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Copy of G2//Bottom Up Historical Background

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Copy of G2//Bottom Up Explanation of Approach

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Authors

Bonnie Mondesir University of West Georgia

Dr. Robert A. Griffin University of West Georgia

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.17

Keywords:
literacy theory, balanced literacy, diverse learners, striving readers

Abstract

In this article, the authors explore various theories to inform educators and educational leaders who are looking for ways to better meet the literacy needs of all of their diverse students, including striving readers, culturally and linguistically diverse readers, and proficient and excelling readers. They call on educators to embrace a balanced approach that is informed by multiple bottom-up and top-down theories to better meet the needs of all their students. Focus is first given to Gough's and LaBerge and Samuels' information processing models (bottom-up models) followed by the psycholinguistic, schema, and transactional reader response top-down theories. Discussion of both the bottom-up and top-down theoretical approaches includes background information on notable theorists and explanations of specific theories that are instrumental in enriching the teaching of reading in a variety of classroom settings to a variety of students. Literature relevant to these theories is reviewed, and practical classroom implications of implementing these theories are explored to provide educators with hands-on tools and suggestions they can use to improve and enrich literacy instruction for all their students. Finally, a case is made for why educators should call upon multiple theories when making instructional decisions.

Author Biographies

Bonnie Mondesir , University of West Georgia

Bonnie Mondesir ([email protected]) is a doctoral student in the Ed.D. in School Improvement program with a concentration in Reading Education at the University of West Georgia.

Dr. Robert A. Griffin, University of West Georgia

Dr. Robert A. Griffin ([email protected]) is an assistant professor in the Department of Literacy and Special Education at the University of West Georgia, where he teaches graduate-level courses in literacy, TESOL, and diversity/inclusive education. Before moving into higher education full time, he served as a secondary English and English to Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) teacher for 13 years in rural south and urban north Georgia public schools. Dr. Griffin's primary research interests involve exploring reading motivation and achievement for bi/multilingual students and "at-promise" student groups and challenging deficit-oriented paradigms among some educators related to the skills and talents of diverse learners. Dr. Griffin serves on editorial review boards for several journals in the fields of TESOL and literacy, including GATESOL in Action, the Georgia Journal of Literacy, and the Texas Journal of Literacy Education, and has published in peer-reviewed journals such as the Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy. He also serves as the editor of Focus, the quarterly newsletter of the Georgia Association of Literacy Advocates (GALA). For leisure, Dr. Griffin enjoys reading, traveling, visiting family, and spending time with his spouse, Mandi, and their two children, Miriam and Sarah Ruth.

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A Balanced Approach to Literacy Instruction and Support for Diverse Learners

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Bonnie Mondesir University of West Georgia Dr. Robert A. Griffin University of West Georgia https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.17 literacy theory, balanced literacy, diverse learners, striving readers In this article, the authors explore various theories to inform educators and educational leaders who are looking for ways to better meet the literacy needs of all of their diverse students, including striving readers, culturally and linguistically diverse readers, and proficient and excelling readers.

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Spread the loveLearning how to read is a vital skill that students learn in their early childhood education. This skill sets the foundation for academic success. There are many ways to approach the reading process, and teachers rely on numerous reading theories. Children in kindergarten to third grade are in the learning to read phase.

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Bottom-up processing refers to a cognitive process of processing information from the basic elements to the more complex structures.
In this approach, contrasted to top-down processing, our brains use the most fundamental pieces of sensory information to build a more comprehensive understanding of our surroundings (Kauffman et al., 2017).

We engage in this type of processing when we begin perception-building from the most basic or smallest pieces of sensory input, and then work our way up to the grand concepts.

This approach excels in detail analysis. We focus extensively on each sensory input for meaning-making, rather than trying to form a generalized understanding based on past experiences.

For example, consider proofreading a text in a foreign language you've recently learned (Gracia, 2010). Rather than skimming for meaning, you'll need to attentively read each word and letter to understand the meaning correctly. Here, you need to use bottom-up processing because you don't have enough built-up skills in the language to rely on prior knowledge to scan for meaning.

While this is useful for meaning-making, it means there's a higher chance of missing the broader context or theme, since your attention is narrowed down to every detail.

Definitions of Bottom-Up Processing
Bottom-up processing occurs when an individual constructs a comprehensive perception from individual pieces of sensory data, without utilizing previous knowledge to form expectations.
It is contrasted to top-down processing, where you would endeavor to interpret a stimulus using your previous knowledge and assumptions, which could potentially influence your understanding.

Here are some scholarly definitions of bottom-up processing:

"[bottom-up processing] is defined as processing, where input from the environment is used to build a more significant perception or understanding" (Macmillan, 2012).

"[bottom-up processing] directly engages stimuli for analysis, often in an ascending order starting with features and building up to complex concepts" (Ellis & Hunt, 2014).

To provide contrast, a definition of top-down processing is instructive:

"[top-down processing] depends on the context and higher level knowledge, in addition to relying on the input of sensory stimuli" (Macmillan, 2012).

From these definitions, let's dive into a dissection of the strengths and weaknesses of bottom-up versus top-down approaches.

Bottom-Up Processing vs Top-Down Processing
Bottom-up processing and top-down processing represent two approaches to understanding perception and how we interpret sensory information.
Here are their key differences:

Perception Based On
Perception is influenced by our knowledge, past experiences, and cultural background.

Perception is constructed purely from incoming sensory information without previous knowledge.

Example in Reading
You use context and your knowledge of language to make predictions about what the next word in a sentence will be. ( See more examples of top-down processing here)

You recognize each individual letter and put them together to form words and sentences.

Bottom-Up Processing Theories and Concepts

The following theories tend to presuppose that bottom-up processing is a central means by which humans receive and interpret stimuli.

(Note that these theories are challenged by theories such as the constructivist theory, schema theory, conceptual priming, and gestalt psychology, which each tend to embrace a top-down conception of processing.)

1. Information Processing Theory

Central to this theory is the idea that human cognition is a lot like a computer, processing information received from the environment logically and methodically (Cooper, 2013).

The theory proposes that we process information in a linear way - starting from sensory input, information is encoded, transformed, stored, retrieved, and eventually responded to.

This systematic, sequential order aligns closely with bottom-up processing, where the brain begins with basic sensory data, constructs small units of understanding, and sequentially integrates these units to form more complex structures of understanding.

The small units refer to the raw sensory inputs received from the environment, mirroring the step-by-step process of interpreting data in Information Processing Theory.

2. Direct Perception (Gibsonian Theory)

This is a perception theory proposed by psychologist James Gibson, emphasizing that the environment offers all the information necessary for perception, and there's no need for higher cognitive processes to interpret it (Gibson, 2014).

As per the theory, people directly perceive affordances (possibilities for action) in the environment.

This is reminiscent of bottom-up processing in the sense that the processing of stimuli and formation of perception are done without the influence of prior cognitive knowledge or expectations.

Both Gibson's theory and bottom-up processing emphasize the role of the immediate environment in formulating an understanding.

3. Feature Detection Theory (Hubel and Wiesel)

In the Feature Detection Theory, the brain is seen to break down visual images into their simplest forms, such as lines, colors, or angles, before further processing them for recognition (Hubel & Wiesel, 2012).

This aligns with bottom-up processing as Feature Detection Theory advocates for initially processing the simplest sensory units and gradually combining them to form a more complex understanding.

Recognition results from this detailed analysis of features and integration of these elementary pieces of information into a larger structure, identical to the procedure followed in bottom-up processing. (See related: Signal Detection Theory).

Real-Life Applications of Bottom-Up Processing

Here are some examples of bottom-up processin g in real life:

1. Play a musical instrument: When first picking up an instrument, a person uses a bottom-up processing approach. They must painstakingly learn the individual notes, scales, and chords before they can progress to understanding and playing entire musical pieces (Poldrack et al., 2005). Over time, these separate pieces of information form complex structures in their understanding, laying the foundation for future progression and mastery.

2. Detective Work: The detective can't afford to make assumptions but must rely on concrete evidence to construct a hypothesis. They diligently collect and immerse themselves in every piece of information, from fingerprints to strand of hair, in order to build an understanding of the incident from the ground up (Kassin et al., 2010). This approach allows them to create a tangible and nuanced picture of the crime based on hard facts alone.

3. Birdwatching: A birder trying to identify a rare bird species needs to pay close attention to distinct markers such as beak shape, feather colors, or bird call. They meticulously assemble their understanding from these individual traits, forgoing any sort of preconceived notions about the bird. Precisely, in this bottom-up fashion, birders can accurately identify bird species even if they have never seen or heard about them before.

4. Learning to read: Learning to read is another practical application deeply embedded in the bottom-up processing approach (Szwed et al., 2011). When children first begin learning to read, they are introduced to individual letters and the sounds they each represent. Then, they gradually learn how these single letters combine to form syllables, words, and eventually sentences. Through this meticulous bottom-up process, children are able to comprehend complex pieces of written information, starting from the simplest sensory inputs - individual letters.

Bottom-Up Processing Strengths and Weaknesses
Bottom-up processing plays a crucial role in how we perceive and interact with the world. It has many benefits, but also some drawbacks.
1. Benefits of Bottom-Up Processing

Detail Oriented: The bottom-up approach pays meticulous attention to details, considering every individual piece of sensory data (Kauffman et al., 2017). This means that even minute aspects are observed and processed. It's particularly helpful in situations where every detail matters, such as during forensic investigations, learning a new script, or proofreading a complex document. The information processed through this method tends to be raw and uninfluenced by pre-existing knowledge or biases.

Avoids Confirmation Bias: Since bottom-up processing begins with the most basic sensory input, it significantly cuts down on the influence of pre-established knowledge and expectations (Macmillan, 2012). This form of processing is based purely on the information available from the sensory input, reducing the likelihood of individual or cultural biases skewing perception. For example, in areas such as scientific research or crime scene investigation, using a bottom-up approach can contribute to more accurate and objective results.

Provides Nuanced Understanding of Concepts: Bottom-up processing often leads to a nuanced understanding of the stimulus (Ellis & Hunt, 2014). By focusing attention on individual elements before integrating them into a structured whole, this method facilitates an in-depth comprehension of each component. This can be particularly beneficial in activities requiring a deep understanding like learning a musical instrument or appreciating the flavor profile in wine tasting.

It's Competence Building for Learners: Bottom-up processing lays a solid foundation for learning new skills as it focuses on mastering smaller units before moving onto larger, more complex structures (Szwed et al., 2014). This methodical approach aids in the development of competence and confidence over time in newly acquired skills, such as reading or learning a foreign language. As each element is understood, the learning process moves forward, often yielding more durable and transferable skills.

2. Drawbacks of Bottom-Up Processing

Time-Consuming: The careful consideration of each individual piece of sensory data in the bottom-up approach makes it a time-extensive process (Macmillan, 2012). This method often necessitates a more prolonged processing time, particularly when the stimulus is complex or unfamiliar. For instance, learning to read or recognizing a bird species through the bottom-up process may take relatively more time than employing a top-down approach.

Misses the Forest for the Trees: Bottom-up processing, by its nature, may sometimes falter in capturing the overarching theme or context of a stimulus (Kauffman et al., 2017). As the focus remains mostly on the details, the 'big picture' could potentially be missed or misunderstood. For example, while proofreading, a person could get too absorbed in correcting grammar and punctuation that they may overlook errors in the overall structure or coherence of the text.

Prior Knowledge is Neglected: The bottom-up processing method doesn't make much use of prior knowledge or experiences (Ellis & Hunt, 2014). While this can lead to unbiased perceptions, it may also limit the understanding of complex stimuli which could have been enhanced with the use of prior knowledge. Take the case of a wine taster, who might miss the nuanced flavors in a wine if they only rely on the current sensory experience, overlooking their previous encounters with similar vintages.

Overwhelm During Detailed Analysis: The detailed analysis demanded by bottom-up processing can sometimes overwhelm individuals, especially in high-pressure situations (Szwed et al., 2014). If every single detail needs careful scrutiny, the process can become tedious and stressful. In a situation like learning a new script or musical piece, the learner might get disheartened if they are unable to keep up with the intense focus levels required for bottom-up processes.

Understanding these benefits and drawbacks can help us decide when to pivot to a top-down processing approach, make smarter decisions, and overall mitigate the blindspots and potential negative consequences of bottom-up processing.

Conclusion

Bottom-up processing is one of the essential ways in which we make sense of the world. Generally, it involves focusing on the details so we don't make mistakes, interpreting information based on sensory input rather then biases and preconceptions, and allowing the raw data to inform our perceptions and understandings. However, we need to be aware of when not to use this strategy, because only then can we successfully switch between bottom-up and top-down methods (or, use a mix, often called parallel processing), in order to both achieve a thorough and open-minded interpretation of the data before our eyes, and make sense using context and background knowledge.

References

Angosto, A., Sánchez, P., Álvarez, M., Cuevas, I., & León, J. A. (2013). Evidence for top-down processing in reading comprehension of children. Psicología Educativa, 19(2), 83-88. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1135-755X(13)70014-9

Bekaryan, L. (2016). Developing Learners' Top-Down Processing Skills in Listening. Armenian Folia Anglistika, 12(15), 74-82. Doi: https://doi.org/10.46991/AFA/2016.12.1.074

Cooper, G. (2013). Cognitive load theory as an aid for instructional design. In Adult learning theory and instructional design: A perspective, 142, 143.

Ellis, H. C., & Hunt, R. R. (2014). Fundamentals of cognitive psychology. Sage Publications.

Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2005). Cognitive psychology: A student's handbook. New York: Taylor & Francis.

Gibson, J.J. (2014). The ecological approach to visual perception: Classic edition. Psychology Press.

Gracia, L. (2010). Learning a foreign language: Bottom-up vs. top-down approaches. European

Groome, D. (2013). An introduction to cognitive psychology: Processes and disorders. London: Psychology Press.

Heitz, R. P. (2014). The speed-accuracy tradeoff: history, physiology, methodology, and behavior. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 8, 150.

Hubel, D. H., & Wiesel, T. N. (2012). Brain mechanisms of vision. Scientific American.

Kassin, S. M., Dror, I. E., & Kukucka, J. (2013). The forensic confirmation bias: Problems, perspectives, and proposed solutions. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 2(1), 42-52.

Kauffman, T., Theoret, H., & Pascual-Leone, A. (2017). Variability of motor evoked potentials in healthy subjects. Scientifica, 2017.

Lawless, H. T., & Heymann, H. (2010). Sensory evaluation of food: principles and practices. Springer Science & Business Media.

List, A., Du, H., & Lee, H. Y. (2021). How do students integrate multiple texts? An investigation of top-down processing. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 36, 599-626. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-020-00497-y

Macmillan, N. A. (2012). Detection theory: A user's guide. Cambridge University Press.

Poldrack, R. A., Clark, J., Paré-Blagoev, E. J., Shohamy, D., Creso Moyano, J., Myers, C., & Gluck, M. A. (2001). Interactive memory systems in the human brain. Nature, 414(6863), 546-550. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/35107080

Szwed, M., Qiao, E., Jobert, A., Dehaene, S., & Cohen, L. (2014). Effects of literacy in early visual and occipitotemporal areas of Chinese and French readers. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 26(3), 459-475. doi: https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00499

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Bottom-Up Processing: Complete Guide for Students (2024)

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Bottom-up processing refers to a cognitive process of processing information from the basic elements to the more complex structures.

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Copy of G2//Bottom Up Classroom Application

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A Whole Language Approach to Improving Reading Skills in Low Class Primary Students | Journal of General Education Science

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Integrating the Whole Language Approach in Multicultural Education: Developing Reading Comprehension Skills and Cross-Cultural Awareness in Elementary School Students | Kawanua International Journal of Multicultural Studies

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The purpose of this study is to analyze the integration of the whole language approach in multicultural education for third grade students at SD Muhammadiyah 2 Kota Kupang in the 2022/2023 academic year. This classroom action research consisted of four stages in each cycle: planning, action, observation, and reflection. The subjects were 25 third grade students at SD Muhammadiyah 2 Kota Kupang. In cycle 1, the percentage of students reaching mastery learning was 20% with 5 students succeeding. In cycle 2, the percentage increased to 92% with 23 students succeeding. From cycle 1 to cycle 2 there was an improvement that met the success indicators. Thus this classroom action research was successful, indicating that implementing the whole language approach can improve students’ reading comprehension skills. The whole language approach is used as a key instrument in multicultural education, helping to develop a generation that is not only literate but also able to appreciate and positively interact with various cultures.