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Patients that suffer from restrictive lung disorders are diagnosed with a range of clinical conditions such as pneumonia and pulmonary fibrosis.

Pneumonia is a clinical condition that can be diagnosed through spirometry. It is an acute inflammation of the alveoli. The inflammation and oedema of the alveoli cause them to become full with fluid. This reduces the amount of air that can enter the lungs, which reduces that body's ability to conduct ventilation and gas exchange.

Pulmonary fibrosis is also a restrictive clinical disorder that can be diagnosed through spirometry. It is a condition where the gradual replacement of normal lung tissue with damaged fibrotic tissue takes place. The scar tissue causes decreased compliance of the lungs. This makes it difficult for the patient to inhale and causes a reduced capacity for the body to participate in gas exchange. The known causes of pulmonary fibrosis include; environmental pollution, certain medications, infections, and connective tissue diseases.

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An obstructive lung disorder includes; Asthma and Emphysema. Someone with an obstructive lung disorder will experience shortness of breath and wheezing because it is difficult for them to exhale all of the air out of their lungs. Their airways are narrowed and air cannot be exhaled as quickly as someone with no lung disorder because of damage or an obstruction.

A common obstructive lung disorder is Asthma, it is characterised by airway inflammation, hypersensitivity and obstruction. The airway obstruction can be caused by smooth muscle spasms in the walls of bronchioles, oedema of the mucosa, increased mucosa secretion, damage to the epithelium of the airways.

Asthma can be triggered by; pollen, dust, mould, exercise etc.

Asthma is treated by an inhaled medication that relaxes the smooth muscle of the bronchioles and dilating the airways.

Another type of obstructive lung disorder is Emphysema. Emphysema makes it difficult to expel air. The alveolar walls are destroyed due to long-term irritation from; air pollution, cigarette smoke and exposure to industrial dust. Patients become breathless with any increase in oxygen requirement of the cells, like physical activity and exercise. Caused by damage to the alveoli, it reduces the surface area for gas exchange, resulting in lowered blood oxygen levels. The patient also will have excess air trapped in the lung after exhalation because the damage to the alveolar walls reduces the lung elastic recoil.

Treatment for the patient consists of quitting smoking, removing environmental irritants, exercise training, breathing exercises and oxygen therapy.

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Immunity plays a crucial role within the respiratory system. The immune system's innate immunity and the systems within the respiratory system collaborate to recognise and eliminate foreign substances that may be present in the respiratory tract. The immune system is responsible for conducting this while also maintaining homeostasis and upholding the normal functioning of the body.
During inhalation, the immune system works with the respiratory system. It does this by utilising cytokines in the respiratory tract to help with the prevention of non-pathogenic substances from entering the body.

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Internal respiration is gas exchange that occurs between the systemic capillaries and the tissue cells. Throughout internal respiration, the factors that promote gas exchange between systemic capillaries and tissue cells are the same as those acting within the lungs.

External respiration is gas exchange that occurs between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries. There are three factors that influence external respiration. These include; partial pressure gradients and gas solubilities, thickness and surface area of the respiratory membrane, and ventilation-perfusion coupling.

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Restrictive and obstructive lung disorders 

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Restrictive and obstructive lung disorders 

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Restrictive lung disorders are categorised by the prevention of the lungs ability to expand during inhalation. This reduces the amount of air that the individual can breathe in. A common example of a restrictive lung disorder is obesity. Obesity is considered a restrictive lung disorder because of the increased capacity of fat stored in the mediastinum and the abdominal cavities. This changes the mechanical properties of the lungs and the chest wall, changing the normal function of the lungs, including inhalation and expiration.

Obstructive lung disorders are respiratory disorders that are characterised by an obstruction of the airways, effecting inhalation and expiration. An example of an obstructive lung disorder is chronic bronchitis. Individuals with chronic bronchitis produce an increased amount of mucus, which causes the lower respiratory passageways to become inflamed and fibrosed. This obstructs the airways which impairs lung ventilation and gas exchange. Major risk factors of chronic bronchitis include smoking and environmental pollution.

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Spirometry is a test used to measure an individuals pulmonary function. The test measures the amount of air that can be inhaled and exhaled, as well as the speed in which the patient can inhale and exhale the air.

Spirometry is measured using Forced Vital Capacity (FVC), Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 Second (FEV1), and FEV1/FVC.

FVC accounts for the total volume of air that the patient can exhale with force after maximal inspiration.
FEV1 is the volume of air that can be exhaled during the first second of a forced vital capacity test.
FEV1/FVC is the percentage of air that can be exhaled during the first second of a forced vital capacity, and the total volume.

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The four respiratory lung volumes include; tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, and residual volume.

Tidal volume occurs through the process of normal, quiet breathing. Within each breath, approximately 500 ml of air is moved in and out of the lungs.

Inspiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be inspired with force beyond the tidal volume. This consists of approximately 2100 to 3200 ml of air movement into and out of the lungs with each breath.

The expiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be expelled from the lungs at the conclusion of a normal tidal volume expiration. Within each breath, this is normally 1000 to 1200 ml.

The residual volume is the air remaining in the lungs. This is approximately 1200 ml of air. The residual volume assists in keeping the alveoli open and preventing a lung collapse from occurring.

The four respiratory lung capacities include; inspiratory capacity, functional residual capacity, vital capacity, and total lung capacity.

Inspiratory capacity is the total amount of air that can be inspired after a normal tidal volume expiration.

Functional residual capacity is the amount of air remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal volume expiration.

Vital capacity is the total amount of exchangeable air in the lungs.

Total lung capacity is the sum of all of the lung volumes.

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Inspiration
1. Inspiratory muscles contract
(diaphragm, intercostal muscles)
2. Thoracic cavity volume increases
(diaphragm moves down and ribs move up)
3. Lungs are stretched, intrapulmonary volumes increase
4. Intrapulmonary pressure drops
5. Air flows into the lungs

Expiration
1. Inspiratory muscles relax
2. Thoracic cavity volume decreases
3. Lungs recoil, intrapulmonary volume decreases
4. Intrapulmonary pressure rises
5. Air flows out of the lungs

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Pleurae surrounds the lungs. It is a double layered membrane that encloses and protects the lungs.

The outer layer is the parietal pleura. It is attached to the thoracic cavity and diaphragm.

The inner layer is the visceral pleura. It is attached onto the lungs.

The pleural cavity is in-between the parietal and visceral pleura. Within this cavity is a fluid that reduces the friction between the two membranes, so when the lungs inflate and recoil it reduces damage. The cavity also has negative pressure, which allows for the two membranes to be sucked together, this is important so they both move simultaneously when the lungs are inflating and recoiling.

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The lungs are very stretchy, they inflate and coil.

The lungs extend to the diaphragm. When the lungs contract and change the size of the thoracic cavity that allows you to breathe in or out.

The lung's function is to, assist in gas exchange, conduction of air and houses the bronchi tree.

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The Alveoli is the very end of the respiratory zone and is the primary site of gas exchange.

Each alveoli is surrounded by capillaries so gas exchange can occur. Oxygen diffuses across the membrane into the vessels, and carbon dioxide that comes from the vessels diffuses the other way to get the carbon dioxide to the external environment.

Within the Alveoli there are 3 types of cells:

Type l alveolar cells
- Made up of simple squamous epithelial cells
- Diffusion of gas exchange occurs

Type ll alveolar cells
- Important because it secretes alveoli fluid that has a surfactant in it, which is a mixture of phospholipids and lipoproteins.
- Its function is to stop the alveoli from collapsing when air goes out of them and stop them from sticking together.

Alveolar macrophages
- Phagocytes that help eat up any debris that made it in the alveoli.
- Immune and protective function.

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The respiratory bronchiole is the first part of the respiratory zone where gas exchange occurs. Gas exchange is where oxygen from the air is taken and put into the blood, then taking carbon dioxide from the blood, putting it back in the air to the breathe out.

Then from the respiratory bronchiole, air flows through the alveoli ducts and alveoli sacs. These structure's function is to participate in gas exchange or create a passageway for air to the alveoli.

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The Terminal Bronchioles are at the end of the conducting zone. They are the smallest bronchioles. Their function is to act as a passageway for air. The terminal bronchioles goes into the respiratory zone where gas exchange occurs.

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The Bronchi/Bronchioles are located in the lungs and their main function is to be a passageway for air to come in and out. The air goes through the trachea, then the bronchi takes it into the lungs to the alveoli so gas exchange can occur.
The passageway for air into the alveoli goes:

Trachea

Primary Bronchi

Secondary Bronchi

Tertiary Bronchi

Bronchioles (up to 23 splits of bronchi)

Terminal bronchioles

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The trachea is at the centre of the chest, in front of the oesophagus, under the Adam's apple and starts under the larynx to the lungs. The trachea is a passageway for air and it is lined with a mucus membrane.
In the trachea, there are cilia. Cilia are finger-like projections that move mucus that may contain dust particles used to back up to the larynx so you can cough it out.

Around the trachea, there are C-shaped rings of cartilage that help keep the airway open. The reason the rings are in a C shape is because when you swallow a large piece of food the oesophagus can extend into that space.

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The larynx is the area that connects the throat to the trachea.

Firstly there is the epiglottis, which acts as a trap door, it opens for breathing and closes for swallowing food or liquids. Also, if it is open when food or liquids pass, it triggers the coughing reflex.

The vocal folds are a fold of the mucus membrane with two ligaments. The folds and ligaments are attached to muscles, which open and close them. When air hits the vocal folds, they then vibrate, which causes sound and voice. How tight they are together will change the pitch of your voice and the more pressure there is increases the volume of your voice.

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The respiratory zone is where gas exchange occurs between air and blood. The structures are within the lungs.
These structures are:
- Respiratory bronchioles
- Alveolar ducts
- Alveolar sacs
- Alveoli

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The conducting zone is the interconnecting cavities and tubes that conduct air into the lungs. The structures in the conducting zone move air from the external environment into the lungs, and then from the lungs back into the external environment.
The conducting zone incases the:
- Nose/Nasal cavity
- Pharynx
- Larynx
- Bronchi/Bronchioles
- Terminal Bronchioles

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The pharynx is the part of the throat behind the mouth and nasal cavity, and above the oesophagus and trachea. It is lined with a mucus membrane and is made up of skeletal muscle. It is divided up into three parts.

The Nasopharynx at the top, that allows for only air to pass through.
The Oropharynx, that allows for food and air to pass through
The Laryngopharynx that also allows for food and air to pass.

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The nose is made up of bone and cartilage. Inside of that is a mucus membrane which is involved with smell. Also in each nostril we have hair that traps any large dust particles.

The nasal cavity has three functions. Take in, filter, warm and moisten the air, it is involved in smell with olfactory senses and its involved in how our voice sounds.

Within the nasal cavity there is the conchae. The conchae are the bones in the nose that are covered by the mucus membrane. Its function is to help circulate the air within the nasal cavity and the mucus will help pick up any foreign particles in the nose.

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The cardiovascular system plays an essential role in the conduction of the respiratory system, particularly in relation to the process of gas exchange. The cardiovascular system supports the respiratory system at the site of gas exchange as the cardiovascular system brings blood to and from the lungs through blood vessels and veins.
The respiratory system provides the means of entry for oxygen into the body, which causes the release of carbon dioxide. Once the oxygen enters the body it travels across lung tissue into the blood vessels. The blood is utilised as the transportation device for the oxygen around the body.