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1-What are the climate crises?

The term climate crisis is often used to describe climate disruptions such as increasing temperatures, the disappearance of glaciers, and global warming. In addition to triggering many things, such deteriorations in the climate also affect and continue to affect many human things such as the need for food and water. This effect can be seen even as far as the economy. Therefore, it is understood that a step should be taken to prevent these deteriorations by bringing the concept of global governance to the agenda again.

2-How is the governance established in the environmental issue area? Who is involved in the governance of environmental issues?

As we have mentioned, various measures should be taken internationally to prevent these climate disturbances in the world. These measures and measures also derive the concept of global governance and it is normal to have a perception that these solutions can be complemented by international organizations. This turned into reality and the countries of the world took steps to work around a common decision and the concept of governance for the environment was born. At this point, the concept of governance is important. This global climate crisis has enabled every country to take measures in a coordinated way, because it has become a situation that affects everyone, not just one region. No matter how much responsibility the states assumed in global governance, these responsibilities were taken over by the IGOs formed by the states. An example of this is the United Nations' environmental program.

3-What are some points of agreements and disagreements among states?

Global governance for states is of course important, due to the fact that global governance is currently run by IGOs established by states. Each of the decisions taken for the environment affects the states because the environment is a formation that has an impact on all states. however, a healthy environment may not be created as they can agree on every decision taken. Because states usually make decisions and declarations politically, there may be situations such as whether a decision that fits one state fits the environmental structure of the other state, but does not comply with its political interests, which can lead to conflicts between states.

4-How effective global governance is?

Although the issue of how effective global governance is in the environment and climate crisis is controversial, it is an effective option as far as I understand and think. It is obvious how effective the protocols signed and the decisions taken by the states are, that even if the effect was seen at a very small rate, the fact that the states even took steps to progress together for the same purpose shows that they are promising for the future. Considering how long the concept of global governance has already existed and the issues on which states have reached solutions in this way, the implementation of these governance and coordinated agreements for the environment, and even seeing how important it has become, shows how effective it is.

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How is the governance (or international regimes) evolved in the following areas in the 20th century? 

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How is the governance (or international regimes) evolved in the following areas in the 20th century? 

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Health Issue

In the following time period, the borderless health problem, which was seen as the oldest area of ​​functional activity, actually occupied an important place. Epidemic diseases, which started in many regions, continued to increase by showing transmission through trade routes with the increase in trade. Diseases such as smallpox, measles, yellow fever are examples of these. Towards the end of the 19th century, when it was understood that states could not find a cure for these epidemics alone, the first international health conference was held in 1851 in order to find a solution collectively. In the ongoing process (OIHP), The Office International Publique was established in order to be authorized to disseminate information about epidemic diseases such as cholera, plague and yellow fever. Afterwards, WHO, World Health Organization was established to replace OIHP in order to create a permanent structure. The main decision-making body is the WHA, consisting of three delegates from each member state, mostly medical doctors or from ministries of health. For example, the announcement/initiation of World Health organization campaigns for the eradication of smallpox (1959) and polio (1988). In other words, it has been managed in the field of health by global / International organizations (WHO, OIHP) created by states according to global governance.

Telecommunication

Towards the end of the 18th century, changes began in telecommunication problems, such as health problems. Following this, ITU, the successor organization that merged with the international radio union in 1932, is based on informal understandings rather than official legal provisions. These include open access to outer space and airspace, the radio spectrum, and the pre-use principle. States should respect the use of certain frequencies and not transmit them. But states also have the right to exclude foreign firms from the telecommunications industries by establishing a local monopoly base. Beginning in 1988, it was the Internet Assigned Names and Numbers Corporation (ICANN), a California-based nonprofit group that governed the internet's address system, allocating domain names, setting rules for name reallocation. Here, too, we see that International Organizations play a role and gain importance.

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What is the basic argument of Haas article?

In this text, the author provides that he causes/creates institutionalized cooperation and forms, mainly by addressing issues such as political goals, interests, the role of knowledge, and power inequalities. In the redefinition of the problem of international regimes, it establishes the infrastructure of subject connections and establishes the international regimes by establishing a relationship between the problem and the connection.

Does he think that it is possible to establish cooperation and how?

My purpose is to suggest an ideal-typical definition of regimes, to  inquire how, in our era, international collaboration can flourish in a  setting of conflict, how islands of order can form in an ocean of disorder. Different modes of cognition can suggest how men redefine  their interestso attempt the realization of joint gains in some fields  while continuing to play the zero-sum game in others. Negotiation on  the basis of substantive linkages does not guarantee successful regimes.  Cooperation on an informal basis can certainly take place in the absence of full-fledged regimes. Other writers have suggested the utility  of such qualifiers as "partial," "weak," "quasi-," and "proto-' regimes  as expressions ofless-than-complete rgulation of interdependence. The  value of such distinctions depends on the purpose of the analysis. As  long as my purpose is the elaboration of an ideal type useful for empirical exploration, I see no need to disaggregate the concept prematurely.

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pathologies for international organizations

1- Irrationality of Rationalization

As weber stated that bureaucracies' "rationalization" processes may be carried to extremes and eventually become irrational if the rules and procedures that enabled bureaucracies to execute their tasks became goals in themselves. Bureaucracies frequently adjust their missions to suit the existing, well-known, and comfortable rulebook, rather than developing the most appropriate and efficient rules and processes to fulfill their tasks. 84 As a result, means (rules and procedures) can become so established and powerful that they decide ends and how an organization defines its goals. One World Bank observer observed that the bank did not deliberate on development goals and did not collect the data required to pursue them on an operational level. Rather, it continued to employ existing data-collection techniques and developed goals and development plans solely based on that data.85 UN-mandated elections may be another example of how means become ends in themselves. In the numerous unstable governments where the UN has been involved in reconstruction, the "ultimate" goal is probably some form of peaceful, stable, and just governance. To that purpose, the UN has devised a set of instruments and solutions aimed primarily at promoting democratic administration. Among those numerous repertoires, elections have come to be seen as a barometer of "success" and an indicator of an operation's successful completion.

2- Bureaucratic universalism

Bureaucracies "orchestrate numerous loca,l contexts at once, flattening diversity because they are supposed to generate universal rules and categories that are, by design, inattentive to contextual and particularistic concerns," according to a second source of pathology in IOs. Of course, part of the justification for this is the bureaucratic view that technical knowledge is transferable across circumstances. Sometimes this is a good thing. On the grounds that the skills learned in one place would transfer to another, many people who engaged in peacekeeping operations in Cambodia were moved to peacekeeping operations in Bosnia or Somalia. Although certain technical abilities may be applied in many contexts, not all organizational and knowledge lessons learned in one environment are applicable in another.

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1- What are the main theories relating to International Organizations?

Looking at its basis, there are many different questions about the theories of international relations. Should this focus on objectively measuring and explaining human behavior and institutions through positivist or rationalist theory, or whether the language and symbols of social interaction are constructivist or social interaction-like instead. When it is observed that values, rules and identities predominate, the theory is associated with global interaction. Realistic theories describe the connections between dependent and independent variables as stated in this context. functionalist theories, as mentioned for example, state that international organizations tend to grow from a narrower and more technical focus to broader and more political initiatives.
When looking at critical theories such as constructivists, they are the theories that argue/criticize by referring to whether the propositions are intrinsically logical or whether they help explain the true nature of international institutions. Here are five main theories. Liberalism, Realism, social constructivism, The English schools, and critical theories.

Liberalism

According to the liberalist approach, cooperation is possible. Because, according to their thoughts, it is thought that the international system provides multiple interactions instead of a fixed concept of state sovereignty and this is the interaction of various actors. According to liberals, power is important, but it is possible thanks to international cooperation and the institutions and rules that make it possible, namely international organizations. In short, international organizations play the roles of providing cooperation, forming coalitions and development. It is seen as a key to reducing the danger of war and to the development of common norms.

Realism

To begin with, Realists see states as primary actors within the international system. They simply stated that each state is trying to keep its power and security above other states for its own interests. At this point, considering the low cooperation between states due to these situations, he stated that for Morgenthau, international organizations are a tool that states can use whenever they want, states can affect power phenomena, but they cannot affect the characteristics of the international system, and they are only the sum of states. But some Realists also stated that deterrence and balance of power are more effective than international institutions in maintaining peace.

Social Constructivism

As stated in the book, although there are many variables, they agree that the behavior of individuals, states and other actors is shaped by common beliefs, social rules and cultures. According to constructivists, norms, practices and institutions embodied in formal organizations are important. In this regard, they criticize the sovereignty and stated that the sovereignty determines the identities of the states, for example, how failed states such as Somalia continue to protect their statehood and continue to be members of the igos. According to constructivists, international organizations-organizations are purposeful actors with independent effects in international relations.

English School

English School, which emerged in the 1930s, combines theories such as realism, liberalism, and constructivism. Although many oppositions come to the fore with the idea that states are self-interested and hostile, as a result, there is order in the international arena. This is made possible by international organizations.

Critical theories

Critical theories include Marxist, neo-Marxist, dependecy theory, critical feminism, securitization studies, among various comprehensive groups of international relations theories that challenge conventional reason and provide alternative frameworks for understanding the world.

2- Explain Why John Mearsheimer is very pessimistic about the success of International Organizations?

As stated in the book, John Mearsheimer is not only pessimistic about international institutions, but also quite condescending. Because, it seems, institutions only follow the power relations of states. And it was added that they had little influence on state behavior, making little promises to promote stability in the world after the cold war. In other words, they consider these institutions not even worth examining.

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1- What is global governance?
On the basis of the concept of global governance, it has been characterized as the sum of the many ways in which individuals and institutions manage their public and private affairs. This process means that institutions and companies are suitable for/accepting their interests, or that conflicting or different interests can be harmonized in various ways and steps can be taken as a result of cooperation.
When we look at its relationship with the government, the government acts within a framework created to implement its own policies and rules. However, supporting governance activities may not bring the same results for every country on the concepts of legal and formality in its implementation, but it does not hinder their work by ignoring the state and its institutions.
This means that the meaning of global communication in one respect includes international law, international organizations created by states and is much less state-centered.
As a result, as stated, the concept of global governance means that, without a passport, the problems stated in the international arena are tried to be solved through international organizations and they are progressing in coordination with the states.

2- What type of functions does Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) serve in global governance?

At least three government partnerships based on IGOs ​​operate in several regions, with additional official establishment-style headquarters, executive heads, bureaucracies and budgets. It is also possible to say that IGOs ​​were created by the states. States then give IGOs ​​responsibility and authority to act. in addition, as many IGOs ​​are international they intend to take their responsibilities seriously, promote what they see as good clear/good policy and work hard to protect it from bad policy. they must subsequently respond to new challenges and crises, present policy options for member states, determine how to implement uncertain powers, reform themselves, formulate new tasks as well as new procedures. They can also use their resources. In fact, as in many IGO bureaucracies, information is analysed, interpreted, and a meaning is made to put it into action.

3- What is the relationship between global governance and globalization process?

Globalization can be defined as a multidimensional process of economic, social and cultural change in terms of itself and its structure. In this process, it actually shows us how the world is one and how interconnected it is. As already stated, globalization is a phenomenon that undertakes the process of change and transformation that expands the reach of power relations between regions and continents that connect distant societies. Here, let's try to explain the relationship of Globalization with global governance with a few economic problems. For example, the production of a company in America continues by employing people in another country, for example, for 1 $ per day. This means that globalization has both beneficial and harmful effects. When this is associated with global governance, we come across the world trade organization. In this context, it can be considered that the world trade organization has taken steps to eliminate the causes of globalization by establishing agreements such as the multilateral trade agreement, which is the way most / all global organizations follow.