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the formation of the crusader states in the Levant, which were initially governed, and in small part populated, by settlers from Europe.The main countries that took part in and led the crusades were France, England, and the Holy Roman Empire.

A main effect of The First Crusade was the capture of Jerusalem and the formation of various Crusader states.

This had the secondary effect of halting, at least temporarily, the expansion of Islam.

The First crusade was important because the main objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Islamic rule.

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The Reconquista dramatically decreased the population of the three main cities of the Moorish Caliphate - Granada, Cordoba, and Seville.

The Reconquista and subsequent Spanish Inquisition were bloody and harsh, but they served to unify power under the Spanish monarchy.

Facing either exile or death, many Jews living in Spain became Conversos or converts to the Catholic religion, although many of them continued their Jewish faith in secret.

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As Spain expanded into the Americas, so did the Inquisition, established in Mexico in 1570. In 1574, Lutherans were burned at the stake there, and the Inquisition came to Peru, where Protestants were likewise tortured and burned alive.The Spanish Inquisition was a judicial institution that lasted between 1478 and 1834. Its ostensible purpose was to combat heresy in Spain, but, in practice,

it resulted in consolidating power in the monarchy of the newly unified Spanish kingdom.

Its brutal methods led to widespread death and suffering.

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Muslim Arab expansion in the first centuries after Prophet Muhammad's death soon established dynasties in North Africa, West Africa, to the Middle East, and south to Somalia by the Companions of the Prophet, most notably the Rashidun Caliphate and military advents of Khalid Bin Walid, Amr ibn al-As and Sa'd ibn Abi.

to Sub-Saharan Africa facilitated the rise of political empires, encouraged trade and wealth

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Under Sykes-Picot, the Syrian coast and much of modern-day Lebanon went to France; Britain would take direct control over central and southern Mesopotamia, around the Baghdad and Basra provinces.The agreement led to the division of Turkish-held Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, and Palestine into various French- and British-administered areas.

Negotiations were begun in November 1915, and the final agreement took its name from the chief negotiators from Britain and France, Sir Mark Sykes and François Georges-Picot

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On May 14, Britain withdrew with the expiration of its mandate, and the State of Israel was proclaimed. The next day, forces from Egypt, Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq invaded.

The Land of Israel, Palestine was the birthplace of the Jewish people. Here their spiritual, religious and political identity was shaped. Here they first attained to statehood.

created cultural values of national and universal significance and gave to the world the eternal Book of Books.

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While Mandela and many political prisoners remained incarcerated in South Africa, other anti-Apartheid leaders fled South Africa and set up headquarters in a succession of supportive, independent African countries, including Guinea, Tanzania, Zambia, and neighboring Mozambique where they continued the fight to end Apartheid.

repealed most of the social legislation that provided the legal basis for apartheid, including the Population Registration Act.

Systematic racial segregation remained deeply entrenched in South African society, though, and continued on a de facto basis.

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In 1945, when Allied troops entered the concentration camps, they discovered piles of corpses, bones, and human ashes—testimony to Nazi mass murder. Soldiers also found thousands of Jewish and non-Jewish survivors suffering from starvation and disease. For survivors, the prospect of rebuilding their lives was daunting.

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The Bosnian War was an international armed conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 1995. The war is commonly seen as having started on 6 April 1992, following a number of earlier violent incidents. The war ended on 14 December 1995 when the Dayton accords were signed

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On June 28, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed at the Palace of Versailles outside Paris, France. The treaty was one of several that officially ended five years of conflict known as the Great War—World War I.

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No political parties were able to form a majority coalition in support of a candidate for chancellor. Former chancellor Franz von Papen and other conservative leaders convinced President Paul von Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as chancellor

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The Normandy landings were the landing operations and associated airborne operations on Tuesday, 6 June 1944 of the Allied invasion of Normandy in Operation Overlord during World War II. Codenamed Operation Neptune and often referred to as D-Day, it is the largest seaborne invasion in history

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Gordon Childe coined the term “Neolithic Revolution” in 1935 to describe the radical and important period of change in which humans began cultivating plants, breeding animals for food and forming permanent settlements.t he Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, is characterized by the beginning of a settled human lifestyle. People learned to cultivate plants and domesticate animals for food, rather than rely solely on hunting and gathering.

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The Green Revolution, or the Third Agricultural Revolution, was a period of technology transfer initiatives that saw greatly increased crop yields. These changes in agriculture began in developed countries in the early 20th century and spread globally until the late 1980s.The Green Revolution contributed to widespread poverty reduction, averted hunger for millions of people, and avoided the conversion of thousands of hectares of land into agricultural cultivation.

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Gunpowder, also commonly known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It consists of a mixture of sulfur, carbon, and potassium nitrate. The sulfur and carbon act as fuels while the saltpeter is an oxidizer.Gunpowder is the first explosive to have been developed. Popularly listed as one of the "Four Great Inventions" of China, it was invented during the late Tang dynasty while the earliest recorded chemical formula for gunpowder dates to the Song dynasty

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This process began in Britain in the 18th century and from there spread to other parts of the world. Although used earlier by French writers, the term Industrial Revolution was first popularized by the English economic historian Arnold Toynbee (1852–83) to describe Britain's economic development from 1760 to 1840.The Industrial Revolution began in the 18th century, when agricultural societies became more industrialized and urban. The transcontinental railroad, the cotton gin, electricity and other inventions permanently changed society.

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Leo Baekeland. The 20th century saw a revolution in plastic production: the advent of entirely synthetic plastics. Belgian chemist and clever marketeer Leo Baekeland pioneered the first fully synthetic plastic in 1907.In 1907 Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite, the first fully synthetic plastic, meaning it contained no molecules found in nature. Baekeland had been searching for a synthetic substitute for shellac, a natural electrical insulator, to meet the needs of the rapidly electrifying United States.

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Columbus “discovers” the Americas 10/12/1492

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Columbus “discovers” the Americas 10/12/1492

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Christopher Columbus did not “discover” the Americas, nor was he even the first European to visit the “New World.” (Viking explorer Leif Erikson had sailed to Greenland and Newfoundland in the 11th century.) However, his journey kicked off centuries of exploration and exploitation on the American continents.He was the first European to sight the Bahamas archipelago and then the island later named Hispaniola, now split into Haiti and the Dominican Republic. On his subsequent voyages he went farther south, to Central and South America. He never got close to what is now called the United States.

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The Syrian civil war is an ongoing multi-sided conflict in Syria involving various state-sponsored and non-state actors. In March 2011, popular discontent with the rule of Bashar al-Assad triggered large-scale protests and pro-democracy rallies across Syria, as part of the wider Arab Spring protests in the regionIn March 2011, popular discontent with the Ba'athist government led to large-scale protests and pro-democracy rallies across Syria, as part of the wider Arab Spring protests in the region.

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Neil Armstrong steps onto the surface of the moon 08/20/1969

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Neil Armstrong steps onto the surface of the moon 08/20/1969

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On July 20, 1969, Apollo 11 astronauts Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong landed their moon module on a broad dark lunar lava flow, called the Sea of Tranquility. And six hours later, Neil Armstrong became the first human being to walk on the surface of a world beyond Earth.Rest assured, NASA didn't call on Moon-dwellers to perform camera duties. They simply mounted a camera on the Descent Stage of the Lunar Module and pointed it at the steps. That giant leap was relayed live to NASA and TV viewers all over the world via receiving stations on Earth.

uly 20, 1969

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The WTO, located in

Geneva, Switzerland, is an international organization responsible for managing and enforcing the rules of international trade.

Stemming from an agreement during the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations (1986-1994), the WTO was officially established on January 1,1995

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German goldsmith

Johannes Gutenberg is credited with inventing the printing press around 1436, although he was far from the first to automate the book-printing process.

Woodblock printing in China dates back to the 9th century and Korean bookmakers were printing with moveable metal type a century before Gutenberg.

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Officially, Facebook was launched on February 4, 2004, by Mark Zuckerberg and fellow Harvard students Eduardo Saverin, Dustin Moskovitz, Andrew McCollum, and Chris

Hughes. Back then, the site was intended as a social media platform for Harvard students exclusively.

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The bankruptcy

proceedings are part of the process of closing down the company and its UK parent, SCL Elections, that started in early May. The company blamed a "siege of media coverage" for driving away customers and forcing its closure.

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After three days of their own against th

Persian king Xerxes his vast southward-advancing army, the were betrayed, and t Persians were able to outflank them. Sendir main army in retreat, Leonidas and a small contingent remained to resist the advance were defeated.

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The Battle of the Somme

(1 July - 18 November 1916) was a joint operation between British and French forces intended to achieve a decisive victory over the Germans on the Western Front. For many in Britain, the resulting battle remains the most painful and infamous episode of the First World War.

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The two atomic bombs dropped on Japan in 1945 killed and maimed hundreds of thousands of people, and their effects are still being felt today. By the end of 1945, the bombing had killed an estimated 140,000 people in Hiroshima, and a further 74,000 in Nagasaki.

In the years that followed, many of the survivors would face leukemia, cancer, or other terrible side effects from the radiation.