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Selective Perception:

When people self-consciously filter information that fits with previously existing viewpoints, or with what they already know.

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Hostile Media Phenomenon:

a function of audience perception rather than an objective assessment of media content

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With the rise in popularity of Social Media; offering creative opportunities for real-time communication around the globe, it become a critical resource for spreading false information.

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"Fake News refers to any content such as news, information, articles, messages, etc., that is made to deceive people into thinking it is genuine and prompt people to share further."

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The tendency to share fake news can be predicted with exploration, religiosity, self-expression, lack of mindfulness, and instant news sharing.

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People who wait for news to come to them, instead of actively seeking information, are more likely to spread misinformation. On the other hand, those who are curious and actively seek out information are less likely to share misinformation.

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Information related to religion is less frequently fact-checked, resulting in a greater tendency to share misinformation. Strong religious perspectives can lead to confirmation bias, which further amplifying the spread of information that is considered by many to be misleading.

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People primarily share misinformation to seek others' viewpoints, convey their own perspectives, and engage in interactions with others.

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This leads to neglect or reduced inclination to verify facts from reliable sources before sharing information.

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The immediate reaction to reposting or sharing information that has just been shared is a huge catalyst for spreading misinformation. Instantly sharing information after glancing at it is spreading information without checking if the information is accurate or reliable, leading to disseminate of misinformation.

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"The more salient party membership is, the more likely an individual is to perceive and judge media content as partisan."

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Coverage of international news frequently offers cues that emphasize group identity, enabling the audience to swiftly align themselves and interpret foreign events in a brief timeframe, often under two minutes.

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Recognizing how audiences tend to perceive bias from both in-group and out-group sources has significant implications, not only for source trust but also for public opinion on global affairs and support for foreign policy. Public opinion research has shown that the news media, particularly television news, plays a crucial role in shaping audience perspectives on international affairs.

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According to indexing theory research, influential sources like the president, congress, and domestic elites often influence not only the content but also the framing of international relations in the news media, particularly during times of international conflict.

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The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one's prior beliefs or values.

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"Audiences are more likely to view this coverage as impartial while being skeptical of foreign sources as biased. This phenomenon carries substantial implications."

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The prediction of sharing fake news was associated with the absence of mindfulness, religiosity, self-expression, and immediate news sharing. The lack of mindfulness and religiosity had a more significant influence on the dissemination of fake news. Furthermore, exploration was found to be negatively linked to the sharing of fake news.

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Also known as; collaborative media, participatory journalism, democratic journalism, or street journalism

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Is a form of journalism that involves public citizens playing an active role in collecting, reporting, and disseminating news and information. Conducted by individuals who are not professional journalists but have access to digital tools and platforms that enable them to share news stories, photos, videos, and other forms of media.

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Covers local events, social issues, and topics that may not receive extensive coverage from traditional media outlets.

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Provides an alternative perspective and can contribute to a more diverse and inclusive media landscape.

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“Citizen journalism is the refreshing bouquet that traditional newspapers can give to readers who increasingly say the fire has gone from our romance with them. It’s a way to say, ‘We’re sorry’, but also a promise to do better.” - Clyde Bentley.

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“Citizen journalism is the refreshing bouquet that traditional newspapers can give to readers who increasingly say the fire has gone from our romance with them. It’s a way to say, ‘We’re sorry’, but also a promise to do better.” - Clyde Bentley.

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News websites, including those operated by news network organizations, now serve as outlets for alternative news. In the past, alternative news sources were limited to community or alternative newspapers, as well as community radio to some extent

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User-generated content as news is becoming more popular as more and more regular people contribute their reports on local events, on social media or online blogs.

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"Eyewitness accounts are, at times, fueling the reportage in mainstream media"

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"Eyewitness accounts are, at times, fueling the reportage in mainstream media"

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In that case, why not make them more accessible with citizen journalism through social media, where information can travel faster.

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"In Jamaica, and in some other Caribbean countries, traditional media entities have begun to embrace citizen journalists, but are ensuring that the necessary check and balances are in place for the verification or information before it is disseminated."

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"In Jamaica, and in some other Caribbean countries, traditional media entities have begun to embrace citizen journalists, but are ensuring that the necessary check and balances are in place for the verification or information before it is disseminated."

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Mainstream media (professional journalism) - television, radio, and newspapers - were once considered the primary source of news. Now people are turning to social media, where citizen journalism is skyrocketing, for their primary news.

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An, Y., Huang, Y., Danjuma, N. U., Apuke, O. D., & Tunca, E. A. (2023). Why do people

spread fake news? Modelling the factors that influence social media users’ fake news sharing behavior. Information Development, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/02666669231194357

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Guy J. Golan, T. Franklin Waddell & Matthew Barnidge (2021) Competing Identity

Cues in the Hostile Media Phenomenon: Source, Nationalism, and Perceived Bias in News Coverage of Foreign Affairs, Mass Communication and Society, 24:5, 676-700, DOI: 10.1080/15205436.2021.1884263

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BARNES, CORINNE. “Citizen Journalism vs. Traditional Journalism: A Case for Collaboration.” Caribbean Quarterly, vol. 58, no. 2/3, 2012, pp. 16–27. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41708775. Accessed 4 Dec. 2023.

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Should we depend on Social Media News for civil practice?

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Should we depend on Social Media News for civil practice?

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What are the limitations of different media, for optimal news coverage?

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What are the limitations of different media, for optimal news coverage?

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Should civil practice rely on professional mass media or Credible Citizen journalism?

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Should civil practice rely on professional mass media or Credible Citizen journalism?

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Jang, J. (2023). Proximate or Primary Source? How Multiple Layers of News Sources on

Social Media Predicts News Influence. Social Science Computer Review, 41(1), 201-216. https://doi.org/10.1177/08944393211032505

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Welch, David. “News into the Next Century: Introduction.” Historical Journal of Film,

Radio, and Television, vol. 20, no. 1, 2000, pp. 5–13, https://doi.org/10.1080/01439680099975.

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AALBERG, T. et al. International Tv News, Foreign Affairs Interest and

Public Knowledge. Journalism Studies, [s. l.], v. 14, n. 3, p. 387–406, 2013. DOI 10.1080/1461670X.2013.765636. Disponível em: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh&AN=87512052&site=ehost-live. Acesso em: 27 nov. 2023.