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French physician, one of the most notable surgeons of the European Renaissance, is regarded by some medical historians as the father of modern surgery. was one of the first military surgeons to encourage primary amputation for the treatment of gunshot wounds

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Renaissance physicians revolutionized the study of biology and the practice of medicine through their careful description of the anatomy of the human body. Basing his observations on dissections he made himself, he wrote and illustrated the first comprehensive textbook of anatomy.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andreas-Vesalius

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The Scientific Revolution a drastic change that happened in 16th and 17th centuries and change many peoples beliefs. The Science Revolution started in astronomy when Nicolas Copernicus was the first to proposed a heliocentric system, that the planets orbit around the Sun; But until galileo gailiei was to prove that the earth was NOT the center of the earth.Led to the creation of new knowledge systems, social hierarchies, and networks of thinkers.

https://westportlibrary.libguides.com/ScientificRevolution

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Francis Bacon served as attorney general and Lord Chancellor of England, resigning amid charges of corruption. Bacon's new scientific method involved gathering data, prudently analyzing it, and performing experiments to observe nature's truths in an organized way. He believed that when approached this way, science could become a tool for the betterment of humankind. known as the scientific method, which is the foundation of modern scientific inquiry.

https://www.biography.com/scholar/francis-bacon

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English physician who was the first to recognize the full circulation of the blood in the human body and to provide experiments and arguments to support this idea.the first to recognize the full circulation of blood in the human body and to provide experiments and arguments to support this idea.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Harvey

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René Descartes was a French mathematician and philosopher during the 17th century. He promoted the development of a new science grounded in observation and experiment, he is generally regarded as the founder of modern philosophy. He was most commonly known for his philosophical statement, “I think, therefore I am”. Also In the mathematics sphere, his primary contribution came from bridging the gap between algebra and geometry, which is still widely used today.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rene-Descartes

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Irish natural philosopher and theological writer, a preeminent figure of 17th-century intellectual culture. He was best known as a natural philosopher, particularly in the field of chemistry, , Boyle was a 17th-century pioneer of modern chemistry

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Boyle

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English philosopher whose works lie at the foundation of modern philosophical empiricism and political liberalism. He was an inspirer of both the European Enlightenment and the Constitution of the United States. Locke pioneered the ideas of natural law, social contract, religious toleration, and the right to revolution.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Locke

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What are John Locke's most famous works?

What contributions did John Locke make to epistemology?

What contributions did John Locke make to political theory?

How did John Locke influence the Enlightenment?

How did John Locke influence the design of U.S. government?

John Locke, (born August 29, 1632, Wrington, Somerset, England-died October 28, 1704, High Laver, Essex), English philosopher whose works lie at the foundation of modern philosophical empiricism and political liberalism, classical liberalism in particular. He was an inspirer of both the European Enlightenment and the Constitution of the United States. His philosophical thinking was close to that of the founders of modern science, especially Robert Boyle, Sir Isaac Newton, and other members of the Royal Society. His political thought was grounded in the notion of a social contract between citizens and in the importance of toleration, especially in matters of religion. Much of what he advocated in the realm of politics was accepted in England after the Glorious Revolution of 1688-89 and in the United States after the country's declaration of independence in 1776.

Early years

Locke's family was sympathetic to Puritanism but remained within the Church of England, a situation that coloured Locke's later life and thinking. Raised in Pensford, near Bristol, Locke was 10 years old at the start of the English Civil Wars between the monarchy of Charles I and parliamentary forces under the eventual leadership of Oliver Cromwell. Locke's father, a lawyer, served as a captain in the cavalry of the parliamentarians and saw some limited action. From an early age, one may thus assume, Locke rejected any claim by the king to have a divine right to rule.

After the first Civil War ended in 1646, Locke's father was able to obtain for his son, who had evidently shown academic ability, a place at Westminster School in distant London. It was to this already famous institution that Locke went in 1647, at age 14. Although the school had been taken over by the new republican government, its headmaster, Richard Busby (himself a distinguished scholar), was a royalist. For four years Locke remained under Busby's instruction and control (Busby was a strong disciplinarian who much favoured the birch). In January 1649, just half a mile away from Westminster School, Charles was beheaded on the order of Cromwell. The boys were not allowed to attend the execution, though they were undoubtedly well aware of the events taking place nearby.

The curriculum of Westminster centred on Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, mathematics, and geography. In 1650 Locke was elected a King's Scholar, an academic honour and financial benefit that enabled him to buy several books, primarily classic texts in Greek and Latin. Although Locke was evidently a good student, he did not enjoy his schooling; in later life he attacked boarding schools for their overemphasis on corporal punishment and for the uncivil behaviour of pupils. In his enormously influential work Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693), he would argue for the superiority of private tutoring for the education of young gentlemen ( see below Other works).

Oxford

In the autumn of 1652 Locke, at the comparatively late age of 20, entered Christ Church, the largest of the colleges of the University of Oxford and the seat of the court of Charles I during the Civil Wars. But the royalist days of Oxford were now behind it, and Cromwell's Puritan followers filled most of the positions. Cromwell himself was chancellor, and John Owen, Cromwell's former chaplain, was vice-chancellor and dean. Owen and Cromwell were, however, concerned to restore the university to normality as soon as possible, and this they largely succeeded in doing.

Locke later reported that he found the undergraduate curriculum at Oxford dull and unstimulating. It was still largely that of the medieval university, focusing on Aristotle (especially his logic) and largely ignoring important new ideas about the nature and origins of knowledge that had been developed in writings by Francis Bacon (1561-1626), René Descartes (1596-1650), and other natural philosophers. Although their works were not on the official syllabus, Locke was soon reading them. He graduated with a bachelor's degree in 1656 and a master's two years later, about which time he was elected a student (the equivalent of fellow) of Christ Church. At Oxford Locke made contact with some advocates of the new science, including Bishop John Wilkins, the astronomer and architect Christopher Wren, the physicians Thomas Willis and Richard Lower, the physicist Robert Hooke, and, most important of all, the eminent natural philosopher and theologian Robert Boyle. Locke attended classes in iatrochemistry (the early application of chemistry to medicine), and before long he was collaborating with Boyle on important medical research on human blood. Medicine from now on was to play a central role in his life.

The restoration of the English monarchy in 1660 was a mixed blessing for Locke. It led many of his scientific collaborators to return to London, where they soon founded the Royal Society, which provided the stimulus for much scientific research. But in Oxford the new freedom from Puritan control encouraged unruly behaviour and religious enthusiasms among the undergraduates. These excesses led Locke to be wary of rapid social change, an attitude that no doubt partly reflected his own childhood during the Civil Wars.

In his first substantial political work, Two Tracts on Government (composed in 1660 but first published three centuries later, in 1967), Locke defended a very conservative position: in the interest of political stability, a government is justified in legislating on any matter of religion that is not directly relevant to the essential beliefs of Christianity. This view, a response to the perceived threat of anarchy posed by sectarian differences, was diametrically opposed to the doctrine that he would later expound in Two Treatises of Government (1689).

In 1663 Locke was appointed senior censor in Christ Church, a post that required him to supervise the studies and discipline of undergraduates and to give a series of lectures. The resulting Essays on the Law of Nature (first published in 1954) constitutes an early statement of his philosophical views, many of which he retained more or less unchanged for the rest of his life. Of these probably the two most important were, first, his commitment to a law of nature, a natural moral law that underpins the rightness or wrongness of all human conduct, and, second, his subscription to the empiricist principle that all knowledge, including moral knowledge, is derived from experience and therefore not innate. These claims were to be central to his mature philosophy, both with regard to political theory and epistemology.

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John Locke | Philosophy, Social Contract, Two Treatises of Government, & Facts

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John Locke, English philosopher whose works lie at the foundation of modern philosophical empiricism and political liberalism. He was an inspirer of both the European Enlightenment and the Constitution of the United States. Learn more about Locke's life and career.

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Dutch microscopist who was the first to observe bacteria and protozoa. His research on lower animals refuted the doctrine of spontaneous generation, and his observations helped lay the foundations for the sciences of bacteriology and protozoology. Dutch microscopist who was the first to observe bacteria and protozoa.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Antonie-van-Leeuwenhoek

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Issac Newton contributed to the field of science because of his invention of calculus but mainly the law of gravitation. with its three laws of motion greatly influenced the Enlightenment in Europe and opened a new method for science and mathematicians

https://www.space.com/15898-isaac-newton.html

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is defined as the period of rigorous scientific, political and philosophical discourse that characterized European society during the ‘long’ 18th century: The Enlightenment has long been hailed as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture.

https://www.bl.uk/restoration-18th-century-literature/articles/the-enlightenment#:~:text=The%20Enlightenment%20%E2%80%93%20the%20great%20'Age,the%20Napoleonic%20Wars%20in%201815.

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French political philosopher whose principal work, The Spirit of Laws, was a major contribution to political theory. admittedly somewhat naive—conducted at Bordeaux, he stressed the effect of climate, primarily thinking of heat and cold, on the physical frame of the individual, and, as a consequence, on the intellectual outlook of society. He also helped shape the modern democratic government.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Montesquieu

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pseudonym of François-Marie Arouet, one of the greatest of all French writers. Although only a few of his works are still read, he continues to be held in worldwide repute as a courageous crusader against tyranny, bigotry, and cruelty. Voltaire wrote on subjects as distinct as metaphysics and politics, and he circulated nearly as many books of history as he did books of political theory.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Voltaire

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Swiss-born philosopher, writer, and political theorist whose treatises and novels inspired the leaders of the French Revolution and the Romantic generation. He propelled political and ethical thinking into new channels. His reforms revolutionized taste, first in music, then in the other arts. known for treatises and novels that were inspired by the leaders of the French Revolution and the Romantic generation.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Jacques-Rousseau

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Jenner made progress in clinical surgery. After studying in London from 1770 to 1773, he returned to country practice in Berkeley and enjoyed substantial success. He was capable, skillful, and popular. English surgeon and discoverer of vaccination for smallpox.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Edward-Jenner

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insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain’s North American colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America. The war followed more than a decade of growing estrangement between the British crown and a large and influential segment of its North American colonies. founded with the Declaration of Independence in 1776. It was the first democratic moment in history

https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution

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June 21, 1788: New Hampshire becomes the ninth and last necessary state to ratify the Constitution of the United States, thereby making the document the law of the land.By 1786, decreases in the post-Revolutionary War Articles of Confederation were visible, such as the lack of central authority over foreign and domestic commerce. The ratifying conventions served the necessary function of informing the public of the provisions of the proposed new government.

https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution