, nitrous oxide emissions resulting from fertilizer application, and methane emissions from animals or indirectly as a result of land use change. In addition to agricultural production process, the transport, processing, packaging, marketing, sales, purchasing, and cooking of food also contribute to GHG emissions. Berners-Lee et al ( 11) computed the GHG emissions from 61 food categories at point of purchase. With one exception, each food with GHG emissions >10 kg CO ₂ equivalents/kg of product is a meat or dairy food.

Beyond contributing disproportionately to GHG emissions to the atmosphere, industrial husbandry operations damage the environment by chemical runoff to water and land and animal waste. This chemical pollution may cause acidification, algal blooms, and dead zones in lakes and coastal areas; soil quality degradation; habitat change; and biodiversity loss ( 5, 12, 14). We previously computed 3 environmental degradation ratios of meat compared with soy protein production and reported that the emissions of acidifying substances, pesticides, and metals are respectively 7, 6, and 100 times greater for meat protein compared with soy ( 9). Thus, the intensive production of meat is considerably more taxing to the environment than nutritionally equivalent plant protein foods.

COMPARING ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS OF PLANT-BASED AND MEAT-BASED DIETS

Compared with plant foods, meat and dairy products are clearly responsible for a hefty share of the natural resource utilization and environmental burden of food production. However, looking at dietary patterns, instead of single foods, is a more integrated and realistic approach in the assessment of the environmental impacts of producing foods for human consumption. We previously compared the environmental impacts of producing the foods differentially consumed by vegetarians and nonvegetarians from California and showed that the agricultural inputs required for producing the nonvegetarian diet were 2.9 times more water, 2.5 times more primary energy, 13 times more fertilizer, and 1.4 times more pesticides than for the vegetarian diet ( 15).

Most of the research on the environmental impact of dietary patterns has focused on the quantification of GHG emissions. Berners-Lee et al ( 11) contrasted 6 meatless daily meal scenarios with the average UK diet. Under the different dietary scenarios, meat was replaced with either dairy products or plant-based alternatives. Compared with the benchmark UK diet, reductions in GHG emissions of 22% for vegetarian and 26% for vegan scenarios were estimated ( Figure 4). With the use of data from Finland, Risku-Norja et al ( 18) estimated that a vegan diet would reduce 48% of the agricultural and 34% of the overall food system GHG emissions compared with the average Finnish diet. Reductions in agricultural and overall food system GHG emissions of only 33% and 23%, respectively, result when dairy is removed and beef and mutton are replaced in the diet with pork and poultry. Eshel and Martin ( 14, 19) estimated the decrease in GHG emissions for a vegan diet compared with the mean US diet on the basis of national food disappearance data. They calculated a per capita annual decrease of 1.5 tons of CO ₂ equivalents, which is equivalent to 33% fewer emissions from the vegan food pattern than from the average US diet. This represents an 8% reduction in the per capita total GHG emissions in the United States, which is similar to the reduction found for the Finnish consumer ( 18).

Modeled reductions in GHG emissions ranging from 19% to 30% were estimated for several dietary scenarios involving the partial replacement of animal products, meat and dairy, in the average UK diet ( 20, 21). Furthermore, Stehfest et al ( 22) estimated reductions in GHG emissions of 17% for CO ₂, 24% for CH ₄, and 21% N ₂ O at the global level from a complete switch to meatless diets, in which all protein is derived from plants.

The aforementioned studies provide useful estimates of environmental impacts, but researchers relied on prototype vegetarian diets for the comparative estimates, an approach that has inherent limitations. Prototype vegetarian diets may reflect the preferences and potential bias of the researcher, and they do not capture the variability and complexity of the foods consumed on a daily basis by free-living individuals. Thus, impact assessments based on ideal or designed diets may produce only theoretical results and are not grounded in reality. We recently conducted an assessment of the carbon footprint of dietary patterns using a novel approach ( 23), and our methodology was based not on researcher-designed, but on subject-defined food consumption for a large and geographically representative study population across North America. Furthermore, our study population exhibits a great dietary variability with respect to the intake of animal and plant foods, and we determined the emissions with global warming potential (CO ₂, CH ₄, and N ₂O) of 210 foods included in a validated food-frequency questionnaire by implementing a life-cycle impact assessment. We estimated the GHG emissions for each of the >73,000 participants in the Adventist Health Study 2 according to self-reported dietary preference. A reduction in emissions of 31% and 22% was estimated for vegetarians and semivegetarians, respectively, compared with nonvegetarians ( 23). These estimates should be regarded as conservative because the average meat consumption of 64 g/d for nonvegetarian Adventists contrasts with the much higher 220 g/d in a typical Western diet.

THE CASE FOR PLANT-BASED DIETS AT THE GLOBAL LEVEL

Is food security in the context of the current and projected dramatic increase in global demand for animal products compatible with environmental sustainability? The answer to this question must be considered against the backdrop of the world's demographic explosion and the increase in wealth among large segments of the population in transitional and developing nations ( 24, 25). These trends result in a dramatic increase in the global demand for foods of animal origin, particularly meats and dairy foods. Industrial livestock production is intrinsically resource-inefficient and highly taxing on the environment, rendering the current food system environmentally and societally unsustainable. We argue in this section that for a sustainable future, a drastic reduction in the consumption of meat and dairy foods by large segments of the world's population is unavoidable. Thus, plant-based diets at the global level are imperative ( 26).

The world population is growing exponentially and is expected to reach 9 billion by the year 2050 ( 25). The parallel increase in wealth in large segments of the population of transitional and developing countries has resulted in a markedly increased demand for foods of animal origin, particularly meat and dairy foods. Since 1963, there has been a 62% increase worldwide in meat consumption, but a much greater increase of ~300% has occurred in developing nations. China has experienced a 9-fold increase in per capita meat consumption of meat since the 1980s ( Figure 5) ( 28). In addition to wealth, other factors driving the worldwide consumption of meat include urbanization, trade liberalization, transnational food corporations, retailing growth, food industry marketing, and consumer attitudes and behaviors ( 29).

Food security and food sustainability are on a collision course. The past half-century has seen a marked growth in food production, allowing for a dramatic decrease in the proportion of the world's people who are hungry despite a doubling of the total population. Nevertheless, 1 in 7 persons today consume diets insufficient in protein and energy, and 2 in 7 persons have some micronutrient deficiency. With a larger-than-ever world population that has a greater appetite for meat and with the threat of lower food yields because of substantial climate change ( 34), the world food system is facing a set of intersecting challenges. These challenges require radical changes not only in the way food is produced, processed, stored, distributed, and accessed but also in the types of food consumed.

Previously, the main solution to food shortages was to bring more land into agriculture and to exploit fish stocks. These are not sustainable options. Neither is increasing the intensification of existing underperforming agricultural landscapes. Closing the food yield gap, while considering sustainability goals, will require new approaches, including the adaptation of conventional agriculture to more low-input and precision practices ( 35- 37). Waste and losses along the supply chain are estimated to involve more than one-third of the food produced in the world ( 36). Reducing food waste could substantially improve food security and simultaneously decrease environmental degradation. Improving food yields, reducing agriculture's environmental impacts, and reducing waste are necessary but are not sufficient strategies to ensure global food security. More food can be delivered by realigning agricultural and dietary preferences.

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

The proposal to drastically reduce meat consumption at the global level is ground-shaking. Some have even branded it a "revolutionary approach" and have argued that wholesale dietary shifts may not be realistic ( 36). However, the proposed transition does not need to be an "all or nothing" process because even only incremental steps could be extremely helpful in solving food availability and sustainability challenges. We are fully aware that such a drastic dietary shift is complex and implicates behavioral and policy challenges at many levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Plant-based diets in comparison to meat-based diets are more sustainable because they use substantially less natural resources and are less taxing on the environment. The world's demographic explosion and the increase in the appetite for animal foods render the food system unsustainable. Food security and food sustainability are on a collision course. Changing course (to avoid the collision) will require extreme downward shifts in meat and dairy consumption by large segments of the world population. Although other approaches should be pursued, they are insufficient to make the global food system sustainable, and therefore the dietary shift is an inevitable strategy.

Throughout history, forced either by necessity or by choice, large segments of the world's population have thrived on plant-based diets. In the past, meatless diets have been advocated on the basis of religious, ethical, or philosophical values, not science. It is only in the past 150 y that empirical evidence has yielded dietary recommendations.

Will "going back" to plant-based diets be the best way forward for a sustainable future? Agricultural and nutritional policies that lead to the adoption of plant-based diets at the global level will simultaneously optimize the food supply, health, environmental, and social justice outcomes for the world's population. Implementing such policies is not free of political challenges but is perhaps the most rational, scientific, and moral path for a sustainable future of the human race and other living creatures of the biosphere that we share.

The authors' responsibilities were as follows-JS: wrote the first draft of the manuscript; and SS: contributed to the content and editing of the manuscript. The authors had no conflicts of interest to declare.

REFERENCES

. Proceedings of the International Scientific Symposium. Biodiversity and sustainable diets united against hunger; 3-5 Nov 2010; Rome, Italy.

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Sustainability of plant-based diets: back to the future

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Plant-based diets in comparison to diets rich in animal products are more sustainable because they use many fewer natural resources and are less taxing on the environment. Given the global population explosion and increase in wealth, there is an increased demand for foods of animal origin.

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Overall, I will try to take a more healthy and balanced diet that is rich in plant-based foods and sustainably sourced proteins to promote both personal health and the health of the planet. For example, the Mediterranean diet. I happen to love eating nuts, white meat, and legumes.
(199 words)

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This lecture mentioned a new term for me called Nature deficit disorder. Although it was coined to describe the negative impacts that a lack of exposure to nature can have on physical and mental health, especially in children, I think I also have this problem. Miss Chan emphasized that spending time in nature has numerous benefits for both physical and mental health, including reduced stress, improved mood and cognitive function, and increased physical activity levels.

To combat nature deficit disorder, I should spend more time in nature involving going for walks or hikes in natural areas, spending time in parks or other green spaces, or simply spending time outdoors in your backyard or balcony. It's also important for me to incorporate nature into daily routines, such as by putting plants into my home.

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Nature deficit disorder is becoming increasingly common in children, especially in urban areas. Many children spend a significant amount of time indoors, whether it be at home or in school, and may not have regular opportunities to connect with nature. As a propspective teacher, I think schools can play an important role in addressing nature deficit disorder by incorporating nature-based activities into the curriculum and encouraging outdoor play and learning. This can involve incorporating nature-based themes into lessons, taking students on field trips to natural areas to support the physical and mental health of children.
(228 words)

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In this lecture, we explored different plants and animal species in Hong Kong. Even though Hong Kong is a densely populated city with a high level of urbanization. I did not expect Hong Kong has a high level of biodiversity compared to other countries with more natural habitats. Hong Kong is home to a surprising number of species, including many that are considered rare or endangered.

I learned that one reason for this is the climate of Hong Kong. As a subtropical region, Hong Kong provides a suitable environment for a wide range of plant and animal species to thrive. The hot and humid summers in Hong Kong provide optimal conditions for many plant species to grow, especially  a variety of fruit trees adapted to tropical or subtropical climates. The mild winters in Hong Kong can also support a range of species, including many migratory bird species that visit the city during the winter months.

However, I found that climate change can also have a negative impact on the number and types of species that are found in Hong Kong. Rising temperatures, changes in rainfall patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events can all affect the ability of certain species to survive in the region. This highlights the importance of sustainable practices and conservation efforts to protect the biodiversity of Hong Kong's natural areas.
(225 words)

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好興奮！！市區公園邂逅超稀有候鳥！觀鳥（下）

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千禧世代的鳥類守護者 The millennial bird conservationists

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I have recently had a lot of pressure about my future career but luckily I studied stress recovery theory in this lesson which may help me to cope with the pressure. According to this theory, spending time in natural environments can help to restore our attentional capacity and reduce stress by promoting relaxation and reducing mental fatigue.

Therefore, here are my plans to promote stress reduction and recovery through exposure to natural environments. First of all, I aim to spend time in natural environments, such as parks or forests. Whether it's going for a walk, having a picnic, or simply sitting and enjoying the surroundings, I hope it can help to promote relaxation and reduce stress.

Second, I will try to practice mindfulness such as meditation or deep breathing in nature. I believe focusing on the present moment and observing the natural surroundings can help to promote relaxation and reduce mental fatigue.

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I also learned that Biophilic design is an approach to architecture and design that seeks to incorporate natural elements into built environments in order to promote human health and well-being. So I am imagining my future house designed with Biophilic principles might include a green roof or living wall, which can provide visual and sensory connections to nature.
(210 words)