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The Supreme Court's ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford declared that African Americans, whether enslaved or free, could not be considered citizens of the United States, effectively denying them constitutional rights. This decision highlighted the need for constitutional amendments to address slavery and citizenship rights.

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The 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, abolishing slavery and involuntary servitude except as punishment for a crime. This amendment fundamentally altered the Constitution by formally abolishing the institution of slavery and laying the groundwork for further civil rights legislation.

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The 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, granting citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the country and guaranteeing equal protection under the law. This amendment significantly expanded the scope of civil rights and established the principle of equal protection, impacting subsequent legal challenges to segregation and discrimination.

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The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, prohibiting the denial of voting rights based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. This amendment aimed to address racial discrimination in voting rights, although its enforcement faced significant challenges in the form of Jim Crow laws and other discriminatory practices.

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Southern states enact Jim Crow laws to enforce racial segregation and discrimination, particularly targeting African Americans. These laws institutionalize racial segregation in public facilities, transportation, schools, and other areas of society, leading to legal challenges and calls for constitutional reforms.

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The Supreme Court's decision in Plessy v. Ferguson establishes the "separate but equal" doctrine, allowing states to maintain racially segregated facilities as long as they were deemed to be of equal quality. This decision upheld racial segregation and entrenched the idea of de jure segregation, prompting calls for constitutional amendments and legal challenges.

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The 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, granting women the right to vote nationwide. This amendment is a landmark victory in the women's suffrage movement and expands democratic participation and representation, strengthening constitutional guarantees of equality and political rights.

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President Harry S. Truman signs Executive Order 9981, which desegregates the United States Armed Forces and mandates equality of treatment and opportunity in the military. This executive order represents a significant step towards racial integration and equality within the armed forces, influencing broader civil rights movements.

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The landmark Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education overturns the precedent set by Plessy v. Ferguson, declaring that racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional. This decision marks a significant shift away from de jure segregation and towards desegregation and equal protection under the law, challenging the constitutionality of segregationist practices.

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In the wake of Brown v. Board of Education, nine African American students are enrolled at Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, under federal protection. This event marks a significant moment in the struggle against de facto segregation and highlights the challenges faced in implementing desegregation, prompting further legal and legislative actions.

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The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is signed into law, prohibiting discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in employment, education, and public accommodations. This legislation represents a major step forward in the fight against institutionalized discrimination and segregation, significantly expanding the protections afforded by the Constitution.

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Refers to racial segregation that is enforced by law, as seen in the Jim Crow laws and other legal measures in the Southern United States. The persistence of de jure segregation prompted constitutional challenges and legislative reforms aimed at dismantling institutionalized discrimination.

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Refers to racial segregation that exists without a specific legal mandate but is the result of societal factors such as housing patterns, economic disparities, and social norms. Addressing de facto segregation required legal and legislative efforts to promote equal access and opportunity, further shaping the interpretation and application of constitutional rights.

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Following the Selma to Montgomery marches and widespread voter suppression of African Americans, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 is signed into law, outlawing discriminatory voting practices that had been used to disenfranchise minority voters. This act aimed to address the de facto segregation that persisted despite legal protections, safeguarding voting rights for all citizens.

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The Supreme Court's decision in Loving v. Virginia strikes down laws banning interracial marriage as unconstitutional. This landmark ruling establishes the fundamental right to marry as protected by the Constitution and reinforces the principle of equal protection under the law, advancing civil rights for interracial couples.

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In Roe v. Wade, the Supreme Court establishes a woman's legal right to abortion under the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment, effectively legalizing abortion nationwide. This decision marks a significant expansion of individual rights and privacy protections under the Constitution, shaping debates over reproductive rights and constitutional interpretation.

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1978 - Bakke v. Regents of the University of California

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1978 - Bakke v. Regents of the University of California

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The Supreme Court's decision in Bakke v. Regents of the University of California addresses affirmative action in higher education, ruling that while racial quotas are unconstitutional, race can be considered as one of many factors in university admissions. This case shapes the parameters of affirmative action policies in the United States, influencing debates over equal opportunity and diversity.

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President Ronald Reagan signs the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, which offers a formal apology and reparations to Japanese Americans who were interned during World War II. This legislation acknowledges and addresses the injustices faced by Japanese Americans during wartime, promoting reconciliation and reaffirming constitutional protections for all citizens.

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In Obergefell v. Hodges, the Supreme Court rules that same-sex marriage is a fundamental right protected by the Constitution, legalizing same-sex marriage nationwide. This decision marks a significant victory for LGBTQ+ rights and equality under the law, expanding the constitutional definition of marriage and individual liberties.

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Affirmative action policies, aiming to promote opportunities for historically marginalized groups, are introduced in the United States. These policies involve measures such as targeted recruitment, hiring, and admissions to address historical inequalities and promote diversity. Affirmative action has been the subject of legal challenges and debates regarding its constitutionality and effectiveness in achieving equal opportunity.