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Reproductive life style strategies (Ezlyn)

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Reproductive life style strategies (Ezlyn)

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One male and female paired for one or more mating seasons. Monogamous pairs can do bi-parenting, this provides better care and protection for their offspring, which increases the chance of survival. They also could pair as resources are low or there is a low availability of mates.

Advantages:

Monogamous pairs often establish and defend a territory together, this ensures that the young are protected and have the proper resources as one parent can stay guard while the other one can forage for food.

As they form a monogamous bond they don't have to spend energy and time competing for mates, allowing them to focus their resources on their offspring.

Males are surer that the offsprings are theirs, making them have greater care and protection for their offsprings.

Disadvantages:

Monogamous bonds can limit the genetic variation, this can make populations more vulnerable to disease and environmental changes

If there is limited movement between populations, it can lead to inbreeding which will lead to deformities and reduced fitness.

If one of the parent is lost the remaining parent may struggle to care for the offspring by themselves.

Examples:

French angelfish, Australian Hippocampus whitei, sea otters (R12, R13)

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Polygamy is the practice of one individual of a sex having multiple partners of the opposite sex.

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Also known as polygynandry, it is when both male and female have multiple mating partners. This usually occurs in animals that do not have large sections of territory, but instead they live in social groups or alone. Males usually express quantity mate preferences, while females usually express quality mate preferences.

Advantages:

Since individuals mate with so many mates, it can be difficult to know whether a young individual is related to them so killing a juvenile is risky. This makes it so that more juveniles live.

Offspring benefit from a more diverse genetic pool, which can enhance adaptability and resilience to environmental changes.

With multiple male and females, parental duties can be shared, increasing the chance of offspring survival

Disadvantages:

High risk of spread of sexually transmitted diseases.

Despite multiple mating partners there can still be competition as some females may still aim for males with better genes, this can lead to injuries.

Examples:

Dolphins, Two pipefish (Syngathus typhle, Nerophis ophidion) (R10,11)

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This is when one male mates with multiple females. In this mating strategy the female takes responsibility for most of the parental care as the male is not capable of providing care to that many offspring. The females are usually drawn to the males territory due to the rich resources that the male can provide, which shows that he has good genes for protecting a territory.

Advantages:

A single male can father many offspring, making sure that his genetics will continue to the next generation

Females can choose high quality males desirable traits, which makes their offspring have better genetic quality

Females can choose males that are successful this allows them to have access to better nesting sites, food and protection

Disadvantages:

It is very easy for sexually transmitted disease to spread in polygyny systems.

If only a few males dominate the mating pool, it can reduce the genetic diversity of the population, making it less adaptable to disease.

As the males want to be dominant, it often leads to competition among males, which can lead to physical injuries or even death

Examples:

Southern elephant seals, Bluehead wrasse, sea lions (R8)

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a mating system where an individual has multiple mating partners

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Sex fixed at maturation.

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Dolphins can have multiple reproductive cycles in their lifetime. They are able to mate more than once and have the ability to reproduce more than once. Dolphins do not have a specific mating season and are able to breed all year round.

Parental care:

They exhibit parental care for their calves through nursing which can last for 18 to 24 months. Mother dolphins share a close bond with their calves and provide guidance for their calves. They also help to ensure the calves safety and development.

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male dolphins that have multiple female partners

able to impregnant multiple female dolphins year long

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Animal Wised (n.d.) 'Dolphin mating and reproduction', Animal Wised. Available at: https://www.animalwised.com/dolphin-mating-and-reproduction-3233.html (Accessed: 29 July 2024).

Dolphins Plus (n.d.) 'How dolphins mate', Dolphins Plus. Available at: https://www.dolphinsplus.com/blog/how-dolphins-mate (Accessed: 29 July 2024).

Euronews (2022) 'Dolphins derive pleasure from very complicated vaginas, new research finds', Euronews. Available at: https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/05/07/dolphins-derive-pleasure-from-very-complicated-vaginas-new-research-finds (Accessed: 29 July 2024).

ResearchGate (n.d.) 'Mounting behavior between adult male bottlenose dolphins', ResearchGate. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Mounting-behavior-between-adult-male-bottlenose-dolphins_fig2_285512444#:~:text=Bottlenose%20dolphins%20(%20Tursiops%20spp.),sexes%20mate%20with%20multiple%20partners (Accessed: 29 July 2024).

Surf's Up Magazine (n.d.) 'Baby dolphins', Surf's Up Magazine. Available at: https://surfsupmagazine.com/baby-dolphins/ (Accessed: 29 July 2024).

Study.com (n.d.) 'Dolphin mating & reproduction', Study.com. Available at: https://study.com/academy/lesson/dolphin-mating-reproduction.html#:~:text=It%20has%20been%20noted%20by,they%20are%20ready%20to%20mate (Accessed: 29 July 2024).

Study.com (n.d.) 'Dolphin mating & reproduction', Study.com. Available at: https://study.com/academy/lesson/dolphin-mating-reproduction.html#:~:text=Dolphins%20are%20polygamous%2C%20meaning%20they,the%20mother%20for%20five%20years (Accessed: 29 July 2024).

Whale Scientists (n.d.) 'Dolphin males' pair bonds', Whale Scientists. Available at: https://whalescientists.com/dolphin-males-pair-bonds/#:~:text=Having%20a%20friend%20that%20acts,which%20can%20appeal%20to%20females (Accessed: 29 July 2024).

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Dolphins are viviparous and give birth to live young. Most calves are born tail-first into the water, but there have been cases of head-first deliveries as well. The umbilical cord will snap during the delivery process. Dolphins will give birth to one offspring at a time and has a high parental investment.

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A calf may nurse for anywhere between 18 to 24 months. Calves nurse close to the surface of the water, using nipples that are hidden in abdominal mammary slits. Nursing usually begins within 6 hours after birth and a calf may nurse as often as 4 times per hour for the first few days of its life. A mother dolphin carefully watches over her calf and stays close by to help guide it as it swims. The calf is carried in the hydrodynamic wake that forms behind the mother as she moves through the water. This helps the baby swim and enables the mother and calf to stay up with the pod.

Young dolphins will remain with their mother for a few more years after the period of breastfeeding has been completed. On average is about 3 to 6 years in total. During this time, the young dolphin learns everything they can about social relationships, hunting methods, finding food and anything else they may need to be an adult dolphin.

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males with multiple female partners increases the males genetic diversity for their offspring

male dolphins that successfully mate with multiple female partners can increases their social status in their pod/ become more dominant

the more dominant males can have better access to protection and resources among their pod

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Allows for increased reproductive opportunities to reproduce, which increases their overall reproductive success. This is especially beneficial in unpredictable or changing environments.

High parental investments in dolphins which provides better care, leading to higher survival rates and healthier offspring.

High adaptability in dolphins as they can adjust their reproductive efforts based on environmental cues. For example, they can delay reproduction during unfavorable conditions and wait for better circumstances.

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fun (or not) facts about dolphins! ally & alesha 

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fun (or not) facts about dolphins! ally & alesha 

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male dolphins often form life long friendships with each other and they act as a "wingman" when attracting female mate

male dolphins with pair bond with other males are seen as more desirable to female dolphins as it shows a sign of strength and stability

New mothers are often accompanied by an "auntie" dolphin. Auntie dolphins assist in the birthing process and help the new mothers to care and guide the young.

male dolphins are extremely sexual in nature and would assault female dolphins by chasing after them, biting or ramming into them when the males are ready to mate

female dolphins have complicated vaginas and are one of the few animals that are able to have sex for pleasure due to their abnormally large clitoris

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Allows dolphins to move around with their developing young which is crucial in areas with high predator activity. By keeping the embryos inside their bodies, they reduce the risk of predation during vulnerable stages.

Since the young is developing inside the embryo, they are less dependent on external factors (such as temperature or humidity) for successful reproduction. This can create a stable internal environment for embryo development.

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Comes from the latin word 'semel' meaning 'once, a single time' (R1)

Characteristics

Undergo significant physiological changes to support their single reproductive effort, such as increased energy storage and alterations in metabolism.(R3)

Advantages

Semalparous species produce more offspring in their single fatal reproductive episode (R2)

Allocates all their available resources to maximize reproduction during their single reproductive episode, often at the expense of their future survival (R2)

Often referred to as 'big bang' reproduction due to its significant reproductive output in one event (R2)

Disadvantage

Death of a species after the first reproduction process. (R2)

They are particularly vulnerable to environmental changes and disruptions, as their reproductive success hinges on a single event (R3)

Often evolve in environments where the probability of surviving to another reproductive event is low. (R3)

Examples

Pacific salmon, some mollusks, including octopus and squid etc. (R3)

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Gonochorism allows for specialized reproductive roles where males produce sperm, while females produce eggs, thereby optimizing reproductive efficiency.

By having separate sexes, individuals avoid competing with each other for resources needed for reproduction.

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high competition amongst males for females leads to high competition that can lead to excessive aggression and social stress and potentially lead to death or injuries

dominant male dolphins may monopolise access to females leaving less dominant males not many opportunities to mate with females

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when female dolphin mates with multiple males

female dolphins take on parental care and are good mothers

able to mate year round but stop when they are pregnant for 12 months

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Less dominant males who are unable to secure mates might experience social isolation and reduced reproductive opportunities --> affecting their overall fitness

Males may engage in frequent aggressive behaviour with rival males that leads to injuries or even death. The risk of physical harm can be significant in species where males compete directly for access to females

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sperm competition from multiple males will ensure that the most dominant sperm will fertilise with the egg and leads to a selection of healthiest and most viable sperm --> offspring healthier

males that mate with the female may be more likely to protect her and her offspring --> female gains male protection

reduced infanticide because female dolphins can create confusion about paternity so male dolphins would have to think twice before attacking a young dolphin because it maybe theirs

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there may be a lower fertilisation success if not all matings end up in fertilising the embryo. may end up expending energy and resources without a corresponding increase in reproductive success

energy and time invested into mating with multiple males can drain the females energy which might divert resources away from other important activities such as foraging and caring for offspring

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a multi-male and multi-female mating system

encapsulates both polygyny and polyandry within the same species

no real reason for them to engage in polygynanrdy other than for pleasure

mostly found in bottlenose dolphins

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They can be fertilized both internally and externally. So, for internally there are 3 different categories which are oviparous, viviparous and ovoviviparous. So, for oviparous they are animals that lay eggs with embryo developing and hatching outside of mother's body and that they require the need for intromittent organ just like viviparous and ovoviviparous. Examples of oviparous marine animals are salmons and sea turtles where they both lay eggs. Advantages are that it has a greater certainty of fertilization as they can lay many eggs at once which increases the chance of offspring survival, lower production of gametes required, and parents do not need to carry the developing young within their body, so energy cost is less and lastly less risk of gametes desiccation.

Disadvantages are that there are fewer offspring per production cycle and that there is strong sexual selection at individual level

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Comes from the latin word 'itero' meaning to repeat (R4)

Long-lived (R2)

Advantages

Iteroparous species typically invest resources into multiple reproductive events over their lifespan. This allows them to spread their reproductive effort across different periods, often leading to more stable population dynamics. (R4)

Repeated reproduction can increase the chances of offspring survival by spreading the risk of reproductive failure over multiple events (R1)

Iteroparous organisms often invest more in the development and care of their offspring (R1)

Beneficial in stable environments where adult survival is high as it allows for multiple reproductive events and potentially better overall population growth. (R1)

Often produce fewer offspring per reproductive cycle but the offspring are generally larger and more developed at birth (R2)

Disadvantages

May invest less in each reproductive episode compared to semelparous species. (R1)

Often balance between reproducing multiple times and investing in growth and survival (R1)

Examples

vertebrates: all birds, most reptiles, virtually all mammals and most fish, sea turtle, great white shark, manatee, seahorse (R2 & R5)

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Refers to the total number of fish that spawns in a given period (R6)

Advantages

Number of total spawners directly influences the number of eggs produced and consequently, the potential recruitment of new individuals into the population (R6)

Some fish species form large spawning groups, making it easier to estimate total spawners but also making them more vulnerable to overfishing (R6)

High number of total spawners generally indicates a healthier population with better chances of maintaining or increasing its size (R6)

Monitoring total spawners is crucial for setting sustainable fishing limits and managing fish populations. Ensuring that adequate numbers of spawners are preserved helps maintain population size and stability (R6)

Disadvantages

Number of spawners vary significantly with seasonal changes, environmental conditions and habitat quality. Example, changes in water temperature, food availability or habitat conditions. (R6)

Low spawner number may signal potential issues in reproductive success or population health (R6)

Examples

Clownfish, yellowfin tuna, atlantic cod, herring, grouper, mackerel etc. (R7)

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This is when one female mates with multiple males. Species that practice polyandry usually have more males than females and their mortality rate is usually high, hence the need for high reproduction rate to offset the mortality rate. males will take care of the young in the early stages of their life, allowing the female to continue to reproduce.

Advantage:

Almost all males will be able to mate, allowing them to pass their genes to future generations, which does not occur in polygyny as only the most dominant males' mate.

By mating with multiple males, the female will have offspring from a larger genetic base, which may enhance the survival and adaptability of her young.

Disadvantages:

Mating with multiple partners has the increased risk of sexually transmitted disease to be passed to the female and her offspring.

Mating with multiple males is time and energy intensive, making it maybe to neglect the existing offspring

Examples:

Anglerfish, sea dragon, sea horses, pipefish (R9)

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They are animals that give birth to live young where the embryo develops inside the mother and is nourished directly by her through a placenta. They too require the need for intromittent organ just like oviparous animals. Some examples of oviparous animals are whales, dolphins, pinnipeds like seals, sirenians like manatees and sea otters. Some shark species are viviparous like blue, white sharks and bull sharks.

Advantages are that the developing young are protected within the mother body, so survival rate is higher and that they are less exposed to predation compared to eggs laid in environment. They have greater certainty of fertilization, lower production of gametes required and less risk of gametes desiccation.

Disadvantages are that the young require a significant energy investment from the mother to nourish the developing young and they can also pose as risks to the mother and may limit her ability to escape from predators as the mother have to protect her young. Fewer offspring per production cycle and strong sexual selection at individual level.

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Refers to the reproductive strategy where fish release eggs in multiple batches over a spawning season rather than all at once

Advantages

By spawning in batches, fish mitigate the risk of complete reproductive failure due to environmental fluctuations or predation

Often have prolonged reproductive period, allowing them to take advantage of varying environmental conditions for egg and larval survival

Ecological Constraints

They need habitats can support extended reproductive activities such as consistent food supply and suitable conditions for multiple spawning events

Stable environments are more favorable as they reduce the risk of adverse conditions affecting multiple spawning events

Evolutionary adaptations

May develop physiological adaptations that allows them to produce and release eggs over an extended period. (such as energy storage mechanisms)

May exhibit behaviours that enhance the survival of multiple batches, such as choosing optimal spawning times and locations repeatedly throughout the season

Management implications

Understanding batch spawning behaviour is crucial for setting fishing regulations that protects spawning fish throughout their reproductive period.

Example

Atlantic Cod, pacific herring, groupers

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They are animals that produce eggs that develop and hatch internally with the young being born alive and that they do not have a placenta to provide nourishment, instead the embryos are nourished by egg yolk. The young are born live typically more developed and ready to survive independently. Examples are many shark species like basking sharks and sand tiger sharks. Ray species and guppies too.

Advantages are that the eggs are protected within the mother body which reduces the risk of predation, embryos develop in a controlled environment ensuring better survival rates for the offspring. Greater certainty of fertilization, lower production of gametes required and less risk of gametes desiccation.

Disadvantages are that the mother must provide all the resources for the developing embryos which can be taxing.

Carrying the developing young can also make the mother more vulnerable to predators.

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They are animals that lay eggs which are fertilized outside of their body, typically in water where the male releases sperm into water which then fertilizes the eggs. This is commonly found in many fish and amphibians as well as cnidarians, ctenophores, echinoderms and mollusks. Salmon are known for their migratory spawning where they lay eggs in freshwater streams. They require large production of gametes (more energetic cost) and synchronization of gametes release.

Advantages are high reproductive rate where they produce a large number of eggs which can increase chance of offspring survival. Parents do not need to invest energy in caring for the eggs or offspring allowing them to conserve energy for other actions. Higher genetic diversity due to large mixing of genes within a group.

Disadvantages are high mortality rate as they are left unprotected so predators and environmental factors can lead to them dying. Uncertainty of fertilization and wastage of gametes

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For fishes like sticklebacks and cichlids, they construct intricate nests using vegetation and rocks which then help provide protection for the eggs and fry. Other fishes like wrasses and gobies meticulously clean specific areas on rocks or coral reefs to create sustainable spawning sites. Species like salmon and trout defend territories against their rivals which are their own species, ensuring exclusive access to prime spawning grounds. Lastly some reef fishes form spawning aggregations which are large groups that gather at specific times and places on the reef to release planktonic eggs into water column so before spawning, they select a suitable site for laying eggs to increase the chance of successful hatching.

Female sea turtles migrate long distances to lay eggs on specific beaches where they carefully select and prepare nest sites by digging holes in the sand where their eggs will be laid.

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Gonochoric species are species that develop as either male or female. About 88% of all fish are gonochoric. Gonochorism is though to have evolved to make sure that sexes are balanced to generate the greatest number of spawning partners.

Advantages:

Gonochorism reduces the likelihood of inbreeding and the associated negative consequences, such as reduced genetic diversity and mutation.

Males and females can develop specialized structures to optimize their reproductive roles. Males can develop specialized structure that can help to attract females, while females can develop structures that support fertilization or parental care.

Disadvantages

An imbalance in the sex ratio can lead to reduced reproductivity, as it may be hard for the individuals of the more abundant sec to find a mate

If the population size of the species is too small it may make it vulnerable to extinction due to the need of the presence of both males and females for reproduction. If one of the sex becomes to rare the population may be at risk

Examples:

Bluefin Tuna, dolphins, orcas, seals, Atlantic cod, salmon (R14)

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Hermaphroditism is a reproductive strategy where the animal possesses both male and female reproductive organs. This allows for greater flexibility in reproduction, as an organism can produce both eggs and sperm, either simultaneously or at different times in its lifespan.

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Simultaneous hermaphroditism refers to individuals who have both male and female sexual organs and produce both types of gametes. The possible reason for this mating strategy is due to the limited availability of mating partners. The low mobility and low population density favor the evolution of hermaphroditism, as there is a higher likelihood of meeting a partner as all individuals are potential mates, and in the absence of a partner they have the option of self-fertilization. This form of hermaphroditism is rarer as compared to sequential hermaphroditism.

Advantages:

As individuals have both male and female reproductive organs, an individual that they meet is a possible mate. This maximizes the chances of reproduction.

In cases where there are no available mates, they are able to self-fertilize. This makes sure that they can still reproduce even in isolation.

Disadvantages

However, self-fertilization has its negatives as inbreeding can lead to reduced genetic diversity and mutations

Maintaining both reproductive organs requires significant energy and resources. This may deviate the individuals growth, survival and overall fitness

Example:

Indigo hamlet are reef fish that engage in a behavior called egg trading, where two individuals take turns to fertilize each others eggs during a single mating season. (R15, R16)

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Secondary sexual characteristics are physical differences between males and females of a species that are not directly involved in reproduction. These characteristics can include differences in size, coloration, mass and behavior and are often sexually dimorphic which means they differ between the sexes. They are typically used for attracting mates with bright colors, elaborate displays or unique structures. Secondly for competing with rivals like antlers, large sizes or aggressive behaviors. For example, male walruses have larger tusks than females which are used for fighting and display.

Sexual size dimorphism where one sex is typically larger than the other and that this is common in many taxa including fish where often the females are larger. For example, clownfish and anglerfish. There are also male species that are bigger than female species. For example, cichlid fish and angelfish. (R21)

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Sequential hermaphroditism means that an organism switched from its inborn sex to the opposite sex once they mature. It is speculated that this sexual evolution is due to natural selection when an individual reproduces more efficiently at one sex when they are younger, but more efficient in the other sex when they are older.

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This is when the individual starts as a female and transitions into a male. This probably occurred as the male has a size advantage which increases the reproductive success. Hence, the animal is willing to switch from female to male.

Advantage:

In species where size is an advantage for the males, the individual can start of as a female to reproduce early when they are smaller an as they get bigger and more capable of fighting for mates they can transition into a male.

It also allows for the individual to be flexible as if a population is female dominant then they can transition into males to balance the sex ratio

Disadvantages

The transitioning phase requires significant energy an they will be vulnerable while in the transition phase.

If the population of males decrease due to predation or environmental changes, there might be a temporary shortage of males until the females transition, this may decrease reproductive success momentarily.

Example: Indo pacific cleaner wrasse where the largest female will court the other fish and develop male organs within two weeks (R17, R18)

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This is when the individual starts as a male and transitions into a female. This could be due to fact that a size matters in female and has an advantage in reproductive success as compared to the males.

Advantages:

In the early stages the male can focus on producing sperm which is less energy intensive, than producing eggs but once the individual grows larger and accumulates more resources they can invest in more energy into egg production

Larger females also can produce more eggs. This means that there is more offspring which gives it a higher chance for the genes to continue

Disadvantages

Changing sex from male to female requires extensive amounts of energy. They are also vulnerable when in the transition phase

Example:

Clownfish, there are usually two large fish, one male and one female, which are sexually mature with many other smaller fish. All the smaller fish are male. If the female is removed the large male will take over her place and become female and the next largest fish in the group will rapidly increase in size and take over the role of the sexually mature male. (R17,R20)

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This is when the individual is able to change sex in either direction from male to female or female to male, and are potentially able to do it repeatedly in their lifetime. Bidirectional hermaphrodites usually have sessile lifestyles and live in habitats spread across a range that is hard to navigate.

Advantages:

As the individuals are able to switch sex at anytime, this allows any two individuals to breed without venturing out in search of compatible mates

Disadvantages:

It takes a lot of energy for the individual to switch from male to female or female to male.

The physiological mechanisms required to switch reproductive roles or maintain the ability to perform both roles can be complex. This complexity can affect reproductive efficiency.

Example:

Coral dwelling gobies, experience limited mating opportunities and a high risk of mating between spatially isolated coral colonies. The ability to change sex repeatedly in either direction allows any 2 fish to form a heterosexual breeding pair, thus reducing travelling distance and predation risk when finding a partner as well as time between breeding events (R18, R19)

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Pelagic-spawning fish simultaneously release sperm and eggs into the water where fertilization and embryo development take place. After fertilisation, pelagic spawner eggs float and are at the mercy of the water current, not being adhered to any surfaces and are scattered around. Fish that spawn like this in open waters often produce eggs by the millions. Pelagic spawning fish produce tiny free-floating eggs smaller than 1 millimetre.

Advantages:

As the eggs float around, and are released in large numbers, they can be dispersed over a large distance.

Produces large amounts of eggs.

Well-developed larvae at hatching, higher survival rates.

Disadvantages:

Adults do not provide parental care.

Eggs exposed to many threats, (e.g. currents, predators etc.)

Example: Tuna, Halibut, Sardines

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Fishes that lay its eggs on some form of substrate or surface where they will hatch, such as rocks and sand. These fish usually spawn in shoals without complex rituals, males outnumber the females, and the eggs are scattered into the sea. Their eggs are of a smaller size.

Advantages:

Eggs can be hidden within the substrate, avoid predation.

Some substrate spawners guard their eggs, increasing survival rates.

High number of eggs, increase survival rates.

Large area of where the eggs spread.

Disadvantages:

Increased predation risk due to high egg volume and spread of the eggs.

Needs suitable substrate on spawn on, reproduction rates may decrease if suitable substrates are not present.

Example: Rainbow cichlids attach their eggs to various surfaces, such as a leaf, a vertical piece of slate, or even aquarium glass.

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These are fishes that hide their eggs in one way or another, but there is no parental care. This type of strategy is exhibited by benthic spawner and some fishes bury their eggs. They have slightly larger eggs and less numerous.

Advantages:

Decreased predation, predators are unable to find the eggs to consume.

Limited parental care, lesser energy is spent on caring for the eggs and more on hunting, eating etc.

Disadvantages:

Some parental care is present, not always protected by parent fishes, so they can be vulnerable to predators, increasing their mortality rates.

Lesser eggs, survival chances lower.

Example: Bitterling females deposits their eggs between the gill filaments of mussels. The male then spawns his sperm into the mussel’s inhalant water current and fertilization takes place within the gills of the host.

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Brood guarders is a reproduction strategy, where either one or both parents protect their offspring after spawning. The offspring are usually defended by the males. Territorial behavior is demonstrated by competition for the best egg-laying sites.

Advantages:

As the brood is being guarded, parents can actively deter or fend off predators, this increases the likelihood of the offsprings survival

Some species fan their eggs to ensure that they receive enough oxygen, which is crucial for their development.

Disadvantages

Guarding the brood requires significant energy, which can detract from other activities like foraging or avoiding predators. It is also very time consuming to constantly protect the brood which could mean less time for activities such as foraging for food

As they are protecting their nests the parents are more vulnerable to predation

Example:

Rock dwelling cichlids which typically guard their broods in the rocky areas and crevices of Lake Malawi. Both parents participate in guarding their fry, however the female usually takes a more active role (R23, R24)

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Nest spawners are fish that reproduce by creating nests in which they lay their eggs. The nests provide protection for the eggs.

Advantages:

Nests can be hidden or defended by one or both of the parents, this provides a safer environment for the offspring.

There is also increased parental care, as the parent will guard and fanning the eggs for oxygen this increases the survival of the offspring.

Disadvantages:

Building and the defending of the nest requires significant energy, it is also very time consuming to build the nest and guarding which can limit the time for feeding

Nests can also be destroyed by environmental events such as floods, storms or human activities

Example:

Beta fish use bubble nets, which is a series of bubbles that the betta fish forms at the water surface. Males are the primary builders of the bubble nets, using them to prove to a mate that they are capable of caring their young. The male usually moves the eggs to the nest and protects them until the baby betta fish swim off to live independently. (R22)

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These fish carry their offspring either internally or externally around with them. The eggs they produce are larger and lesser.

Advantages:

High parental investment of the eggs, more protection and higher survival rates.

Disadvantages:

A lot of energy is spent on caring of eggs, instead of hunting etc.

Lesser eggs, smaller population

Example: Sharks, brotulids, and seahorses

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# data[].attributes.body
Fish food provisioning refers to fish parents providing their young with food. Fish parents seldom provision food for offspring, with some exceptions predominantly found in substrate-brooding Central American cichlids and mouth-brooding African cichlids.

Advantages:

Parent fish provides they young with food for their growth, and the young does not have to hunt for food themselves, increasing their survival rates.

Growth of fish young will also be faster.

Disadvantages:

Energy consuming, parent fish have to hunt and search for food for the fish young, which cost a lot of energy.

Repeated back and forth to the location of the fish young by the fish parents may lure predators that may consume the fish young.

Example: Tropheus duboisi, a mouth-brooding African cichlid, when ingesting food, part or all of the food taken by female parents are ingested by their young held in their buccal cavity.

# data[].attributes.body
Fish increase their egg oxygenation through various methods. Parents diligently fan their fins to oxygenate the eggs, maintaining optimal conditions for healthy development. Egg oxygenation ensures the survival of the offspring by provide them with essential oxygen for respiration. Fanning typically consists of an individual beating its fins to oxygenate the egg mass. Some fishes also brood pump or their mouths to aerate their eggs

# data[].attributes.headline
 Protection from parasites, parasitoids, and disease

# data[].attributes.subject
 Protection from parasites, parasitoids, and disease

# data[].attributes.body
Fishes have severals methods to prevent their eggs and young from succumbing to parasites, parasitoids, and diseases. An example is how some fish play a vigilant role in the maintenance of the breeding environment, removing any fungus or dead eggs that could threaten the survival of the remaining brood by spreading diseases.

# data[].attributes.body
Fishes have many ways to protect their eggs and young from predators.

Schooling is one of the primary ways many fishes help defend themselves and their young from predators. About 80 percent of all fish species school as juveniles and roughly 20 percent school as adults. Many ichthyologists say that the concept of “safety in numbers” plays a fundamental role in schooling behavior.

Mouthbrooding is a parental strategy that involves some species of fish keeping their eggs or newly hatched fry. This is to protect the eggs and young from predation, by keeping them close, secure and protected from the outside surroundings.

Many fishes also protect their eggs and young by guarding. An example is how male sunfish chase off fish that come too close to their eggs, no matter their size.

# data[].attributes.body
ally- yellow

ezlyn- purple

kai yuan- green

bryan- red

josh- blue

alesha (dolphins)- blue