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supported by
cerebellum: coordinates complex movements (multi muscle, fine movements); learns from past movements
basal ganglia: chooser of 1 or few related actions at onces

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motoneurons: neurons running from brain & SC (CNS) to skeletal muscles, connecting at the muscle fiber by neuromuscular junction

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- cortical motor control centers: fine movement in digits, face, mouth
- brainstem motor control centers: critical for maintenance of posture  and breathing/swallowing/locomotion

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1. primary sensory neurons in spinal and cranial sensory ganglia carry into into CNS that allow us to percieve stimuli
2. autonomic ganglia (sympathetic or parasymp types) contain neurons for homeostatis (controls smooth muscle, cardiac, and glands)
3. enteric NS 1 billion neurons that line the gut; for digestion; connected to CNS so CNS can influence digestion

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meninges: 3 specialized membranes that form fence around CNS --> mechanical & chemical protection of CNS
- dura mater: outermost layer, protects CNS from penetration
- arachnoid mater: middle layer, fluid resistant sac around CNS
- pia mater: thin & delicate, separated from arachnoid mater by subararchnoid space where cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flows

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purple: concepts that were highlighted during the lecture, that I missed when preparing

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if rodents is trying to get out of water, that's healthy
if rodents is floating, just to keep head above water --> depressive-like behavior

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rodents don't like open fields bc they're vulnerable to predators

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use DNA with a fluorescent tag that goes into cell, mixes with chromosomal DNA

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amplify DNA (make copies, then those copies make more copies) to see what's present by looking for certain promoters (looking for a target piece)

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be aware of ethical breaches in history to inform choices of today

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avoid falling into popular current research by evaluating neuro history as a whole to choose new research directions

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learn abt Pavlov's discoveries from the time he was actually making them by seeing how he wrote and how his students interacted with him, not just the final sterilized product we reference decades later

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studying history has become X-rated because it studies subjective memories rather than "objective truths" and thus not a good model for science, but all research is based on history!

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Hebb: concept of synaptic change and cell assemblies
"cells that fire together, wire together"

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Ancient Greco-Roman Surgical Tools at an archeological museum; looked modern --> increased students interest in learning history

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bridge the gap btwn arts <> social sciences <> scientific research by having a broad, well-rounded understanding of them all

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study history to be able to give credit to discoveries that came too early to be published, or are in non-English journals

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can't allow memories (neuro history) to be forgotten by new scholars --> they won't have a full understanding of why modern neuro works the way it does --> contemplate new models holistically and differently!

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intro and discussion sections summarize past history that is relevant to the study

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yellow = article

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all research is studying history

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somatosentory info ascends from into SC to forebrain

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brain inside cranium
spinal cord inside spinal canal

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upper motor control centers instruct motoneurons

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perception: conscious awareness of charges in internal or external environment
sensation: unconscious processing of sensory info

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negative signs: clinical symptoms that are a failure of a system to produce a fxn
positive signs: abnormal symptoms occurring in place of or in addition to normal fxning

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xrays, MRIs, MRAs, or PET scans of the brain
can do tasks during fMRIs

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open field: anxiety lvl, quant & qual
forced swim: learning & memory (learn to find platform)
elevated plus maze: anxiety, quant & qual
seizure induction

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use primary antibody to find a specific protein, use secondary antibody to find where the primary is --> location of protein

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- seperate proteins by size in gel electrophoresis
- all proteins have neg charge, repelled in gel by neg charge, smaller proteins can get through the gel faster and further than big proteins

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Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)

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Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)

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- find a gene in a chromosomal DNA when the chromosome is in metaphase
- label w fluoresense

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- convert RNA to copy of DNA = complementary DNA = cDNA
- process: reverse transcriptase PCR
- reverse transcriptase is an enzyme, found in retroviruses
- PCR to make more copies

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- make DNA from a preexisting template
- use a PCR primer: single stranded DNA that matches the target sequence you're looking for
- produces the target sequence, not the whole DNA

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- first female in neuro to win nobel
- grid cells in entorhinal cortex
- many types of space-representing cell tyes in that circut that make up the position system in the brain

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- father of modern neuro
- physiological basis of memory storage in neurons

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- squid's giant axon (don't need microscope to see axon) to determine ions involved in the AP
- blocked certain ions to determine which are responsible for depolarization of the neuron

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- microscopic image of brain
- arborizations of brain cells

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- found portion of cerebral cortex on front L side is necessary for speech

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- ablation: removing parts of brain
- inferred fxn based on wht part was missing
- heart rate, breathing, purposeful movement, reflexes

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electrical stimulation in frog nerves cause muscle contractions

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- pseudoscience
- measure skull and bumps to predict mental traits
- racism and misogny: used to justify European & male supremacy

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- God sets world in motion, but it's mechanical from there and there's no divine interference
- reflexes are automatic, no participation of the mind
- the mind is not subject to the rules of the universe

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Galen
- temperament and bodily fxn controlled by brain
- dissected brains of sheep, and other non-human mammals
- cerebllum is denser --> controls muscle
- cerebrum is softer --> controls senses

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pythagorean: the mind is w/in the brain
hippocrates: the brain contains intelligence
aristotle: cooling mechanism for blood makes us more rational than other animals

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at first, Kemetians didn't believe the brain was important but  later they were the first to write abt the presence of the brain and injuries related to the brain & head

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green = textbook

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CNS
- brain & SC
- integration, interpret sensory input, send outgoing instructions

PNS
- nerves extending from brains (cranial nerves) & SC (spinal nerves)
- communicxn btwn sensory organs <> brain & SC <> muscles/glands

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1. sensory input: gather info (stimuli from inside & outside body)
2. integration: NS processes input decides whether to take action
3. motor output: response activating muscles/glands

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blue = lecture