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Images:
1.       Fountain, D. (n.d.). Christmas is coming - make your own kawakawa balm. Rhayne. Retrieved September 3, 2022, from https://www.rhayne.co.nz/blogs/news/christmas-is-coming-make-your-own-kawakawa-balm

2.       Mountain Valley Honey. (2021, April 13). NZ Manuka Honey: 10 Fascinating Facts about Manuka Honey. https://mountainvalleyhoney.co.nz/articles/nz-manuka-honey-10-fascinating-facts-about-manuka-honey/

3.       Ogle, C. C. (2019, September 29). Metrosideros carminea - flowering in garden, Whanganui. New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. https://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora/species/metrosideros-carminea/

4.       Otago Museum. (2022). Comb. In Tangata Whenua Collection.

5.       Scheele, Su. (2011, February 9). Native born remedies – Forest & Bird. Forest & Bird. https://blog.forestandbird.org.nz/native-born-remedies/

6.       Waldron, C. (n.d.). The rocks of Castle Hill. New Zealand Geographic. Retrieved September 3, 2022, from https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/the-rocks-of-castle-hill/

7.       Harwood, H. P. (2014). Ko Tïtokowaru: te poupou rangatira | Tītokowaru: a carved panel of the Taranaki leader. Tuhinga, 25, 16–24. https://www.tepapa.govt.nz/sites/default/files/tuhinga.25.2014.pt2_.p16-24.harwood.pdf

8.       Lovell-Smith, M. (2007, September 24). Girdling roots of northern rātā on a rimu tree. Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand; Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu Taonga. https://teara.govt.nz/en/photograph/13709/girdling-roots-of-northern-rata-on-a-rimu-tree

9.       Rolfe, J. R. (2007, October 19). Dodonaea viscosa - Pistillate flowers. In cultivation ex Karekare. New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. https://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora/species/dodonaea-viscosa/

10.   Te Papa Tongarewa. (n.d.). Kotiate (short hand club). Taonga Māori Collection. Retrieved September 4, 2022, from https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/object/138014

Videos
1. Noble, A., & Te Puawaitanga Ki Otautahi Trust. (2020, September 7). How to Harvest Harakeke. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_2tU-Q_paRs

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1.       Berkes, F. (2013). Religious Traditions and Biodiversity. Encyclopedia of Biodiversity: Second Edition, 380–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384719-5.00122-2

2.       Finn, S., Herne, M., & Castille, D. (2017). The Value of Traditional Ecological Knowledge for the Environmental Health Sciences and Biomedical Research. Environmental Health Perspectives, 125(8). https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP858

3.       Lemi, T. (2019). The Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) for Climate Change Adaptation. Ethiopia Int J Environ Sci Nat Res, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.19080/IJESNR.2019.18.555980

4.       Whyte, K. P. (2013). On the role of traditional ecological knowledge as a collaborative concept: A philosophical study. Ecological Processes, 2(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/2192-1709-2-7

5.       Chakraborty, L., Thistlethwaite, J., Minano, A., Henstra, D., & Scott, D. (2021). Leveraging Hazard, Exposure, and Social Vulnerability Data to Assess Flood Risk to Indigenous Communities in Canada. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 12(6), 821–838. https://doi.org/10.1007/S13753-021-00383-1

6.       Nightingale, A. (2009). Oral History, Ecological. International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, 34–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008044910-4.00486-7

7.       Environmental Protection Authority. (2020). Guide to the mātauranga framework - mātauranga guide. https://www.epa.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/Documents/Te-Hautu/Matauranga-Maori-Report_Companion-Guide.pdf

8.       Hikuroa, D. (2016). Mātauranga Māori—the ūkaipō of knowledge in New Zealand. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 47(1), 5–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/03036758.2016.1252407

9.       Best, E. (1982). Māori religion and mythology: being an account of the cosmogony, anthropogeny, religious beliefs and rites, magic and folk lore of the Māori folk of New Zealand. Government Printer. https://natlib.govt.nz/records/22102585

10.   Roberts, M., Haami, B., Benton, R., Satterfield, T., Finucane, M. L., Henare, M., & Henare, M. (2004). Whakapapa as a Māori Mental Construct: Some Implications for the Debate over Genetic Modification of Organisms. The Contemporary Pacific, 16(1), 1–28. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23722949

11.   de Lange, P. J. (2004). Leptospermum scoparium var. scoparium Fact Sheet. New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. https://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora/species/leptospermum-scoparium-var-scoparium/

12.   Polack, J. S. (1840). Manners and customs of the New Zealanders. James Madden & Co. https://rauropiwhakaoranga.landcareresearch.co.nz/references/fd7262b4-95ec-4271-9f23-2dfa81039c4c

13.   Goldie, W. H. (1904). Maori medical lore. Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, 37, 1–120. https://rauropiwhakaoranga.landcareresearch.co.nz/references/6aa9421c-f0a1-4fb9-83f8-c881f8582596

14.   Hiroa, T. R. (1950). The coming of the Māori. Māori Purposes Fund Board; Whitcombe & Tombs. https://natlib.govt.nz/records/21879540

15.   Cambie, R. C. (2012). A New Zealand Phytochemical Register — Part III. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 6(3), 307–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/03036758.1976.10421479

16.   Brooker, S. G., & Cooper, R. C. (1961). New Zealand Medicinal Plants. Economic Botany, 15(1), 1–10. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4252212

17.   Greene, T. (1989). Antiparasitic behaviour in New Zealand parakeets (Cyanoramphus species). Notornis, 36(4), 322–323. https://rauropiwhakaoranga.landcareresearch.co.nz/references/24869779-6421-4232-b26c-cc1d28ed1f51

18.   de Lange, P. J. (2005). Piper excelsum subsp. excelsum Fact Sheet. New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. https://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora/species/piper-excelsum-subsp-excelsum/

19.   Armstrong, J. F. (1868). On the Vegetation of the neighbourhood of Christchurch, including Riccarton, Dry Bush, etc. Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 2, 118–128. https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/periodicals/TPRSNZ1869-2.2.8.2.11

20.   Seneme, E. F., dos Santos, D. C., Silva, E. M. R., Franco, Y. E. M., & Longato, G. B. (2021). Pharmacological and Therapeutic Potential of Myristicin: A Literature Review. Molecules, 26(19). https://doi.org/10.3390/MOLECULES26195914

21.   de Lange, P. J. (2013a). Metrosideros carminea Fact Sheet. New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. https://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora/species/metrosideros-carminea/

22.   O’Carroll, P. J. (1933). Medical botany of New Zealand. In W. H. Skinner (Ed.), Pioneer Medical Men of Taranaki (pp. 165–173). Avery. https://rauropiwhakaoranga.landcareresearch.co.nz/references/94880e44-f311-47ac-9c80-6c2f830824a7

23.   Faulkner, A. A. (1958). Medical lore of the olden day Māori. New Zealand Nursing Journal, 221–223. https://rauropiwhakaoranga.landcareresearch.co.nz/references/b9df3627-158c-4a7b-9f48-13d904dbc8cb

24.   Olga, A. (1945). Maori medicinal plants. Auckland Botanical Society Bulletin, 2. https://rauropiwhakaoranga.landcareresearch.co.nz/references/c47a25b5-606f-418b-97f7-19cacd0ecf60

25.   Gardner, R. (1931). The essential oils of Metrosideros. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, 50, 141–143. https://rauropiwhakaoranga.landcareresearch.co.nz/references/53b27762-2187-418b-ba0b-1cb287211864

26.   de Lange, P. J. (2013b). Phormium tenax Fact Sheet. New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. https://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora/species/phormium-tenax/

27.   Beattie, J. H. (1994). Traditional lifeways of the southern Māori (A. Anderson, Ed.). University of Otago Press. https://rauropiwhakaoranga.landcareresearch.co.nz/references/e8b57514-9137-4146-affb-a77398cdc3f2

28.   Best, E. (1912). The stone implements of the Māori. Bulletin of the Dominion Museum (N.Z.), 4. https://natlib.govt.nz/records/21942180

29.   Hiroa, T. R. (1924). Maori plaited basketry and plaitwork Part 2: Belts and bands, fire-fans and fly-flaps, sandals and sails. Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, 55, 344–362. https://rauropiwhakaoranga.landcareresearch.co.nz/references/0548ed4d-7426-49ef-b4dc-2d137acbf8f8

30.   de Lange, P. J. (2014). Dodonaea viscosa Fact Sheet. New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. https://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora/species/dodonaea-viscosa/

31.   Taylor, R. (1855). Te Ika a Maui or New Zealand and its inhabitants. Wertheim and Macintosh. https://www.aucklandmuseum.com/collection/object/am_library-catalogq40-46

32.   Best, E. (1925). Maori Agriculture. Bulletin of the Dominion Museum (N.Z.), 9. https://rauropiwhakaoranga.landcareresearch.co.nz/references/fdc4fa2e-3343-438b-b839-39406e017a76

33.   de Lange, P. J. (2006). Dacrydium cupressinum Fact Sheet. New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. https://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora/species/dacrydium-cupressinum/

34.   Wallace, R. (1989). A preliminary study of wood types used in pre-European Māori wooden artefacts. New Zealand Archeological Association Monograph, 17, 22–232. https://rauropiwhakaoranga.landcareresearch.co.nz/references/d1ab457e-22c4-403a-920c-46335dacb9a3

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In Aotearoa, Māori have their unique form of TEK, known as Mātauranga Māori. Mātauranga is a broad term that refers to the knowledge of the environment, health, and cosmology passed down by generations of Māori, intimately tied to stories of creation and spirituality [7]. It is often described as the pursuit of understanding of Te Taiao, the natural environment [8].

Mātauranga Māori is a strong oral tradition, often communicated through waiata, haka, or whakairo [7]. As a culture which relied heavily on plants for all elements of life, Māori developed a strong Mātauranga for the uses of these plants. In their creation story, humans are the children of Tāne Mahuta, the god of the forests [9]. All plants used by Māori are connected through genealogy, or whakapapa, to each other and to people, and this whakapapa often captured useful knowledge relevant to the uses and practices surrounding different plants [10].

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Rimu fruit was commonly eaten by Māori [32], but rimu was mainly used for its timber. The timber was used in canoe making [33], to make hunting spears [32], and to make combs [35]. It was also commonly used in detailed carvings.

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Rimu is a conifer which grows 35-60m tall, and often has no branches for 3/4 of its height. Its trunk is thick and reddish, with dark brown flaking bark. Its leaves are a dark green and form as small needles on long, branched, hanging stems. Rimu forms small (5-10mm) cones, and small red fruit [34].

It is endemic to New Zealand, and is found on all main islands, but is surprisingly uncommon on the Eastern South Island. It is found in lowland and montane forest [34].

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The hardwood of akeake was used regularly by Māori, to make taiaha and other battle instruments [32]. It was also used for axe handles [32], and for digging spades [33]. Akeake is personified by the deity Ruru-tangiakau, a son of Tāne, who is also the personification of

mānuka [9]. This suggests the two trees had similar functions for Māori, as mānuka was also used for making hardwood battle instruments.

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Akeake is a shrub or small tree with distinctive long-surfboard-shaped leaves. Its leaves are a light green, but can be a reddish-purple, are slightly roughened and are 1-4cm wide. Its flowers are small and greenish, and dry out into capsules [31].

Akeake is found throughout NZ, and is indigenous but is not endemic - the same species found globally. It is found in coastal and lowland forests [31].

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Otago Museum - the cord on the comb is made from harakeke [Image 6]

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Flax was essential to Māori society as a material for weaving - for baskets [27], clothing [28], cords, and stone tools [25]. It would also be used to make informal shelters [28], and was used to make sails [30]. Harakeke was certainly the key fiber used by Māori, and had a number of customs and traditions associated with it.

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Harakeke is a tall, herbaceous plant with numerous very long leaves, coming out of the base at ground level. These leaves are generally stout, but older leaves will be floppy in the upper half. Generally one side of each leaf is green while the other is greyer. Harakeke grows from 1 to even 5m tall, and has long and dark red flowers, which grow on the end of a woody branch [26].

Harakeke is found throughout New Zealand and on offshore islands and is endemic. It is found from coastal and lowland areas to montane forest, often near rivers or in wetlands [26].

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The juice produced by cutting the rata vine was used by Māori as a cough mixture, a paua-shell-full was taken 3 times a day [22]. The bark was also used, steeped in water, to produce a lotion used for ringworm [23]. The juice/sap from the vine would also be blown on wounds [24].

It is not obvious why rata sap may help with coughs or wounds, but its bark contains ellagic acid, which is an astringent - it draws out water - which may have helped with ringworm [15]. Rata also contains several essential oils [25].

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Climbing rata - Metrosideros fulgens and Metrosideros carminea - Akakura

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Climbing rata - Metrosideros fulgens and Metrosideros carminea - Akakura

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Climbing rata is a woody, tall, climbing vine, that can stretch up to 15m high. Juvenile leaves can be pinkish, and are close to round by adulthood, when they are a dark glossy green. Rata has obvious flowers with lots of needle-like petals that are a bright red [21].

Climbing rata is found across the northern North Island, from Northland down to Mahia and Taranaki. It is found from the coast to sub-montane areas, especially near the edges of forests, on cliff edges, ridgelines, or along waterways [21].

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For Māori, and for subsequent generations of people living in Aotearoa, kawakawa has been an important medicinal plant. A poultice of kawakawa leaves was used for bruises and wounds [13], while infusions of either the leaves or the root were used for toothache [19; 13]. An infusion of the leaves was also used to treat boils [13].

Kawakawa contains myristicin, which is antiseptic and pain-numbing. Myristicin is also found in nutmeg and can produce hallucinations and nausea [15; 20].

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Kawakawa is a common understory shrub that can grow up to 5m tall, and it is characterised by its large, soft, glossy heart shaped leaves. It’s leaves have a peppery taste, giving it its English name. Kawakawa develops hard green flower ‘spikes’ from August to Novemeber. It can be found from the coast up to 500m a.s.l. in warmer areas, and from Northland down to Bank’s Peninsula [18].

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Māori used Mānuka in a variety of ways. A tea brewed from an infusion of the leaves of  Mānuka was drunk for any sort of ‘internal complaint’ [12], while the gum was used to soothe burns and scalds [13]. The hard seedpods were soaked and chewed to treat diarrhoea and dysentery [14].

There are several reasons why  Mānuka has medicinal benefits. Not only does it contain essential oils [15], it has proven antibacterial properties [16]. In fact, parakeets have been seen chewing  Mānuka leaves during preening, and evidence suggests they may be using them to control parasites [17].

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Mānuka - Leptospermum scoparium - Tea Tree

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Mānuka - Leptospermum scoparium - Tea Tree

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Mānuka is a native shrub or small tree up to 5m in heigh. Its leaves are small, hard, and elliptical, coming to a point. Its flowers are white or pinkish with a redder centre. The fruit of a Mānuka is a small (5-7mm) seedpod which is dry and hard [11].

Mānuka is found from coastal areas all the way to low alpine habitats, and is found throughout New Zealand. The same species is found in Australia, but has quite a different range [11].

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Indigenous cultures were, and still are, heavily dependent on the environment. Their knowledge is essential to consider, as indigenous people are often on the frontline of the effects of climate change [5]. When considering future environmental change, a knowledge of past environments is necessary, and often, indigenous people have the best record of this.

TEK may be seen in the form of oral histories, traditions, and cultural practices [2]. This knowledge is threatened by the loss of indigenous languages Ethno-botanists may be particularly interested in TEK, as it can help to understand local taxonomies of species and the uses that different plants have [6].

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Traditional ecological knowledge (or TEK) is knowledge about the environment developed by indigenous peoples from multi-generational observation [1]. It is a place-based knowledge, and is intimately related with indigenous cosmologies, value systems, and beliefs. TEK is not a fixed knowledge system, but one that reflects on changes and accumulates over time [2].

Indigenous cultures globally have different forms of TEK, and this knowledge is becoming increasingly relevant to adaptation planning for environmental change, and for making decisions that affect indigenous peoples [3]. However, TEK is multi-disciplinary, it has different meanings, and different importance, to different fields [4]