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This chapter focused on ways to define and sharpen a research topic. It provided very tangible activities to help categorize and fine tune what the research is really about and how to align values, language, and data to match the research topic. I feel like this book would be a great workbook to go through each time you start a new research project until you get more comfortable in conducting qualitative research.

“Claiming value neutrality would be intellectually dishonest because as human beings we have values, and if we became truly neutral and no values, beliefs or assumptions, we could argue that we would be quite robotic.” p. 36

Perhaps those who would feel more inclined to claim value neutrality are those whose values may have had little opportunity to be questioned.

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“Even Western feminism, however, has been challenged, particularly by women of color, for conforming to some very fundamental Western European world views, value systems and attitudes towards the Other.” p. 50. Is Western feminism the only entity that is allowed to define what a feminist is? Could there be room to include the “Other” feminists that are guided by values from their own cultures?

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I feel like I need to be mindful that I don’t do convenience sampling too much. Since my research is probably going to be targeted towards Korean American females, it will be easy to just approach my friends. While this is not necessarily the wrong way to do it, I need to understand why I am picking these individuals and be very intentional. It could easily lower the rigor of my research by just going with what is convenient.

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Language is important

the terms we use (purpose, question, theory) carry philosophical assumptions. How you phrase your question may reveal what paradigm you are working in (positivist, interpretivist, critical, etc.).

“Certain words used in quantitative research are not used in qualitative research in the same way or at all, or used currently, even if they were used in the past.”

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Colonizers vs colonized interpretations polarize universal understanding

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Colonizers vs colonized interpretations polarize universal understanding

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“There is a very specific spatial vocabulary of colonialism which can be assembled around 3 concepts: 1-the line; 2-the center; and 3- the outside. The ‘line’ is important because it was used the map territory, to survey land, to establish boundaries, and to mark the limits of colonial power. The ‘center’ is important because orientation to the center was an orientation to the system of power. The ‘outside’ is important because it positioned territory and people in an oppositional relation to the colonial Centre; for Indigenous Australians to be in an empty space was to not exist.”

Tuhiwai Smith demonstrates ways that Western language and understanding of language problematizes translations and interpretations of indigenous language, particularly in understanding gendered and racial issues. Furthermore, Western concepts of time and space are significantly different from indigenous concepts, which are often lost in translation (not just linguistic renaming, but also the material, social, political, and practical [mis]interpretations).

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“witnessing” as a replacement for the observation part of participant observation considerations:

1.     witnessing is a fully embodied activity that benefits from a range of senses such as sound touch smell taste and not just sight

2.     witnessing is not just about being present but it's also about testifying to aspects of the world that other people may not have experienced or imagine

3.     field work is related to surveillance and its attendant power relations

4.     the term leaves open the possibility that surveillance can be accomplished via nonhuman entities such as hidden cameras

5.     witnessing connects with the colonial ethics that Focus on the collaborative and performative parts of fieldwork activity

Witnessing shifts qualitative research from a passive, detached “looking” to an active, ethical, and embodied engagement with the field, emphasizing responsibility, reflexivity, and a commitment to justice and respect for participants.

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Dissent, or challenges to the rules, is manageable because it also conforms to these rules, particularly at the implicit level. Scientific and academic debate in the West takes place within these rules. a black tradition of scholarship, and have simply been appropriated by Western philosophy and redefined as Western epistemology.

Interpretation: Dissent is a dangerous business. It can cost funding, credibility, prestige, and can alienate colleagues. Unless dissent stays within the confines of the approved narrative, it is not allowable.

Colonization is often viewed as a 'shared culture' for both those who have been colonized and those who have colonized. This means, for example, that colonized peoples share a language of colonization, share knowledge about their colonizers, and, in terms of a political project, share the same struggle for decolonization. It also means that colonizers, too, share a language and knowledge of colonization.

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Interpretative: Choosing the sample must be free of conscious bias or anything that can alter the findings, especially picking subjects that will skew the research toward one direction.

In random samples, every member of a group has an equal opportunity to be selected.  Random samples are popular among researchers who desire to make statistical generalizations to larger populations; such is the case in political polling and census taking.

A representative sample is when members are chosen specifically to replicate characteristics of the larger group and these types of samples are often more representative of a population than random samples.

One of the most common sampling plans is the convenience or opportunistic sample.  These samples are chosen because they are convenient, easy, and relatively inexpensive to access.

Be Careful: Not to allow bias sway the findings because research subjects are easy and convenient.

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Tracy (2020) chapter four, perhaps more than any other chapter thus far, has really helped to contextualize for me the wide range of ways to conduct qualitative research. While I am familiar with many of these approaches, some more than others, due to hearing of them in different classes, or recognizing them from how they are identified in research articles, it was helpful to develop a deeper understanding of how they are used to create knowledge in a qualitative way. “Analysis of archival materials” (p. 87), for example, along with, “visual” (p. 88) ethnography and, “photovoice” (p. 90) are all tools for qualitative inquiry that I am interested in incorporating into my work in the future.

As a proponent of the use of counterstorytelling to reframe the commonly held paradigms and ideas about the world and people in it that have largely resulted from a, “Western” (Tuhiwai Smith, 2021, p. 59) lens and lend authenticity to how narratives are created and public discourse shaped, I enjoyed learning more about the ways that researchers can engage with study participants, not just through verbal means of communication, but also through art, representative cultural artifacts, and other visual tools that lend support to the nature of storytelling in creating and disseminating knowledge.

It was helpful, also, to better understand the different types of sampling, and how to approach determining who will comprise the population of a study. I do believe that I can benefit from additional review of the sampling process, as I want to be very clear on best practices in selecting study participants that are the most appropriate for different kinds of studies. Frequent revisitation of the, “Tips and Tools 4.1” (p. 94) chart will be of tremendous assistance moving forward.

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"Often when people meet qualitative research for the first time, they try to under stand concepts in qualitative research using terminologies from quantitative research. This usually causes confusion, and students have a hard time shifting their thinking. One of the best ways to shift your thinking is to immerse yourself in the language of qualitative inquiry and not try to understand it in terms of quantitative inquiry" (p. 41).

I laughed when I first read this, because it describes a challenge I am experiencing currently. The subsequent examples really helped to reframe how I think about the language that is most appropriate for qualitative research.

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"These ideas constitute reality. Reality cannot be constituted without them. When confronted by the alternative conceptions of other societies, Western reality became reified as representing something 'better'..." (p. 65).

This makes me think about the concept that someone needs to hear information five times before they are able to properly consider it, it is rightly understood, or before action is taken. It is amazing to me how common it is that the default response to being confronted with new information, new ways of doing, and different ways of believing is to reject it. We are socialized to believe that our own way(s) of living, being, doing, are correct, and anything that deviates is suspect. Western paradigms continue to be elevated above indigenous ones to maintain dominance, perpetuate white supremacy, and justify the subjugation of others.

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"Conversations/interviews occur in many forms in qualitative research. Conversations can be a form of interview that can range from informal chats to formal structured or semistructured open-ended interviews"

was thinking of the importance of "informal" conversations when speaking about sensitive topics, and as a way to gather genuine responses that a person might not share in a "formal" setting.

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* Even progressive movements can fail to acknowledge the experiences of people of color

physical space and culture is important to consider as qualitative researchers, especially when you enter a different cultures space for interviews etc.

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·  Say: “Elicitations are ways to create a context where the participant speaks about her experiences elicited by some sort of external trigger,” (p. 52)

o   Mean/Matter: This is an interesting concept for me and one I want to ponder more. In researching how to better support students with ADHD in higher education, it is good to think about alternative ways of knowing and interacting with students as there is a variety on ways that they think and present information. This might be something to explore…

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· Say: “Systems of classification and representation enable different traditions or fragments of traditions to be retrieved and reformulated in different contexts as discourses, and then to be played out in systems of power and domination, with real material consequences for colonized peoples” and this includes “well-meaning middle class liberals intent on salvation as a legitimation of different forms of colonization,” (p. 51).

o   Mean/Matter: This means that the way Western research presents information, and classifies information, is not neutral. It is entangled with power, and the “legitimate” ways of knowing that the power dictates is “rational.” I need to be aware that even if I am well-intentioned, I need to understand the context of the scenario and ensure that the interpretation is from the person experiencing it, not only my own experiences or worldview.

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·  Say: “Interviews are valuable for strengthening and complicating other data. In conversing with interviewees, you can bring up observations or heresay…” (p. 86).

o   Mean/Matter: I am thinking about this in relation to the IRB approval and whether it would be good practice to assume at some point we might do interviews when conducting qualitative interviews- even if our focus is on a different approach? It seems like it is good plan for the purpose of being able to bring up observations for input and ensure we are interpreting things the way the interviewees would interpret them.

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This text is a really neat compliment to the Tracy text because it breaks down a lot of the more opaque jargon into exercises with very down to Earth examples.

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p.63 – “Distance is measurable. What it has come to stand for is objectivity, which is not measurable to quite the same extent.”

This example I think really provides a great rebuttal to the attacks on non-Western approaches to science/medicine/etc. because it operates on the same truth-claim level with a set of details that un-work the conveniences of the Western philosophy of science (i.e. for most Enlightenment and Romantic-era scientist-philosophers would manifest a divine explanation for an otherwise unexplainable, generate phenomenon and call it “Logic” (for example Leibniz and Newton)).

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p.91 – “However, there is a difference between making full use of one’s networks and being lazy.” This is both extremely humorous to me, but also a very important element that I try to read for when engaging qualitative research articles. I like that Tracy gives an example (with much ironic convenience) from her own work meaningfully using a convenience sample to follow-up this quip.

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Key Points (skim level):

Colonial legacies shape qualitative methods, even when they seem “neutral.”

Pushes for research practices rooted in relationality, reciprocity, and accountability to participants.

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Key Points:

Western research framed Indigenous peoples as “Other,” inferior, or problems to solve.

Research has been a tool of imperialism—extracting knowledge, misrepresenting communities, erasing epistemologies.

Stresses need for decolonizing approaches that value Indigenous worldviews, histories, and sovereignty.

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Key Points:

Research design = an iterative, emergent process (not linear).

Importance of “purpose statements” and clear RQs (research questions) that connect to methods.

Sampling in qualitative research = purposive, theoretical, snowball, etc., depending on goals

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Typical sampling strategies try to sample who represents the mean, but this can be heavily affected by outliers

Should outliers be discarded in these cases, especially since we’re interested in the “normal”?

Sometimes “average” is an outlier, especially in situations where most people are in either the high or low.

Ex. The one kid who gets a C on a test that everybody else aces or bombs might be the “average”, but also stands out from the others

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I don’t think I understand Tuhiwai Smith’s argument about classifying space. I understand that when you classify space you are able to label it, and with labelling comes questions of ownership. Is her argument that we shouldn’t have classified that space to begin with at all? She spends nearly a page talking about how Western science and culture has classified space, but I don’t know what her call to action regarding it is. I also think she again oversimplifies when she makes the claim that “[o]ther indigenous languages have no related word for either space or time, having instead a series of very precise terms for parts of these ideas, or for relationships between the idea and something else in the environment”. There may not be a direct translation but there are analogous ideas. Additionally, measurement becomes necessary as science progresses (though she might argue against me using that particular term.)

“for indigenous Australians to be in an ‘empty space’ was to ‘not exist’.”

So they were labeling land with ownership of some sort, or at least “our territory vs. their territory”? How does this tie into the above thing about classifying space.

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As mentioned in class, make sure to use the correct terminology for qualitative research. My STEM background makes me tend to use certain words that are less proper for qualitative research (even though I’m probably using a positivist lens).

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Western reality represents something ‘better’ reflecting ‘higher orders’ of thinking and less susceptible to ‘primitive’ thinking (p. 55, Kindle).

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“Fieldwork is especially worthwhile for understanding behaviors and interactions that people do not talk about - either because these phenomena are unconscious, hard to remember, embarrassing, or simply mundane" (p. 85, Kindle).

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Another topic that added insight into qualitative studies was the “Conceptual Cocktail Party.” It figuratively communicates the purpose of a research project in the broader landscape of a research topic. As emerging researchers, we are stepping into an already existing conversation, and we need to acknowledge what has been said on our topic, understand its significance, analyze the gaps, and identify where there is space for our contributions. Ultimately, it is important that we consider the context of our study before we even begin.

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Linda Tuhiwai Smith (2022) continues to provide critical insights into the reach of colonialism, empiricism, and Western thought on assumed research practices. The quote, “Within each state of ideas are systems of classification and representation,” that comes together to “create a cultural ‘force field’ that can screen out competing and oppositional discourse” (Tuhiwai Smith, 2022, p. 54). This quote is a practical summary of Chapter 2. It demonstrates the practical challenges of excluding indigenous or alternative definitions of the individual, society, time, and space. It is a call to me as an emerging qualitative researcher to take the time to deconstruct my own perceptions of the self, society, time, space, and other forms of knowledge. In doing so, I may need to spend considerable time reflecting on my personal conceptual frameworks to avoid unintentionally screening out forms of knowledge other than my own.

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Lastly, the importance of language as a paradigm for describing research is just as relevant as the project itself. Bhattacharya (2017) describes understanding the difference between qualitative language and quantitative language as critical to understanding each methodology. The language of qualitative studies informs how researchers form their questions, approach their studies, and construct frameworks to address their research purpose. I need to spend more time reflecting and internalizing the qualitative language for this course because I think I naturally default to more quantitative language.

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Bhattacharya (2017) - Ch. 3 Conceptualizing Qualitative Research

Key Takeaways

I understand that subjectivities are central to qualitative research

Rather than striving for neutrality, researchers must acknowledge their own positions, assumptions, and values

Subjectivity is not the same as bias

Creates richer possibilities for meaning-making when handled reflexively.

I understand that qualitative research requires shifting language and paradigms

Move from terms like “objectivity” and “validity” to terms like “trustworthiness,” “reflexivity,” and “multiple realities”

I understand that a good research purpose is open-ended, invites multiple possibilities, and avoids narrow answers

I understand that research questions should align with purpose, remain open-ended, and allow for complexity without becoming overly broad

I understand that qualitative data can come from multiple sources

Interviews,

Observations

Documents

Archives

Elicitation methods

Photos

Objects

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Tuhiwai Smith (2021) - Ch. 2 Research Through Imperial Eyes

Key Takeaways

I think the first time I read this chapter, it was the first time my comfort in academic elitism was shaken

Re-reading this chapter was full of excellent reminders that are integral to my work

I understand that “Western” research, especially in the Indigenous context, shouldn’t be boiled down to merely a “positivist” framework

This research employs knowledges and epistemologies to maintain colonial powers structures

The use of the term “Western” research has implications as well as it allows for the stratification of different knowledge systems to be valued relative to their proximity of “Western-ness”

The concept of “Western” research reminds me a lot of Foucault’s Archaeology of Knowledge

Western knowledge being a cultural archive that values and devalues knowledges

Knowledge that is usually attributed as “Western” are often found to be harvested from non-White civilizations and appropriated

(I wrote this note before I saw the citation for Foucault’s Archaeology of Knowledge) 😆

Western knowledges that attempt to challenge the oppressive structures of “Western” research still operate within the rules of Western knowledge

In other words, while there have been attempts to challenge dominant knowledge structures, if they operate under the epistemologies of ‘Western” frameworks, then they truly cannot dismantle

Reminds me of Audre Lorde, “The Master’s Tools Will Never Dismantle the Master’s House”

Because Indigenous knowledges are epistemologically and ontologically incompatible with Western knowledges, Indigenous knowledges and ontologies are often rendered as “barbaric” or “uncivilized”

This legitimizes the colonization of knowledges

Western knowledges are rooted in Enlightenment era epistemologies surrounding individualism and capitalism

In other words, the purpose of Western education is to discipline “good” laborers

Because Indigenous ontologies and epistemologies are rooted in more communal and collectivist thought, Indigenous knowledge systems are characterized as “unproductive”

This is relevant to my work because a key part of settler-colonial education is to misrepresent Indigenous peoples as “uncivilized” through curriculum and instruction

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Tracy (2025) - Ch. 4 Research design; sampling, research proposals, ethics, IRB

Key Takeaways

I understand that participant witnessing reframes observation into a more collaborative, embodied act that values humility and presence

I understand that interviews, texts/archives, and visual/arts-based materials each reveal insights that cannot always be accessed through direct observation

I understand that good qualitative sampling is purposeful

Strategies like maximum variation, snowball, theoretical-construct, and critical/deviant are chosen based on goals.

I understand that IRB review protects participants and varies by level of risk

I understand that  proposals organize the study’s rationale, methods, and practical plan

Tools

Sampling strategies to remember

Maximum variation = breadth and diversity of perspectives.

Snowball = accessing hidden or hard to access networks.

Theoretical construct = selecting cases tied to conceptual categories.

Critical/deviant = illuminating extremes or testing theoretical claims.

IRB levels:

Exempt = low-risk public data

Expedited = moderate risk

Full-board = high-risk or vulnerable groups.

Proposal essentials

Clear rationale (answering “so what?”)

Conceptual framework tied to literature

Specific research questions

Detailed methodology

Sampling rationale

Practical elements like budget, timeline, and projected deliverables

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Tuhiwai Smith mentions that the West imposed rules upon colonized societies, but one thing I think is important to note is that these rules often did not apply to the West (p. 61).

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Part of me wonders if witnessing is still an outside occurrence, in particular for researchers who aren’t considered part of an “inside group.” I also have questions as to what the ethical obligations are for researchers as witnesses. For example, one of the articles from a previous class interviewed men of color experiencing housing and food insecurity. Even if we provide a meal, or gift cards, or hotel vouchers, is this not still extractivism (p. 85)?

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Bhattacharya wrote, “However, purely focusing on the structure of the purpose statement, this type of framing invites multiple possibilities as potential answers to the research purpose instead of limiting the research purpose to two finite answers” (p.42). Reading this section really gave me more perspective on how I should frame my research questions to receive a variety of responses. Participant data is very important to research, and the wrong-framed question could prevent the researcher from receiving well-thought-out responses needed for data collection. Focusing on intent and contextual detail helps me remember to keep my research questions simple and to pursue the one point of inquiry in one question.

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Smith writes,” What makes ideas ‘real” is the system of knowledge, the formations of culture, and the relations of power in which these concepts are located” (p. 7). Experiences form our reality and identity, but Western academic rhetoric defines what is valid research and cultural experiences. In contrast, cultural history, such as the Indigenous, tends to be erased or minimized from history. As researchers, we need to be aware of the influence our positionalities may have on the political and cultural nature of our research study. We need to focus on the voices we are centering and making sure the research accurately reflects the data collected.

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In the chapter, Tracy asks, “How many instances, cases, or interviews are enough? The answer is unabashedly ambiguous: as many as necessary to find out what you need to know” (Kvale, 1996). This is the main question that I have been wondering about regarding building my research. How many interviews are too few or too many? My survey will target one specific group, but how many from this group are needed to provide accurate data for my study? Even though Kvale writes that as many as necessary, let’s say I was able to get 300 participants, will that be enough to provide accurate data for my study? Will it prevent any gaps? My study is important to Black culture as it pertains to educational attainment, and I want to make sure the data I receive from this study will help create more interest in my topic.