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The Reading League has compiled a list of options, not recommendations, of frequently requested decodable texts.

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Science of Reading - What it IS/What it IS NOT

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Science of Reading - What it IS/What it IS NOT

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Click to Enlarge

There are so many pieces to the Science of Reading that it can be difficult to know where to start. Here are a few highlights about what the Science of Reading IS and what it IS NOT. This knowledge will help you on your journey to teaching all children, including those with diverse needs and cultural backgrounds, to read.

What it IS

A Collection of Research

Research, over time, from multiple fields of study using methods that confirm and disconfirm theories on how children best learn to read.

Teaching Based on the 5 Big Ideas

Phonemic Awareness - The ability to identify and play with individual sounds in spoken words.

Phonics - Reading instruction on understanding how letters and groups of letters link to sounds to form letter- sound relationships and spelling patterns.

- The ability to read words, phrases, sentences, and stories correctly, with enough speed, and expression.

Vocabulary - Knowing what words mean and how to say and use them correctly.

Comprehension - The ability to understand what you are reading.

Ever Evolving

There is new research and evidence all the time. As populations, communities, and approaches evolve, so should practice.

What it is NOT

A program, an intervention, or a product that you can buy.

The Science of Reading could be considered an approach to teaching reading that is based on decades of research and evidence. It is NOT a specific program.

Phonics-based programs that drill phonics skills.

Phonics is an integral part of teaching reading based on science, but it is just one of the five big ideas that should be taught so all children can learn to read.

Complete and no more study needs to be done.

As with any science, it is never complete. We can always know more. More study happens all the time and researchers, teachers, and families can work together to bring the best research into classrooms.

National Center on Improving Literacy (2022). The Science of Reading: The Basics. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, Office of Special Education Programs, National Center on Improving Literacy. Retrieved from http://improvingliteracy.org.

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If you prefer, read the text-version of the infographic. Click to Enlarge There are so many pieces to the Science of Reading that it can be difficult to know where to start. Here are a few highlights about what the Science of Reading IS and what it IS NOT.

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How well do teacher prep programs prepare teachers to teach reading foundations? 

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How well do teacher prep programs prepare teachers to teach reading foundations? 

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According to this review, only 25% of the nation's teacher preparation programs do an adequate job

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National Council on Teacher Quality (NCTQ)

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Teacher Prep Review

Our nation's elementary schools employ 1.9 million teachers who are prepared by programs housed in over 1,500 separate institutions. Since 2006, NCTQ has reviewed programs, made recommendations, and highlighted the best we've seen of key elements for undergraduate, graduate, and non-traditional elementary programs.

The NCTQ Teacher Prep Review evaluates the quality of programs that provide preservice preparation of teachers. The Review database includes both traditional and non-traditional programs.

Traditional Programs

The Teacher Prep Review evaluates a total of 1,244 undergraduate and graduate elementary programs offered by education schools in 1,053 public and private institutions of higher education. The institution-based programs evaluated under the Teacher Prep Review are responsible for producing 96 percent of traditionally prepared teachers.

Alternative Route and Residency Programs

The Teacher Prep Review also examines 58 alternate route and residency programs leading to elementary certification.
Learn more about the timeline and methodology of the Review and access resources from exemplary programs across the country.

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NCTQ analyzes teacher preparation programs on a variety of performance standards, including Early Reading, Clinical Practice and Classroom Management, Program Diversity and Admissions, Elementary Math, and Building Knowledge.

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Nation's Report Card - California Snapshot

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Nation's Report Card - California Snapshot

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Language at the Speed of Sight Book Club, Chapters 1-3

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California's Reading Dilema

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California needs to do more to ensure teachers can teach kids to read, national study says

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The Golden State earned a moderate rating from the National Council on Teacher Quality, showing strength in some areas and weakness in others. Only 12 states earned a strong rating.

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Dec 2022 Oregon RTIi's Reading Symposium 

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Dec 2022 Oregon RTIi's Reading Symposium 

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2022 Virtual Reading Symposium Recordings

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Discovering the Science of Reading: A Reporter's Story

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Emily Hanford's 10 Recommendations for further reading

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Emily Hanford's 10 Recommendations for further reading

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I've chosen 10 things to recommend. I've read hundreds of books and articles since I started getting interested in this topic five years ago, so it was hard to narrow it down. This is by no means a comprehensive list. But it's a start. Here goes:

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Want to know more about the science of reading?

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Here's a reading list put together by Emily Hanford, host and lead producer of our podcast Sold a Story: How Teaching Kids to Read Went So Wrong.

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Margaret Goldberg writes at the Right to Read Projectr

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Margaret Goldberg writes at the Right to Read Projectr

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Teachers Won’t Embrace Research Until It Embraces Them

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I understand why advocates, researchers, and policymakers who feel the urgency of our literacy crisis are frustrated when teachers don’t embrace reading science. But my entry into the world of read…

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Word List For Phonological Awareness Instruction

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Word List For Phonological Awareness Instruction

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Blending Sounds in Syllables with Autumn, Kindergartner

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Elements of Explicit Instruction - Anita Archer

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Elements of Explicit Instruction - Anita Archer

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Continuous & Stop Sounds

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What's the Difference? Continuous and Stop Sounds

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Overview of Phonemic Awareness and General Teaching Principles

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Overview of Phonemic Awareness and General Teaching Principles

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Although the video is focused on prevention of reading difficulties, the principles of learning are the same for older struggling readers

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How We Learn to Read: The Critical Role of Phonological Awareness

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How We Learn to Read: The Critical Role of Phonological Awareness

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READ Intervention & Sound Start Literacy

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Introduction to Heggerty Phonemic Awareness

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Phonological Awareness As Play in Part of the Day

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Phonological Awareness As Play in Part of the Day

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REACH Workshop Series: Phonological Awareness

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Margie Gillis: Professional Learning Series 

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Margie Gillis: Professional Learning Series 

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Webinar: Professional Learning Series - Phonemic Awareness & Phonics

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Ohio Department of Education and Workforce

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Understanding the Role of Phonemic Proficiency in Boosting Reading Skills in Struggling Readers

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Literacy How - Phoneme Articulation Video

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Literacy How - Phoneme Articulation Video

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Developmental Sequence of Phonological Skills

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Developmental Sequence of Phonological Skills

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Click on parts of the A to access more information, resources, and activities.

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Table of Contents

Overview

Cognitive Elements of Reading

Reading Assessment Techniques

Research Evidence

Using the Framework

References

Acknowledgements

PDF version

Related Resources
Glossary of reading terms

Instructional Resources - Literary References

Instructional Resources - Instructional Activities

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Home - The Cognitive Foundations of Learning to Read: A Framework

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Table of Contents Overview Cognitive Elements of Reading Reading Assessment Techniques Research Evidence Using the Framework References Acknowledgements PDF version Related Resources Glossary of reading terms Instructional Resources - Literary References Instructional Resources - Instructional Activities

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About 9 minutes

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Better than guessing: ways to support beginning & struggling readers

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Teacher question: Can you explain the difference between 3P (Pause, Prompt, Praise) and 3 cueing? I know you encourage one and discourage the other, but they seem to be the same thing to me. Help.
Shanahan's reply:
At Shanahan on Literacy, we strive for consistency. Let's see if we can get this straightened out.

First, let's make sure we understand what these two trios are about.

Pause, Prompt, Praise (3P or PPP or P3) is used to guide oral reading practice (Glynn, 2002). Research has shown that having students read challenging texts aloud with support and repetition improves reading achievement (NICHD, 2000). 3P tells the reading partner how to help.

When a reader errs, 3P encourages the listener to pause to give readers a chance to fix the problem themselves. Let the reader get to the end of the phrase or sentence before intervening.

Prompting comes next. The student has erred and done nothing about it. Guidance is needed. In 3P, there are a couple of possibilities. One, tell the reader to look more closely at the word, to sound it out, or to break it up into parts and sound it out. In other words, encourage more accurate decoding. This is great for when youngsters read pony for horse, or only sound the beginning letters.

But if the reader makes a good faith effort to sound out a word and failed, then a different feedback is needed. An example of this is when the reader reads ballet as "ball-et" (rhyming with ball-net). The reader has fully analyzed the orthography, taken account of all of the letters, and come up with a reasonable pronunciation (if you doubt that think of bullet). Telling the reader to sound it out or break it into syllables won't help much in this case.

Here a meaning-based prompt is needed: Does that make sense?

The third P refers to praise. If the child does something well, say so. Doing things well includes reading the text fluently, erring and trying to fix it, and using a prompt successfully.

Results from 3P are positive and research shows that teachers who tailor their cues to the students' reading tend to be most effective (Pflaum & Pascarella, 1980).

Now for 3-cueing systems. The idea here is that word identification is a kind of guessing game, with three different clues or cues.

The cues are orthographic-phonemic (the letters and sounds), semantic (the meaning), and syntax (the grammar of the sentences). The idea is to teach students how to use all of these cues in combination to read words - though often there tends to be a greater emphasis on meaning when teachers do this. Thus, if the student replaces horse with pony or automobile with car, proponents of 3-cueing systems may judge that to be close enough since meaning is the goal of reading (though this approach clearly makes a hash of nuanced meaning - horses and ponies aren't really the same thing).

In the 3-cueing scheme, students are often provided a set of steps or strategies to use when reading. For instance, "Look at the pictures" or "skip the word and reread" or "try a word that makes sense" or "look at the first letter and guess." In the ballet example above, one can imagine a teacher encouraging the child to look at the pictures and dance might be accepted.

There are successful instructional schemes that use 3-cueing systems (think Reading Recovery), though the value of that part of their approach has never been tested independently so we can't tell if it contributes anything to learning.

Studies have shown that students who recognize words by looking at the pictures or trying to use context to guess the word tend to be the poorest readers, however (Stanovich, West, & Freeman, 1981).

So your confusion is most likely arising from that meaning-oriented prompt in 3P. It sure sounds like the same guessing game - and, there is no question, that a teacher could implement it that way.

Guidance to sound pedagogy on this is based in the concept of a "mental set for variability or diversity" (Gibson & Levin, 1975). Mental set refers to our tendency to rely on solutions that have worked in the past. When a toddler knows doggy, don't be surprised if the next 4-legged animal he sees is called doggy even if it moos. People try generalizing from past success which can lead to rigidity and overgeneralization - trying to use a particular fixed solution even when it doesn't work.

When it comes to reading, if I know how to sound out words reasonably well, then my pronunciation of ballet may come out somewhat closer to "ball-it" then to "bal-lay."

English is a rich and complex language, in part because it borrows so many words from other languages. In this case, the "et" spelling that sounds like /ay/ is a French contribution that comes up a lot in English - ballet, beret, bouquet, chalet, ricochet, crochet, and the homographic buffet (thanks, William the Conqueror).

Given the complexities of the English language, psychologists have concluded that the best readers must develop a mental set for diversity rather than a mental set for consistency.

Good readers have greater flexibility when it comes to decoding words. The reader who learns to expect consistency will pronounce "ball-it" and have no other choice but to turn to meaning to straighten things out. In that kind of uncertain world, looking at the picture and guessing dance is probably as well as one can do.

Good readers on the other hand try out a pronunciation, and if that doesn't make sense, they try another one that is legal in the English language. They use meaning, or the failure to make meaning, as a signal that another pronunciation alternative should be considered.

In 3-cueing, the lack of meaning is not a signal to work through one's alternative orthographic-phonological choices. It is the guide that is supposed to help you determine what the word is.

In 3P, one could use the meaning guidance in that way, of course. But that's not what I would recommend. The lack of meaning (does that make sense?) should be supported by further guidance - not to context or pictures - but to pronunciation alternatives.

Such oral reading guidance should be supported by high quality, explicit, systematic decoding instruction.

A terrific phonics lesson would be to explore "et" spellings, comparing /et/ and /ay/words ... analyzing them, sorting them, talking about them, spelling them, and so on. That would reveal to young readers these two options for pronouncing words with that spelling pattern.

Another relevant lesson would be stress what to do when the pronunciation that you came up with seems wrong. What are the pronunciation alternatives? Have your tried them?

We want students to depend upon the orthographic-phonological system when reading words. We support that by teaching decoding and through guided oral reading practice. Meaning plays a crucial role in oral reading, but not the role 3-cueing accords it. The point is to develop readers with a mental set for variability ... learning that if one alternative pronunciation fails, you must try another (not that if one type of cue doesn't work, you should try another type of cue).

Good readers flexibly work through alternative pronunciations, relying on what they know about the letters, spelling patterns, and phonemes to guide each of their choices.

Poor readers may use some orthographic-phonemic information when they try a word, but if that fails, they seek ways to solve their problem without reading (like guessing from pictures - that's not reading, of course, but it might provide a right answer in a pinch, and the social situation of schooling too often rewards getting the right answer over learning).

Good readers use meaning to determine if they made the right choice - and if they didn't, there needs to be more analysis of the orthography/phonology. Poor readers use meaning to try to figure out the word, instead of using the orthography/phonology (Stanovich, West, & Freeman, 1981).

We need to teach students about the phonological-orthographic system and its relationship to morphology explicitly so they will have a rich knowledge base available when it comes to alternative pronunciations.

We need to build up statistical sensitivity to these spelling/pronunciation patterns through lots of reading experience (and not just with supposedly "decodable text" - all text is decodable), so students will have some notions about which pronunciation choices are most likely to work (Seidenberg, 2017).

We need to build up a flexibility through how we guide oral reading that encourages students to recognize when a different spelling-pronunciation pattern might be the better choice.

3P can be a good way to contribute to that progression of learning, as long as the meaning cue is used properly. 3-cueing, on the other hand, is just a bad idea that encourages readers to mimic poor reading rather than proficient reading.

References

Gibson, E.J., & Levin, H. (1975). The psychology of reading. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Glynn, T. (2002). Pause Prompt Praise: Reading tutoring procedures for home and school partnership. London: Routledge.

Pflaum, S., & Pascarella, E. (1980). Interactive Effects of Prior Reading Achievement and Training in Context on the Reading of Learning-Disabled Children. Reading Research Quarterly, 16, 138.

Seidenberg, M. (2017). Language at the speed of sight. New York: Basic Books.

Stanovich, K. E., West, R. F., & Freeman, D. J. (1981). A longitudinal study of sentence context effects in second-grade children: Tests of an interactive-compensatory model. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 32, 185-199.

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3P versus 3-cueing: why recommend one and shun the other? | Reading Rockets

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Teacher question: Can you explain the difference between 3P (Pause, Prompt, Praise) and 3 cueing? I know you encourage one and discourage the other, but they seem to be the same thing to me. Help. Shanahan's reply: At Shanahan on Literacy, we strive for consistency. Let's see if we can get this straightened out.

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Maria S  Murray: Strategies for Teaching Irregular/Tricky Words

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Advanced Orthographic Mapping: How the Science of Reading Informs Foundational Reading ...

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David Kilpatrick Explains Orthographic Mapping

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David Kilpatrick Explains Orthographic Mapping

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Part of a larger, on-demand PD series available through the Colorado Department of Education.

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Word Level Reading: 4.4 Orthographic Mapping

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After viewing this module session participants will be able to:

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Reading In The Brain - Stanislas Dehaene

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Reading In The Brain - Stanislas Dehaene

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How Children Learn to Read Words: Ehri's Phases

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How Children Learn to Read Words: Ehri's Phases

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SoR-What I Should Have Learned in College

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Instructional Swaps for Speech to Print Approaches

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Letter I sound: CKLA Kindergarten Reading Skills Unit 3 Lesson 9

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Systematic, explicit phonics lesson, Ms. Cuomo, 1st grade

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Systematic, explicit phonics lesson, Ms. Cuomo, 1st grade

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What do I with all these predictable books?

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What do I with all these predictable books?

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Many teachers have already reorganized our leveled libraries because we learned that, according to Fountas and Pinnell, "levels have no place in classroom libraries." Sorting books into bins labeled by theme or topic is time-consuming, but it's not a difficult task. We immediately see that offering students more choice in their reading materials and teaching them to monitor their own reading for accuracy and comprehension is rewarding. However, books at the lower levels, "predictable books," pose a challenge that is not so easily solved.

Problems with Predictable Books

Predictable books are designed to teach children not to depend on decoding to tackle unfamiliar words-they are purpose-written to teach children to predict, or guess words-so what children do with low-level books is not actually reading. Some students climb up the levels by transitioning away from picture-cues and predictable sentences, but others hold tightly to the guessing strategies that are reinforced by predictable books, and time with these books slows their decoding progress. For beginning readers, decodable books provide a more reliable path to authentic texts, and using them for phonics instruction and fluency practice offers a "helps all, harms none" approach to teaching reading. But what, then, should we do with all our predictable books?!

Rethinking the Instructional Purpose

To repurpose predictable books for activities other than reading, we need to look at them with fresh eyes and new criteria. More important than the level stamped on the back cover is the contents inside.

We can ask ourselves, What are the features of this individual book that make it a useful teaching tool? A single book may have more than one useful feature and it might be repurposed for any number of language development, writing, or art activities.

We've listed out some of the features you might look for in predictable books and have drafted example activities to help with lesson planning. (You'll find descriptions and links to the example activities below this table.)

Predictable Book Types

Types

Activities

Examples

Single sentence per page with a single story word
1. (RE)WRITE THE BOOK
Composing Simple Sentences

Cumulative illustrations
8. TALK AND TURN THE PAGE
Language Development for Beginning English-learners

We've drafted ten lesson examples-one for each of the ten book types-to show how predictable books can be repurposed for instruction designed to build students' oral language, writing skills, and creative abilities. The exemplar texts all come from the Green Kit of Leveled Literacy Intervention (LLI), but any predictable texts with the similar features would work well. Repeating these lessons with multiple books can deepen students' learning and, if you pull away the scaffolds, many of these activities can become literacy centers.
Click on the activity title to see the lesson example.
Composing Simple Sentences

This activity gives students a purpose for composing grammatical sentences that apply the phonics and high-frequency words they have been taught. Books that have a single sentence per page and that include a "story word" to go with the picture (typical in books Levels A and B) work best for this activity.

Narrative Writing

In some predictable books, the pictures are the most interesting part. A book like, Oh No! (Level A) tells nearly the whole story through the illustrations. Discussing the pictures and creating a story requires students to draw inferences, share observations, and tell/write a story in sequential order.

Writing Speech or Thought Bubbles

The illustrations in predictable texts often communicate the personalities, feelings, and interactions of characters and, to the extent the text tells a story, mirror the story's narrative structure. The pictures provide a built-in scaffold for students as they think about and discuss what characters might be saying (or thinking).

Grammar Instruction

The repetitive sentence structure in predictable books can be used to teach students the parts of speech and how to use those parts to compose increasingly complex sentences (orally and/or in writing). Strategies from Guided Language Acquisition Design (GLAD) benefit language learners of all levels.

Sentence Combining

For this activity, students use paired sentences from a predictable text to generate more complex sentences. Depending on students' language and writing ability, you might choose to do more or less sophisticated sentence combining. The difficulty of the activity can also be varied by determining how much of the writing is completed by the teacher or the students

Writing Conventions

At Level C and above, predictable books tend to have punctuation, like quotation marks and commas, as well as text features, such as bolded words and dialog tags. A big book can provide multiple opportunities to show students the written conventions you would like to see in their writing.

Spelling High-frequency Words

This activity is best suited to irregularly spelled high-frequency words, such as do and one. Students get repeated practice identifying, saying, writing, and correctly spelling high-frequency words in the context of complete, grammatical sentences. Focus this activity on words recently taught during reading instruction so students receive extra practice and learn to spell the words correctly for their own writing.

Language Development for Beginning English-learners

In this activity, students have multiple opportunities to point to images and say what they are. Using sentence frames provides students with repeated practice producing complete, grammatical sentences with the vocabulary they are learning.

Vocabulary Picture Cards

This activity previews or reviews vocabulary related to a topic. As you select words for vocabulary cards, target words that are grade-level appropriate and that will be high-utility in and outside of the classroom.

Labeled Collage

Because so many predictable books are on the same topics (gardens, farms, playing, etc.) it's easy to make book sets. A few books on the same topic, preferably each with a different type of illustration, make great raw material for a collage.

Separator

Onward and Upward!

Predictable books are not the best tool for teaching students how to read, but they can be put to good use in class discussions, ELD or writing lessons, literacy centers, and art. The activities we've shared are just a starting place and we'd love to hear what other ideas you have for using predictable books.

Balanced Literacy instructional change leveled books

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What Do I Do with All These Predictable Books?

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Many teachers have already reorganized our leveled libraries because we learned that, according to Fountas and Pinnell, "levels have no place in classroom libraries." Sorting books into bins labele...

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Step 4 of an Explicit Phonics Lesson | Decodable Text | Science of Reading

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Planning for Instruction

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All students should have access to the instruction, materials, and practice opportunities necessary for them to flourish as readers. For most students, coherent, structured reading foundational skills instruction is critical to unlock the code of written language. Below are planning resources to support the components of reading foundational skills instruction.

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Speech to Print vs. Print to Speech:  Does It Make a Difference in Beginning Reading Instruction?  

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Speech to Print vs. Print to Speech:  Does It Make a Difference in Beginning Reading Instruction?  

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University of Florida Literacy Institute

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University of Florida Literacy Institute

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Welcome to the University of Florida Literacy Institute (UFLI, pronounced "you fly"). UFLI is an ongoing effort by UF faculty, students, and staff to improve literacy outcomes for children learning to read.

The work of UFLI focuses on two main areas: teacher development and reader development. The place where those two overlap ... that is where the work of UFLI lives. Our programs and resources are designed to help teachers become more confident and more successful in their capacity to help kids learn to read. We do this through:

Academic programs for both pre-service and practicing educators to develop the skills and knowledge necessary to be effective reading teachers

Professional learning opportunities to help classroom reading teachers, instructional coaches, and school leaders expand their knowledge, enhance their teaching practices, and build capacity in their schools

Resources for teachers, parents, and teacher educators to use in their reading instruction

Much, much more!

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UF Literacy Institute | Where teacher development and reader development overlap

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Welcome to the University of Florida Literacy Institute (UFLI, pronounced "you fly"). UFLI is an ongoing effort by UF faculty, students, and staff to improve literacy outcomes for children learning to read. The work of UFLI focuses on two main areas: teacher development and reader development. The place where those two overlap ...

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Video 29: Decodable Words in Isolation and in Text (REL Southeast)

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READ Intervention & Sound Start Literacy

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A Speech-to-Print Approach to Reading with Jan Wasowicz

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Building Phoneme Awareness - Connecting to Print

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Building Phoneme Awareness - Connecting to Print

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With an understanding that research in the future may provide even more powerful pathways for reading success, this fact sheet presents guiding principles for instruction informed by what we know from research today. Science evolves and is dynamic. As reading research progresses, and as understanding and interpretation of the research advances, educators and policymakers must periodically adjust or refine practices and policies. Now it is time to implement what accumulated evidence indicates regarding a key component of reading acquisition, phoneme awareness (also known as phonemic awareness). Students who are learning to read must become aware of the smallest segmented parts of spoken words (phonemes) that are represented by graphemes (letters and combinations of letters) in written words. Phoneme awareness is the ability to be aware of and consciously think about these individual speech sounds in spoken words. It is a critical foundational skill for reading.

This fact sheet discusses phoneme awareness, why it is necessary, and how it develops. In it you will find tips for effective practices to build children 's phoneme awareness in kindergarten, first grade, and beyond. Based on current understanding of research findings, this fact sheet also covers the importance of integrating phoneme awareness instruction that links phonemes and associated graphemes with letter names and handwriting instruction. It further raises important considerations regarding the interpretations of research in commonly used programs, standards, evaluation rubrics, and legislative requirements for literacy instruction. To unpack what is known, it is helpful to first review relevant terminology

Phonological Awareness is a broad term that refers to the ability to think about and be consciously aware of the sound structures in spoken words, ranging from larger, more noticeable structures (such as syllables and rhymes) to individual phonemes. Phonological awareness is sometimes used to refer to awareness of a subset of those sound structures, but it is clearer to use the more specific terms, phonological sensitivity and phoneme awareness to be more precise and avoid misunderstandings.

Note: when representing the phonemes in spoken words in writing, phonemes are bracketed by diagonal lines; for example, /k/ signifies the speech sound represented by the first letters in kitten and cop

Phonological Sensitivity refers to awareness of the larger, sometimes more easily noticed sound structures in speech, including whole words and sound structures within words: rhymes, syllables, onsets, and rimes.

Rhymes-consisting of the stressed vowel in a word and what follows-can extend across one or more syllables (for example, cat/bat; mountain/fountain). Syllables include a vowel phoneme and may have one or more consonant phonemes before and/or after the vowel phoneme (for example, I, am, go, sit, spot, script). The onset, if present, is the first phonetic segment of a syllable before the vowel sound; in the word cat, it is the /k/. The rime includes the vowel phoneme and anything that follows it in the syllable; in the word cat, it is the two phonemes that follow the /k/.

Phoneme Awareness (or phonemic awareness) is the ability to be aware of and consciously think about individual speech sounds (phonemes) in spoken words, as noted above. Phoneme awareness is a necessary component of early reading and spelling development. It goes beyond the hearing or perceiving of the speech sounds in spoken words. Phoneme awareness involves conscious awareness that allows a learner to notice and think about the phonemes in words they hear and pronounce. This skill develops gradually, almost always in the context of learning about phonemes and letters in written words.

Focus on Phoneme Awareness
Why Phoneme Awareness Is Important for Learning to Read
To understand how the English alphabetic writing system works, the learner must realize that letters (or combinations of letters) represent the individual phonemes in spoken words. This awareness is referred to as gaining understanding of the alphabetic principle. An awareness of individual phonemes, subsequently linked with corresponding letters, provides an insight about the nature of writing that is essential for learning to read and write. This insight usually begins by becoming aware of one or more of the first phonemes in spoken words (the /k/ in cat; the /s/ in soup). Awareness of each of the phonemes in English in the different positions in spoken words, and knowledge of the corresponding letters or letter combinations (graphemes), unfolds over time, bringing about expanded mastery of the alphabetic system. In short, phoneme awareness is a critical cornerstone of that process. Without awareness of phonemes and the ways in which they are represented in print, written words would seem to be arbitrary sets of letters that must be memorized.
Why Phoneme Awareness Is Challenging to Acquire
Children's abilities vary in terms of how difficult it is to acquire phoneme awareness; this is unrelated to intelligence. Speaking and listening do not require being aware of the individual speech sounds in spoken words. Instead, those language skills are processed automatically by the language system in the brain. However, to learn to read, children must acquire a new metalevel skill that requires consciously thinking about words as a sequence of individual speech sounds rather than just attending to the meaning of what is being said, as they have been used to doing.

Contributing to the challenge of becoming aware of the individual phonemes, the articulation of a phoneme usually overlaps to some extent with the articulation of other phonemes that precede and/or follow it. This overlap happens because phonemes are produced with combinations of muscle gestures, such as opening and closing the lips, raising, or lowering the jaw, and vibration of the vocal cords; gestures that yield one phoneme may occur at the same time or overlap with the production of adjacent phonemes (known as coarticulation). For example, consider the pronunciation of the words see and sue: at the start of saying the /s/ in see, the lips are already wide for the long e vowel sound; for sue, they are rounded in anticipation of the u vowel sound. The difficulty of becoming aware of individual phonemes may stem in part from this coarticulation of the gestures across phonemes, given that the pronunciation of a phoneme in a word generally carries some information about neighboring phonemes as well. At the same time, focusing children's attention on the key articulatory components of a phoneme can be beneficial for fostering awareness of phonemes. As an example, even with the slight variation in lip position in the pronunciation of /s/ in see and sue, students can notice that /s/ in both cases is a hissy sound made by placing the tip of the tongue close to the upper front teeth and pushing air out at that location-the key articulatory components of that phoneme.
Phoneme Awareness as the Starting Point
Early research found that first-grade students had awareness of phonemes, but preschoolers did not. Because approximately half of the preschoolers tested demonstrated awareness of the larger phonological element of syllables, it raised a question: Must children first become aware of these larger chunks of speech sounds before developing phoneme awareness? Over the years, an assumption was widely embraced by researchers-and implemented by practitioners-that instruction should follow a developed that instruction should follow a sequence from larger to smaller phonological elements. However, research has confirmed that phoneme awareness can be taught to children who lack phonological sensitivity, demonstrating that acquiring phoneme awareness does not require students to first gain syllable segmentation skills. Multiple findings also corroborate that programs are effective when they begin with a focus on phoneme awareness rather than phonological sensitivity, and highly so when instruction then links phonemes with graphemes. This is documented both for beginning readers and for students who have struggled with acquiring reading skills. This research indicates that phonological sensitivity instruction (with larger units such as rhyme, syllables, and onset-rime) is neither a prerequisite nor a causal factor in the development of phonemic awareness.
How Phoneme Awareness Develops
Phoneme awareness develops gradually, most often as children are learning to read and spell. Direct instruction in phoneme awareness, promptly linked with letter knowledge, facilitates reading acquisition, and learning to read reciprocally expands awareness of phonemes.

Correspondingly, acquisition of the alphabetic principle unfolds gradually. It develops in tandem with the phoneme awareness ability to isolate and identify phonemes in spoken words, provided that phoneme awareness instruction is linked subsequently with letter knowledge (letter names and letter sounds). Blending and segmenting at the phoneme level are essential skills because they are central to decoding and encoding (spelling). Therefore, when teaching and practicing phoneme awareness skills, once the student has become aware of the phoneme, linking each speech sound with the grapheme that spells it will facilitate the transfer of skills to reading and writing.
Beginning Phoneme Awareness
The location of a phoneme influences the ease with which students become aware of that phoneme. It is easiest for students to isolate the initial phoneme in a spoken word, regardless of length of the word, if the first phoneme is not part of a consonant blend. For example, beginners can identify the initial phoneme /b/ in the spoken words bus and banana more easily than they can in blue or brown.

A simple syllable (such as bus or keep) is one that does not include a consonant blend. After becoming aware of initial phonemes (such as the /b/ in bus or the /k/ in keep), students generally become aware of final phonemes in simple one-syllable spoken words (the /s/ in bus, the /p/ in keep). The next level is becoming aware of the medial vowel phonemes in simple syllable words such as these. In short, explicit instruction in phoneme awareness (including phoneme segmentation) with words that are simple syllables facilitates a student's beginning awareness of phonemes.

Instructional Goal: With appropriate instruction, full acquisition of beginning phoneme awareness-awareness of each of the phonemes in simple syllables-is a realistic goal for kindergarten students, coordinated with instruction that links the phonemes with targeted letter names, letter sounds, and letter writing.
Later Phoneme Awareness
Once students master awareness of phonemes in simple syllables, they are ready for explicit instruction in words that are complex syllables. A complex syllable is one that includes one or two consonant blends (for example, clap, felt, crisp, splash). Note that long vowels can be included when doing an oral segmentation task (with words such as float or claim) once the child's spelling skills have advanced to include the graphemes that will spell that phoneme. Becoming aware of initial or final external consonants (the /k/ or /p/ in crisp) is easier than becoming aware of the internal consonants in two-phoneme blends (the /l/ in clap or felt; the /r/ and /s/ in crisp), or in three-phoneme blends (the /p/ and /l/ in splash).

Instructional Goal: Once awareness of phonemes in simple syllables is confirmed for individual students by the end of kindergarten or early in first grade, awareness of phonemes in complex syllables is an appropriate goal for first grade. Beyond first grade, a student who has not attained full phoneme awareness will need further instruction, first determining where the student is in their development of phoneme awareness and going forward from there.
Teaching Tip
Be alert to a student's spelling and reading errors that reflect a phoneme awareness weakness. Omission of a speech sound is a flag that the student may be unaware of one or more phonemes in the spoken word. For example, spelling bed as "bd" often reflects lack of awareness of the medial vowel; spelling plan as "pan" is an indication that the student is having difficulty being aware of the /l/ in the blend and needs to do activities that will foster awareness of internal consonants.
Why It Is Important to Coordinate Phoneme Awareness Instruction with the Teaching of Grapheme-Phoneme Correspondences, Spelling (Encoding), and Handwriting
When a child demonstrates awareness of a phoneme (for example, being able to isolate and pronounce an initial phoneme), this can be followed by introducing the letter or combination of letters that represents that phoneme. This sequence builds an understanding of the alphabetic principle, as noted earlier. The value of incorporating graphemes when building phoneme awareness (for example, in a spelling activity) has been verified both for beginning readers in kindergarten and students who have deficits in reading at any age who have phoneme awareness weaknesses. Further, this sequential pairing facilitates the links between phonemes and letters needed for orthographic mapping of words (storing the spellings of words in memory). Likewise, it is beneficial to work consistently on handwriting practice that is coordinated with the grapheme-phoneme relationships that have been learned, and to apply these skills in spelling, reading, and writing activities. This, too, strengthens students' mastery of phoneme-grapheme correspondences and is a key foundation for writing fluency.

This approach is an example of an important concept of Structured Literacy: student learning of foundational reading skills is facilitated by instruction that is integrated-that coordinates the development of phoneme awareness with the learning of letter and grapheme names and sounds and that includes instruction in handwriting along with practice writing the targeted letters. This approach helps students gain awareness of the alphabetic principle, supports the learning of each component, and lays a foundation for decoding, word recognition, and spelling. Once a student has early phoneme awareness and letter knowledge for a small set of consonants and one or two vowels (for example: a, m, s, f, l, i, t, p) they can begin to read and spell many words (sat, map, lip, fit, ...). With a set of vowels and consonants such as these, kindergarteners also can (and should) practice encoding and writing words that use the learned set of phonemes and letters. Likewise, they can (and should) practice applying these skills to read decodable text with these same phonemes/letters and with a small number of high-frequency words necessary to compose sentences. The exciting accomplishment of reading text is rewarding - and helps consolidate the skills being learned.

You might be surprised by the recommendation to coordinate letter knowledge and writing skills with phoneme awareness tasks in light of the fact that a number of programs do not. The practice of not incorporating letters stemmed from early findings showing that good readers are better than poor readers at doing oral phoneme manipulation tasks without letters (for example, what is smile without the /s/?). At the time, there was widespread agreement on the implications of this research, and the practice of attempting to develop phoneme awareness skills without any connection to graphemes was an appropriate interpretation of what was known at the time. However, further research indicates that such skills are the consequence of spelling and reading development: when good readers are asked to manipulate the phonemes in a spoken word by substituting, deleting or adding a phoneme, they automatically access their knowledge of the spelling (the orthographic representation) of that word. Students who can do manipulation tasks orally for words that are complex syllables are likely to be good readers and spellers who are beyond the need for phoneme awareness instruction. For other students who do need to increase their awareness of phonemes, research still is needed to determine whether oral-only manipulation of complex syllables (without including letters) is beneficial. Given the lack of evidence to support oral-only phonemic awareness manipulation activities and because existing research shows those tasks associated with stronger effects when integrated with print, incorporating letters in phoneme manipulation tasks is recommended to enhance awareness of phonemes in spoken words and to support memory of letter-sound correspondences.

Note that this is not to say that all oral phoneme awareness tasks are inappropriate. For example, it's fine to ask students to isolate and/or identify an individual phoneme or to say each phoneme in an oral segmentation measure, if these activities are introduced at the appropriate point in students' phoneme awareness development. Keep in mind that, even with these tasks, it can be helpful to promptly make connections to the graphemes that spell the phonemes. Using letters helps establish the functional value of the phoneme awareness task because it connects phoneme awareness with reading and spelling.
Teaching Tip
Whenever phoneme manipulation tasks are used to build awareness, provide letter tiles or written letters in some form to represent the spellings of the phonemes in the word and the phoneme being manipulated. Asking students to do such manipulation without letters can strain working memory, putting a counter-productive, unnecessary burden on beginners and struggling readers.
The Impact of Speaking a Second Language or a Different Dialect
Whenever there is a difference between the language or dialect background of a student learning to read and write in General American English (GAE), the student will have extra language and cognitive learning demands. In U.S. schools, approximately 400 different languages other than English are spoken; Spanish is the most common. The second language learner must become consciously aware of the phonemes in English, including any English speech sounds that are not in the student's native language.

A similar situation exists for speakers of English dialects, with a significant case being the African American English (AAE) dialect in which phonological rules differ from GAE regarding how certain phonemes are pronounced in particular contexts (for instance, consonant clusters in final position in a word may be reduced to a single final consonant). Linguistic analyses have long established that AAE meets all the systematic, rule-governed characteristics of a spoken language, reinforcing the need for positive attitudes about this dialect.
Teaching Tip
Teachers need to be well informed about the phonemes of English and be aware of which speech sounds are particularly challenging for the second language learner depending on the child's first language. This awareness will enable them to provide extra support to help the student gain mastery of those phonemes. For example, when students whose first language is Spanish encounter the phoneme /sh/ (a phoneme not in the Spanish phonology), they may confuse it with the similar phoneme that is present in both Spanish and English: /ch/ (spelling ship as chip). Attention to how /sh/ and /ch/ differ in articulation may be helpful, as may be sorting activities with cards depicting objects that in English start with one or the other of these phonemes.

Likewise, teachers may be better able to teach AAE speakers if they gain an understanding of when and how particular phonemes are pronounced differently in the two dialects and provide extra support as needed pertaining to phoneme awareness, as well as to other differing linguistic aspects of AAE and GAE. With that understanding, teachers can respectfully help students learn how spoken GAE differs, while also explicitly linking it to written English.

Other Questions You May Have
What to Do if Students Lack Phonological Sensitivity
Lack of phonological sensitivity (awareness of the larger sounds structures in spoken words such as rhymes, syllables, etc.) and phoneme awareness is particularly common for young children and for children coming from low socioeconomic circumstances. Though phonological sensitivity can be taught to young students, doing so delays the instruction needed to build students' phoneme awareness and corresponding letter knowledge-skills that are necessary to become successful readers. It can also introduce confusion for learners when they switch to a focus on phonemes. Because an instructional continuum from phonological sensitivity to phoneme awareness is not necessary, delaying phonemic awareness instruction by starting with phonological sensitivity activities is unlikely to be the most direct and beneficial path to launching students' phoneme awareness skills and reading success.
Teaching Tip
Start right away with activities that target phoneme awareness, focusing first on initial phonemes, the easiest phoneme position in a word for beginners to isolate. Two practical guidelines should influence which phonemes are selected to be in the words used.

First, the instructor (and ideally, the curriculum) should begin with words in which the phonemes are easier to become aware of because they are produced in the front of the mouth (and hence are more visible in a mirror or when produced by another speaker) and can be stretched out-such as the /m/ in "mmmmmmap." Phonemes such as these can be used to make a number of common one-syllable words.

Second, the phoneme awareness program should not be disconnected from the district's foundational skills program and thought of as an add-on to the curriculum. Rather, the district should follow a logical scope and sequence for foundational skills curricular materials and decodable books, and the phonemes targeted for phonemic awareness should be coordinated with that sequence to systematically link phoneme awareness, letter skills, and reading development.
W hen to Provide Instruction in Syllable and Rhyme Structures
There can be benefits to teaching students about syllable and rhyme structures, but mostly for reasons unrelated to phoneme awareness. Young children notice rhyme and alliteration as part of hearing and remembering nursery rhymes and songs. The rhyme concept also can be a focus later if students are writing poems. When targeting awareness of an initial phoneme, generating alliterative sequences can help bring that phoneme to children's attention (for example, Tommy talks to Tess- /t/-/t/-/t/-/t/!), which can foster early phoneme awareness. Introducing syllables is valuable when focusing on spelling; teachers can explain that words may have more than one syllable and that each syllable has a vowel. Syllables are also the focus when introducing spelling patterns for syllable types and for syllable division tasks. Thus, these concepts are useful for other purposes.

Implications for Instruction and Assessment

Early success at learning to read fuels interest in reading in the years that follow, whereas a slow, difficult process of reading acquisition does not. Research has provided exciting insights into early phoneme awareness instruction that have the potential to launch more successful readers in kindergarten and first grade.

Three points are evident:

1. Educators should begin right away with phoneme awareness instruction in kindergarten (and when working with older students with phoneme awareness deficits). The best use of instructional time in kindergarten and beyond is to focus on phonemic awareness while greatly reducing time spent on phonological sensitivity elements. Educators do not need to follow a continuum that requires instruction in each element of phonological sensitivity (counting the words in a sentence, rhyme recognition and production, syllable counting, syllable segmenting/blending, and so on) prior to beginning instruction to develop phoneme awareness.

2. By focusing immediately on phoneme awareness instruction coordinated with letter/grapheme knowledge and handwriting, teachers can assess and teach the key skills connected to reading success and thus help students build foundational reading skills more effectively and quickly. These activities provide students with direct instruction and insights about how the writing system works, boosting motivation, confidence, and success.

3. Whenever phoneme awareness instruction is needed, either for beginning readers or for older struggling readers, teachers should focus on phoneme awareness at the level appropriate for the student, keeping these recommendations in mind: start with initial phonemes, then final phonemes, followed by medial vowel phonemes in words that are simple syllables; after these beginning levels of phoneme awareness are accomplished, next work on awareness of the internal consonants s in complex, one-syllable words that include consonant blends.

This fact sheet has focused on phoneme awareness and related instructional elements that are critical beginning steps for reading and writing proficiency. However, we want to acknowledge that these components, plus letter knowledge and handwriting, are only part of a comprehensive Structured Literacy program. The content and instruction described in this fact sheet should, of course, be a component of fully integrated and robust instruction in reading, spelling, and writing.

The methods summarized here can contribute to impressive literacy gains in the first year of school and can offset the reading difficulties too often observed for socioeconomically disadvantaged students. Moving forward, it will be important to make changes in materials, literacy standards, evaluation rubrics, legislation, and teacher preparation to reflect these gains in understanding about optimal practices for teaching the foundational skills of reading.

Hallmarks of a Strong Phoneme Awareness Program

To summarize, the key points regarding phoneme awareness instruction are as follows:
Representative References (organized by topic) Importance of Phoneme Awareness When Learning to Read

Focuses on building phoneme awareness, rather than phonological sensitivity, from the beginning;

Systematically links phoneme awareness instruction to grapheme and letter knowledge from the beginning and throughout later manipulation activities;

Integrates practice of phoneme awareness, letter and grapheme knowledge, and handwriting;

Works toward mastery of beginning phoneme awareness in simple syllables in kindergarten, progressing to later phoneme awareness of internal consonants in complex syllables in first grade

Provides instruction informed by assessment of students' phoneme awareness skills, determining where students are in their development of phoneme awareness and differentiating instruction accordingly;

Provides instruction for second language learners and speakers of English dialects (such as AAE) that builds awareness of variations in pronunciation and of phonemes not occurring in their first language or dialect; and

Assesses the extent of phoneme awareness in struggling readers in any grade, and if weaknesses in phoneme awareness are evident, calibrates intervention to follow the sequence of phoneme awareness development.

Brady, S. (2020). A 2020 perspective on research findings on alphabetics (phoneme awareness and phonics): Implications for instruction. The Reading League Journal, 1(3), 20-28.

Ehri, L., Nunes, S., Willows, D., Schuster, B., Yagoub-Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T. (2001). Phoneme awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel's meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36(3), 250-287.

Hulme, C., Bowyer-Crane, C., Carroll, J. M., Duff, F. J., & Snowling, M. J. (2012). The causal role of phoneme awareness and letter-sound knowledge in learning to read: Combining intervention studies with mediation analyses. Psychological Science, 23(6), 572-577.
Lack of Necessity to Teach Phonological Sensitivity Skills before Teaching Phoneme Awareness
Shankweiler, D., & Fowler, A. (2004). Questions people ask about the role of phonological processes in learning to read. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 17(5), 483-515.

Ball, E., & Blachman, B. (1991). Does phoneme awareness training in kindergarten make a difference in early word recognition and developmental spelling? Reading Research Quarterly, 26(1), 49-66.

Brady, S. (2020). A 2020 perspective on research findings on alphabetics (phoneme awareness and phonics): Implications for instruction. The Reading League Journal, 1(3), 20-28.

Cary, L., & Verhaeghe, A. (1994). Promoting phonemic analysis ability among kindergartners: Effects of different training programs. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 6(3), 251-278.

Gillon, G. (2018). Phonological awareness: From research to practice (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

Geudens, A., & Sandra, D. (2003). Beyond implicit phonological knowledge: No support for an onset-rime structure in children's explicit phonological awareness. Journal of Memory and Language, 49, 157-182.

Nancollis, A., Lawrie, B. A., & Dodd, B. (2005). Phonological awareness intervention and the acquisition of literacy skills in children from deprived social backgrounds. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 36, 325-335.

Savage, R., & Carless, S. (2005). Learning support assistants and effective reading interventions for 'at-risk' children. Educational Research, 47(1), 45-61.
Importance of Connecting Phonemes with Letters in Phoneme Awareness Activities
Ukrainetz, T., Nuspl, J., Wilkerson, K., & Beddes, S. (2011). The effects of syllable instruction on phonemic awareness in preschoolers. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26(1), 50-60

Boyer, N., & Ehri, L. (2011). Contribution of phonemic segmentation instruction with letters and articulation pictures to word reading and spelling in beginners. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(5), 440-470.

Brady, S. (2020). A 2020 perspective on research findings on alphabetics (phoneme awareness and phonics): Implications for instruction. The Reading League Journal, 1(3), 20-28.

Brown, K. J., Patrick, K. C., Fields, M. K., & Craig, G. T. (2021). Phonological awareness materials in Utah kindergartens: A case study in the science of reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 56(S1), S249-S272.

Ehri, L. C. (2004). Teaching phonemic awareness and phonics: An explanation of the National Reading Panel Meta-Analyses. In P. McCardle & V. Chhabra (Eds.), The voice of evidence in reading research (pp. 153-186). Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Ehri, L., & Roberts, T. (2006). The roots of learning to read and write: Acquisition of letters and phoneme awareness. In D. K. Dickinson & S. B. Neuman (Eds.), Handbook of Early Literacy Research (Vol. 2, pp.113-131). Guilford.

Gillon, G., McNeil, B., Scott, A., Denston, A., Wilson, L., Carson, K., & Macfarlane, A. H. (2019). A better start to literacy learning: Findings from a teacher-implemented intervention in children's first year at school. Reading and Writing, 32, 1989-2012.

McCandliss, B., Beck, I., Sandak, R., & Perfetti, C. (2003). Focusing attention on decoding for children with poor reading skills: Design and preliminary tests of the word building intervention. Scientific Studies of Reading, 7(1), 75-104.
Influence of Orthographic Knowledge on Phoneme Awareness Tasks
Møller, H., Mortenson, J., & Elbro, C. (2022). Effects of integrated spelling in phonics instruction for at-risk children in kindergarten. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 38, 67-82.

Castles, A., Holmes, V. M., Neath, J., & Kinoshita, S. (2003). How does orthographic knowledge influence performance on phonological awareness tasks? The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 56(33), 445-467.

Ehri, L., & Wilce, L. (1980). The influence of orthography on readers' conceptualization of the phonemic structure of words. Applied Psycholinguistics, 1(4), 371-385.
Impact of Speaking a Second Language or a Different Dialect on the Process of Learning to Read
Shankweiler, D., & Fowler, A. E. (2004). Questions people ask about the role of phonological processes in learning to read. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 17(5), 483-515.

Brown, M., Sibley, D., Washington, J., Rogers, T., Edwards, J., MacDonald, C., & Seidenberg, M. (2015). Impact of dialect use on a basic component of learning to read. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1-17.

Kester, E. S. (2014). Difference or disorder? Understanding speech and language patterns in culturally and linguistically diverse students. Bilinguistics, Inc.
Importance of Handwriting
Washington, J., & Seidenberg, M. (2021, Summer). Teaching reading to African American children: When home and school language differ. American Educator, 45(2), 26-33, 40.

Graham, S., MacArthur, C.A., & Fitzgerald, J. (2007). Best Practices in Writing Instruction. (See chapters by David Coker Writing instruction for young children: Methods targeting the multiple demands that writers face, Ch. 5, pgs. 101-118) and by Bob Schlagal (Best practices in spelling and handwriting, Ch. 9, pgs. 179-201). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Puranik, C. S., & Al Otaiba, S. (2012). Examining the contribution of handwriting and spelling to written expression in kindergarten children. Reading and Writing, 25(7), 1523-1546.

Ray, K., Dally, K., Rowlandson, L., Tam, K. I., & Lane, A. E. (2022). The relationship of handwriting ability and literacy in kindergarten: A systematic review. Reading and Writing, 35, 1119-1155.

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Building Phoneme Awareness: Know What Matters - International Dyslexia Association

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With an understanding that research in the future may provide even more powerful pathways for reading success, this fact sheet presents guiding principles for

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Phonemic Awareness With or Without Print?

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Phonemic Awareness With or Without Print?

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This blog post emphasizes the significance of phonemic awareness and phonics in literacy instruction, highlighting that both are crucial for reading development. In addition, it delves into the ongoing debate surrounding how to teach phonemic awareness, specifically the question of whether it should be taught exclusively with letters. Keep reading to discover more about effective phonemic awareness instruction. Table of Contents
? Free Webinar: To learn more about teaching phonemic awareness with or without print, watch our latest webinar- Phonemic Awareness: In the Dark? Or With Print?

Understanding the Science of Reading

Science of Reading (SoR) is a term that has been getting a lot of attention over the past few years. While the research that SoR refers to has been around for over three decades, it is new to many educators, districts, and states. The Science of Reading (SoR) is considered a "settled science,"; meaning that we have a plethora of research that identifies how we learn to read and also identifies the necessary components of literacy instruction.

In 2000, The National Reading Panel (NRP) identified 5 critical components of literacy instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. While educators and researchers agree these 5 components are critical to literacy instruction, there has not been complete agreement on how these components should be taught. While we hear "settled science" in the SoR world, there are many debates still going strong within and outside of the SoR community. Should phonemic awareness only be taught with letters? Should we spend more time building background knowledge rather than teaching comprehension strategies? Let's delve into the initial argument: Should phonemic awareness solely rely on letters for instruction?

? FREE eBook: 5 Steps to Improving Literacy Instruction in Your Classrooms - Despite research showing that most children have the capacity to read, we still see literacy scores in decline. This free eBook explores the body of research on how children learn to read and provides 5 easy first steps coaches and administrators can take to improve literacy instruction in their schools and district.

The Difference Between Phonemic Awareness, Phonological Awareness, and Phonics

Should phonemic awareness only be taught with letters? To answer this question, it is important to understand the difference between 3 PH terms that are often confused.

Phonological awareness is a broader term that refers to larger units of language, as well as individual phonemes. For example, we can ask students to blend the syllables nap-kin, into the word napkin. Working with larger units of language is a simpler task than working with phonemes. Blending nap-kin into the word napkin is easier than blending the phonemes /n/-/a/-/p/ into the word nap.

Phonemic awareness refers to the understanding that words are made up of individual sounds called phonemes. While it is natural to learn to talk, it is not natural to hear the individual sounds in words because we do not /s/-/p/-/ea/-/k/ in phonemes. As we speak, the phonemes are co-articulated. Phonemic awareness needs to be explicitly taught to allow students to hear and work with the individual sounds in words.

Phonics focuses on the relationship between letters or groups of letters (graphemes) and the sounds (phonemes) they represent in words. Phonological and phonemic awareness are both oral and auditory skills. Instruction focuses on isolating, blending, segmenting, and manipulating parts or sounds in words. These oral and auditory skills are different from another PH term, phonics. It is important to note that phonemic awareness and phonics enjoy a reciprocal relationship.

"Reading and writing present a cognitive hurdle that speaking and listening do not...there is nothing in the child's normal experience with spoken language that necessarily acquaints him with the fact that words have an internal structure...Yet it is precisely this fact that must be understood if the alphabet is to make sense, and if its advantages are to be properly exploited." (Alvin Liberman, 1988)

? Blog Post: You can read more about phonemic awareness and phonics in this blog post: Phonemic Awareness vs. Phonics

The Debate Over Teaching Phonemic Awareness With or Without Print

Phonemic awareness and phonics are foundational components of instruction that allow students to "crack the code" or understand that the print they see in text represents the sounds they hear in words. While there is agreement that both phonemic awareness and phonics are critical components of instruction, it is not always agreed upon on how the instruction should take place.

Some educators believe that phonemic awareness should be taught with print. The idea is that students learn the skills of isolating, blending, segmenting, and manipulating as they see print, allowing them to orthographically map the words. While this is the ultimate goal, we must remember that there are steps involved in becoming an automatic decoder of print.

Phonemic awareness is the understanding that words are made up of sounds. We can hear 44 sounds in the English language, and there are over 200 ways to bring those sounds into print. The English language is not a transparent orthography. Additionally, children can hear and work with the sounds they hear in words, even if they don't yet know all of the letters that represent the sounds.

For example, we can say to students, "What is the first sound you hear in the word map?" Students can respond with the sound /m/, even if they do not yet know that the letter M represents the sound /m/. Building a strong foundation in phonemic awareness and encouraging students to tune in to the internal structure of language will allow for them to make more sense of how print works.

"Phonemic awareness training provides the foundation on which phonics instruction is built. Thus, children need solid phonemic awareness training for phonics instruction to be effective."
Blevins, 42

? Free Webinar: To learn more about teaching phonemic awareness with or without print, watch our latest webinar- Phonemic Awareness: In the Dark? Or With Print?

The Importance of Phonological and Phonemic Awareness Instruction in Young Children

Phonological and phonemic awareness instruction should be part of Pre-K, kindergarten, and first grade classrooms. All students need access to these critical skills, and research shows that early training of Phonological Awareness in kindergarten and first grade prevents many reading difficulties from happening. (David Kilpatrick). Additionally, in 2009 the National Early Literacy Panel identified six variables that predicted reading success better than IQ or socioeconomic status. One of these variables is phonological awareness.

As we consider this research, it is important to note that phonemic awareness training is a means to an end. With younger learners, such as Pre-K or kindergarten students, beginning with Phonological awareness instruction allows them to build an understanding of blending, segmenting, and manipulating with larger units of language. As mentioned earlier, it is easier to hear and work with larger units of language versus individual phonemes.

However, the goal is that students would begin to work with individual phonemes as soon as possible, as this is where the transfer to print occurs. Phonics instruction is much more complex, as we ask students to recognize the many different ways we can represent sounds with print.

"For those of us who already know how to read and write, this realization seems very basic, almost transparent. Nevertheless, research shows that the very notion that spoken language is made up of sequences of these little sounds does not come naturally or easily to human beings."
Tankersley, 2003

For example, we can isolate the final sound /s/ in the words miss and nice. While the final sound in both words is /s/ we use different graphemes to represent the /s/ sound. As we work with younger learners, we do not want to hold them back from working with the sounds of words because they do not follow the same spelling pattern. This is the importance of building phonological and phonemic awareness. Students have the opportunity to become proficient with isolating, blending, segmenting, and manipulating phonemes without the cognitive load of the many different spellings for the sounds.

Watch the clip below to see an example of how our younger learners can begin to work with sounds first before attaching those more complex spelling patterns to print.

In our primary classrooms, phonemic awareness instruction should be just about 8-12 minutes, acting as an oral and auditory warm-up to phonics instruction. This warm-up allows for students to hear and work with the sounds in words and then bridge their learning into phonics instruction.

? Download a FREE Digital Sample: Bridge to Reading, our new foundational skills curriculum, brings together explicit phonics instruction with Heggerty phonemic awareness lessons for a comprehensive approach to early literacy instruction that's easy to implement (and easy to love!)

Phonemic Awareness in Older Learners

Once students have the ability to hear and work with sounds in words, phonemic awareness tasks should be taught with the print. As stated earlier, phonemic awareness and phonics enjoy a reciprocal relationship. The skill of blending phonemes orally (phonemic awareness) transfers to print as students decode or read words. As we segment a word into phonemes, it transfers to encoding or spelling as we work with print.

For example, we ask students to segment the word clap into the sounds /k/-/l/-/a/-/p/ during phonemic awareness. As they map sounds to print, students will need to identify which grapheme to use to represent the sound /k/. We can use the graphemes: c, k, ck, ch, or que to represent the /k/ sound in a word. This is an example of how phonics is more complex than phonemic awareness and why phonics also needs to be explicitly taught. While it is typically recommended that phonemic awareness be taught with print after first grade, there are times when older learners benefit from explicit instruction in phonemic awareness.

Watch the clip below to see an example of how I would use phonemic awareness as an oral warm-up with my students AND follow up with explicit instruction on how the sounds connect to print.

If students did not receive explicit instruction in phonemic awareness in kindergarten and first grade, they might still be lacking the foundational skills of phonemic awareness. Research shows that the lack of phonemic awareness is the most powerful determinant of the likelihood of failure to read. (Adams, 1990) Research also shows that older, struggling readers almost always have difficulties in phoneme awareness training that were never addressed. (D. Kilpatrick, Equipped).

When I served as a Reading Specialist for grades 3-5, I found that many of my students that needed support in decoding had the tendency to guess at words rather than attempt to blend sounds together or manipulate sounds to make new words. For example, a student might read the word "spot" at "stop" because, visually, they look a lot alike. This strategy of guessing was a habit they had learned early on, and it was not an easy habit to break! Many words look alike, and I knew it was important for my students to attend to each phoneme or sound in words.

When working with students that need decoding support, it is important to remember that phonological awareness difficulties represent the most common source of word-level reading difficulties.
Hulme, Bowyer-Crane, Carroll, Duff, & Snowling, 2012; Melby-Lervag, Hulme, & Halaas Lyster, 2012; Vellutino et al., 2004

Explicit phonemic awareness instruction allows our students to build proficiency in hearing and working with sounds so the cognitive load can be applied to the patterns of print. It also takes away the "crutch" of trying to read words as whole units or guess at visually similar words. If a student cannot blend the sounds /k/-/l/-/a/-/p/ into the word clap through the air, then they are not applying decoding strategies to print. If the student reads the word clap, they have memorized the word as a whole unit, and it is not orthographically mapped. Phonemic awareness instruction can be powerful in breaking these poor reading habits.

? Blog Post: You can read more about phonemic awareness with older learners in this blog post: Phonemic Awareness in Older Learners

Balancing Phonemic Awareness with Other Literacy Components

It is important to note that phonemic awareness is just one component of literacy instruction. For older learners, it is recommended to begin at the phoneme level rather than the phonological level. Less time should be devoted to phonemic awareness in grades 2 and beyond. Typically a 5-minute oral and auditory warm-up will allow for students to engage in the skills of blending, segmenting, and manipulating phonemes. Word reading interventions were found to have highly effective outcomes when they included: intensive phonemic awareness training, phonic decoding training, and opportunities for connected text reading.

The Importance of Phonemic Awareness Instruction

As we consider the many demands we have as educators, another challenge should not be sifting through debates and interpretations of science that are already considered settled. Phonemic awareness, without question, is a skill that is required to become an automatic decoder of print. If you are teaching young children, it should be part of your Tier 1 instruction. If you have older learners that still need support with decoding, assess their phonemic awareness. If they lack these foundational skills, spending five minutes as a warm-up to working with print will be powerful and impactful.

Resources:

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health.

Tankersley, K. (2003). The Threads of Reading: Strategies for Literacy Development. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Kilpatrick, D. (2019). Equipped for reading success: A comprehensive, step-by-step program for developing phonemic awareness and fluent word recognition. John Wiley & Sons.

Adams, M. J. (1994). Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning About Print. MIT Press.

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Which is Better: Phonemic Awareness With or Without Print?

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This blog post emphasizes the significance of phonemic awareness and phonics in literacy instruction, highlighting that both are crucial for reading development. In addition, it...

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Letters in Phonemic Awareness Instruction

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Letters in Phonemic Awareness Instruction

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Letters in Phonemic Awareness Instruction or the Reciprocal Nature of Learning to Read

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Teachers’ question: I’m confused. I’ve heard you say that we should teach phonemic awareness and letters simultaneously. Other “experts” say that phonemic awareness is strictly an auditory skill and that including letters slows children’s learning. Help!

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Video 29: Decodable Words in Isolation and in Text

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For this and many more free resources, see https://linktr.ee/imse

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IMSE Visual & Blending Drill Templates for Upper Elementary

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An Alternative to the Myth of Learning Styles

As reading teachers search for instructional strategies that accommodate the complexities and nuances of individual student literacy needs, many are encountering the unfortunate truth that the concept of "learning styles" - a common and popular idea used to differentiate instruction based on the assumption that every student has a single preferred learning modality - is, in fact, a myth.

Early literacy teachers and intervention specialists attempting to differentiate students' instruction based on the myth of learning styles are clearly responding to the differences they see in the types of instruction that students respond to when it comes to learning to read - to their interests, their strengths, and their habits. These educators are also wisely searching for literacy strategies that are based on learning science, and to leverage what we know about how the brain works.

But information on learning science is always evolving, difficult to navigate, and not always as "research-based" as it seems - as is the case with learning styles.

So, if there isn't any real evidence that students have "learning styles", what can educators do to accommodate varying needs, to leverage what we know about how the brain works, and make the most of the precious moments spent teaching students how to read?

While there are many concepts across disciplines that are increasingly supported by learning science - such as metacognition, worked examples, and spaced practice, to name a few - here, we want to focus on multimodal instruction, because it addresses some of the obstacles in reading instruction that teachers were attempting to address with the learning styles approach.

What is multimodal instruction?

Multimodal instruction involves having the learner engage simultaneously or in close sequence with the material using two or more of their sensory "modalities". For example, a student using manipulatives during phonics instruction may be engaging their visual, auditory, and tactile modalities. The term multimodality is currently being used to replace the older term "multisensory" because multisensory instruction sometimes promoted instructional practices (such as having students trace sandpaper letters, or form letters or shapes in rice trays in shaving cream) have not been confirmed as helpful in more current research.

The learning styles approach can actually be harmful in early literacy because the focus on one single modality deprives students the opportunity to learn in other modalities outside of their perceived "style" and there is reason to provide instruction in multiple modalities - just not isolated to one modality per student.

Why does multimodal instruction work?

We're always learning more about how the brain works, and there's so much that we still have to discover. In the case of multimodal instruction, researchers are still working to understand exactly why the brain seems to respond so positively to this kind of teaching.

Some researchers attribute the value of multimodal instruction to enhancing a learner's memory: engaging multiple senses may cause the brain to store information in long term memory. Others believe multimodal instruction has more to do with attention. For example, using both auditory and tactile modalities during phonics instruction may simply prolong the time and focus students spend thinking about letters and sounds. Both of these explanations have to do with what we know about neural processing, and pathways created in the brain ( Shanahan, 2020).

Regardless of the exact brain activity, multimodal application in the classroom seems to have the potential to boost engagement and retention. Digital Promise lists multimodal instruction as a strategy in their Learner Variability Navigator tool, explaining that "instruction in multiple formats allows students to activate different cognitive skills to understand and remember the steps they are to take in their literacy work. Instruction can be given using text, visuals, gestures, or audio to facilitate retention in Short- and Long-term Memory."

Who does multimodal instruction help?

If you were to search for information about multimodal instruction today, you would find a great deal of information regarding the benefits for students with dyslexia. While all students can benefit from multimodal instruction, there are some students, including those with dyslexia, for whom multimodal instruction is especially valuable.

Students with dyslexia face obstacles with word recognition and decoding. According to the International Dyslexia Association (IDA), "multimodal structured language teaching" can help students with dyslexia overcome those obstacles by strengthening the pathways in the brain that involve phonological (speech) and orthographic (print) processing - building speed and accuracy in reading ability. The IDA lists multimodal phonics strategies to use with students with dyslexia, including having students look in the mirror when speaking, tracing letters while saying the sound, and associating hand gestures with words ( IDA).

For more on supporting students with dyslexia, see:

How can teachers implement multimodal instruction in PreK-5 reading?

The context in which multimodal instruction is employed is critical to its success. Multimodal strategies should be integrated into explicit, systematic instruction. They should be implemented within a larger framework that aligns to what we know about the science of reading, supporting the development of foundational skills such as phonemic awareness, phonics, and word recognition, as well as to strengthen vocabulary, grammar, spelling, and listening comprehension. For example: multimodal instruction may be particularly helpful in decoding, by giving students the opportunity to hear, see, say, and write words.

Many educators are familiar with some common multimodal practices, such as tracing letters and tapping sounds. Other helpful tools include visual vocabulary cards, manipulatives for foundational skills, hand motion routines for phonological and phonemic awareness, games, and videos that promote singing and/or movement. The value comes in having students engage in actual reading and writing tasks in multiple ways.

Additional research should be done on the effectiveness of multimodal instruction - as with many instructional practices, we could learn a great deal from comprehensive, peer-reviewed studies that address large populations over time, and additional learning science research about what's going on in students' brains when they receive multimodal instruction. In the meantime, educators should feel confident, empowered, and proud of their continued pursuit of what's best for their students.

Read more on the Science of Reading.

For more literacy research, see:

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Understanding Multimodal Instruction in PreK-5 Literacy

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As reading teachers search for instructional strategies that accommodate the complexities and nuances of individual student literacy needs, many are encountering the unfortunate truth that the concept of "learning styles" - a common and popular idea used to differentiate instruction based on the assumption that every student has a single preferred learning modality - is, in fact, a myth.

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Orton-Gillingham was the first teaching approach specifically designed to help struggling readers by explicitly teaching the connections between letters and sounds. Many reading programs include Orton-Gillingham ideas, including a "multisensory" approach, which is considered highly effective for teaching students with dyslexia.

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Orton-Gillingham Kindergarten 5: Blending Drill

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3 part drill - visual & blending board 3rd grade

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Vowel tents

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Vowel sticks

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1st grade OG Vowel Intensive drill with stoplight for segmenting/blending

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Tap it. Map it. Graph it.

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RiversideUSD Innovation & Learner Engagement

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Phoneme Grapheme Mapping - Tap it. Map it. Graph it.

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Blendable Letter Sounds | UFLI |Jack Hartmann

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Maria Murray - Practical Tips for Decodable Texts

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Maria Murray - Practical Tips for Decodable Texts

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Using Decodable Texts: Practical Things Teachers Need to Know

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Anglo-Saxon, Latin, and Greek Words Answers

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Anglo-Saxon, Latin, and Greek Words Answers

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What Should Morphology Instruction Look Like?

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https://www.campbellcreatesreaders.com/product/morphology-sound-decks-for-reviewing-morphemes

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Syllable Type and Division Practice Answers 

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Syllable Type and Division Practice Answers 

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William Van Cleave on Teaching Prefixes and Suffixes

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William Van Cleave on Teaching Prefixes and Suffixes

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Writing SOS: Is there value to having my child learn prefixes and suffixes?

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A Grade 2, Structured Word Inquiry Classroom

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A Grade 2 Structured Word Inquiry Classroom

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Curriculum Adoption

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Online Elementary Reading Academy

Adolescent Literacy Solutions

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Teaching Reading Sourcebook 3rd Edition

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Early Literacy Planning & Implementation Collaboration

Publisher Approved Professional Learning

Online Elementary Reading Academy

Adolescent Literacy Solutions

Curriculum Adoption

Curriculum Implementation

Rise in Math

Math Coaching

Online Math Academy

Onsite Math Academy

Teaching Reading Sourcebook 3rd Edition

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Assessment for Reading Difficulties and Dyslexia - Teacher Professional Learning | Literacy, Math | MTSS

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Curriculum Adoption Curriculum Implementation Literacy Coaching & Site Implementation Support Early Literacy Planning & Implementation Collaboration Publisher Approved Professional Learning Online Elementary Reading Academy Adolescent Literacy Solutions Curriculum Adoption Curriculum Implementation Rise in Math Math Coaching Online Math Academy Onsite Math Academy Teaching Reading Sourcebook 3rd Edition Curriculum Adoption Curriculum Implementation Literacy Coaching & Site Implementation Support Early Literacy Planning & Implementation Collaboration Publisher Approved Professional Learning Online Elementary Reading Academy Adolescent Literacy Solutions Curriculum Adoption Curriculum Implementation Rise in Math Math Coaching Online Math Academy Onsite Math Academy Teaching Reading Sourcebook 3rd Edition

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CORE Phoneme Segmentation Test

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CORE Phonics Survey

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Data Entry Forms: Assessing Reading: Multiple Measures, Revised 2nd Edition - Teacher Professional Learning | Literacy, Math | MTSS

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Curriculum Implementation Literacy Coaching & Site Implementation Support Early Literacy Planning & Implementation Collaboration Publisher Approved Professional Learning Online Elementary Reading Academy Adolescent Literacy Solutions Curriculum Implementation Rise in Math Math Coaching Online Math Academy Onsite Math Academy Teaching Reading Sourcebook 3rd Edition Curriculum Implementation Literacy Coaching & Site Implementation Support Early Literacy Planning & Implementation Collaboration Publisher Approved Professional Learning Online Elementary Reading Academy Adolescent Literacy Solutions Curriculum Implementation Rise in Math Math Coaching Online Math Academy Onsite Math Academy Teaching Reading Sourcebook 3rd Edition