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Richard Arkwright (1732–1792) was an English inventor and industrialist, best known for his role in the development of the spinning frame, later called the water frame, which revolutionized the textile industry.

His invention helped mechanize cotton spinning, significantly improving production efficiency and reducing reliance on manual labor.

Arkwright’s innovations were pivotal during the Industrial Revolution, leading to the establishment of the first large-scale textile factories.

He is also credited with pioneering factory systems that combined machinery, water power, and skilled labor under one roof, setting the standard for future industrial enterprises.

In 1781, Arkwright was granted a patent for his spinning frame, which brought him substantial wealth and allowed him to expand his business empire.

He was knighted in 1786 for his contributions to British industry and is regarded as one of the key figures in the history of industrialization.

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1.Manchester’s Cotton Industry: During the Industrial Revolution, Manchester became the hub of the global textile industry, earning it the nickname “Cottonopolis.” The city’s mills were powered by raw cotton imported primarily from the Americas.

2. Reliance on Slavery: Manchester’s cotton industry heavily relied on cotton produced by enslaved African labor in the southern United States. This created a direct economic link between Manchester’s industrial boom and the transatlantic slave trade.

3. Abolitionist Sentiment: While economically dependent on slave-produced cotton, Manchester also became a center of abolitionist movements. Many workers and reformers in Manchester spoke against slavery despite their livelihoods being tied to it.

4. Impact of the American Civil War: The U.S. Civil War (1861–1865) disrupted cotton supplies to Manchester (the “Cotton Famine”), causing widespread unemployment and hardship in the city. Despite this, many Mancunians supported the Union’s anti-slavery cause.

5. Economic Transformation: Manchester’s booming cotton industry helped establish the city as a leader in industrialization and urbanization, though it was rooted in exploitative colonial systems and the labor of enslaved Africans.

6. Moral Tension: The dependence on slave-grown cotton created a moral conflict in Manchester, as many workers sympathized with abolitionist ideals yet relied on the cotton trade for their livelihoods.

7. Legacy: Today, Manchester acknowledges its historical ties to slavery through education, museums, and public discourse, striving to address the complex history of economic growth built on exploitation.

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The network of canals, cotton mills and crowded streets of workers housing were met with wonder, shock and horror by people from far and wide.

Manchester was the world’s first industrial city and Ancoats was the beating heart.

Centuries ago, many people believed that shoes concealed within buildings could protect occupiers and bring good luck

McConnel and Kennedy, as well as others became part of a huge cotton-spinning complex that transformed Ancoats.

Cotton spinning wasn’t Ancoats only industry. Its textile mills attracted engineers, whose expertise was needed to provide the power and machinery for Ancoats cotton factories.

Manchester’s industrial decline hit the Ancoats hard. By the 1960s, its cotton spinning industry had all but disappeared and compulsory housing clearances broke up tight and small communities.

when Ancoats was made a conservation area in 1989 thing started to get better. and although the area’s regeneration hasn’t been without controversy, its ongoing revival is arguably as remarkable as its industrial transformation.

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Children worked in large numbers in mines, glass factories, the textile industry, agriculture, canneries, and as newsboys, messengers, shoe shiners, and peddlers.

As America was becoming more industrialized, many poor families had no choice but to send their children to work in order to help the family survive.

The problem of child labor was not that children were working, but rather

they were being exploited or taken advantage of in the work place. Children were often preferred employees

over adults. Instead of paying higher wages for adults to perform the same duties, children could be employed

at a much cheaper rate. They were working long hours, for little pay, in unsafe working conditions, not permitting

them to be children and getting an education.

Children worked in large numbers in mines, glass factories, the textile industry, agriculture, canneries, and as

newsboys, messengers, shoe shiners, and peddlers. As America was becoming more industrialized, many poor

families had no choice but to send their children to work in order to help the family survive. Working children

were often hurt due to industrial accidents on unsafe machinery, uneducated since there was no time for

school after working over 12 hours a day, and were infected with illness and disease due to the unsafe working

conditions in which they were exposed.

By the late 1800s, over 1,000 laws regulating work conditions and limiting or forbidding child labor were passed.

In many cases the laws did not apply to immigrants, therefore they were often taken advantage of and wound

up living in slums working long hours for little pay. Opponents of the laws argued that child labor was an

unavoidable and even beneficial part of national economic growth and development.

Children in the mills usually worked eleven or twelve hour days, 5-6 days a week. Windows were usually kept

closed because moisture and heat helped keep the cotton from breaking. Crushed and broken fingers were

common in the coal mines. Most children working here were boys earning $0.50-$0.60 a day. Underground, a

boy might work 14 hours a day. Working in a cannery was a seasonal job, very common for six and seven year

old boys and girls. An ordinary day began at 3 a.m. At the height of the season, children often worked eighteen

hours a day. Children carried boxes of produce weighing over 40 pounds. Three and four year olds often worked,

unpaid, as “helpers.”

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Industrial Revolution child poverty and tiny clogs

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Industrial Revolution child poverty and tiny clogs

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During the industrial revolution, children often had to work under very dangerous conditions. They lost limbs or fingers working on high power machinery with a little training they worked with bad ventilation which caused developing diseases. Sometimes they worked around dangerous chemicals, where they became sick from the fumes.

Poor children during the industrial revolution worked in large numbers in mines glass factories, the textile Industry agriculture, canneries And as new boys, messengers, shoe shiners and peddlers.

Children get paid in Industrial Revolution. 251 children under 12 years of age earn less than two dollars per week and 731 children of 12 and 13 earn less than two dollars per week, but there were 1700 workers from 14 to 20 years of age who earned less than two dollars per week so that means to pay is arranged between age but isn’t a great difference.

People couldn’t afford Normal necessities like food Water, clothing, shoes, places to live and if you did have

places to live, you lived with three or four different families which causes a lot of bacteria and diseases.

When Working in mills, people would wear clogs that are thick wooden souls and help prevent the wet and cold seeping through and it insulated feet from the cold floors in houses and factories.

Practical and hardware clogs for the work a day shoe of the industrial revolution for men and women they were not owned, but rented by Charter Street, rage schools in angel Meadow.

Workers could earn good wages in Manchester’s textile mills, but work was never guaranteed cotton shortages or low demand for cloth could shut the mills down workers then had to go without wages of pay.

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Since the 18th century manufacturers have been looking for ways to meet the ever growing demand of cotton and this is how Richard Arkwright managed to transform cotton and machinery in general.

For thousands of years cotton has been used and merchants would first bring cotton from India to Britain around 500 years ago.It was incredible perfect almost and also held lots of trade value thus making cotton a crazed item.

Since cotton was at a high demand it needed to be made quicker because of its high demand and many people tried to invent stuff to make it easier to make cotton like James Hargreaves or John Kay but none succeeded like Richard.

Richard Arkwright who was born on December 23, 1732 in Preston, United Kingdom manages to have an amazing breakthrough which would become revolutionary.By inventing the “spinning frame” which was used in the industrial revolution this machine spread fibers such as wool or cotton in a mechanized way.This in short term made it easier and quicker to make cotton.

This had a massive effect speeding up everything this ultimately led to development of factories which is known as the key turning point in the revolution.

This boosted the revolution which had an massive effect on the world as we know it and Richard Arkwright also made the water frame which was a spinning machine powered by water that produced cotton yarn suitable for wrap spinning even larger quantities of cotton yarn.

Richard changed the world as we know it but he also built many factories and expanded his business to improve his mills.He established factories in Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Lancashire and Scotland.He was a very wealthy and smart man living a happy rich life before eventually dying on August 3, 1792 of an unknown illness at the age of 60 in Cromford, United Kingdom.

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Industrial Revolution: Child poverty and tiny Clogs 

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Industrial Revolution: Child poverty and tiny Clogs 

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many people couldn’t afford the basic necessities of food, clothing, and a place to live

Most people who could’ve afford much resorted to on charter street in Manchester which provided those necessities

A regular works shoe was known as a clog in the industrial revolution of the men and women

Children who were found wearing clogs never owned them for themselves

They were lent by charter Street in Manchester to families who couldn’t Afford clogs

Workers could have good wages in textile Mills, but their work was never guaranteed

Cotten shortages could shut down the mills

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Child labor was a widespread and deeply problematic aspect of the Industrial Revolution. Children, some as young as five or six years old, were employed in factories, mines, and other industries under harsh and dangerous conditions.

Causes: poverty was the primary driver. Families struggling to survive needed every member, including children, to contribute income. The small size of children also made them suitable for certain tasks, like squeezing into tight spaces in mines or working with delicate machinery in textile mills. Lack of regulation and enforcement regarding child labor allowed employers to exploit this vulnerable population.

Working conditions: Children worked long hours, often 12-16 hours a day, six days a week. They faced dangerous conditions, including exposure to dust, fumes, and moving machinery, leading to injuries, illnesses and even death. They received little to no education and were often subjected to physical and verbal abuse.

Types of work: children worked in a variety of industries, including:

Textiles: Operating machinery in cotton mills.

Mining: Hauling coal and other materials un dark, cramped mineshafts

Factories: performing repetitive tasks in factories producing various goods.

Chimney Sweeping: cleaning chimneys, a particularly dangerous job due to the confined spaces and soot inhalation

Consequences: child labor had devastating consequences for children’s physical and mental health. They suffered from stunted growth, respiratory problems, deformities, and psychological trauma.They were deprived of education and opportunities for a better future.

Reform movements: growing awareness of the horrors of child labor led to reform movements in the 19th and early 20th centuries these movements advocated for legislation to regulate child labor, limit working hours, and improve working conditions. The factory acts in Britain, for example, gradually restricted child labor and introduced mandatory schooling.

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Child Labor occurring with Kids working in the harsh factory conditions during the Industrial Revolution 

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The Textile Industry By: Ethan Fernandes

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The Textile Industry By: Ethan Fernandes

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Manchester is built on cotton. Textile Gallerys tell the story of the people, places and products that made it and their continuing legacy in our city and our world today.

Manchester was once the international centre of the world’s cotton industry. The city imported up to a billion tonnes of raw cotton a year, towns like Bolton and Preston became manufacturing centres and Oldham’s Platt Brothers & Co. Ltd. built textile machines for mills across the world.

Manchester’s textiles industry brought some people great wealth. However, innovation and profits went hand in hand with inequality and exploitation, on a local and global scale. In 1860, over 80% of the cotton processed in mills in and around Manchester was grown by enslaved African people on plantations in the southern United States.

Manchester’s manufacturers only got the cotton in the quantities and at the prices they desired because of this system of human exploitation. Textiles Gallery paints a vivid picture of how cotton transformed Manchester into an urban metropolis and shaped lives here and around the world.

Textile industry was a time period for world-changing innovations like an original Richard Arkwright Water Frame—one of the machines that kick started the Industrial Revolution—to surprising, everyday objects like a pair of child-sized clogs from Charter Street Ragged School, a local charity that helped some of Manchester’s poorest inhabitants.

Textile industries are used to display objects that reveal how Manchester's cotton industry was connected to transatlantic slavery, alongside the first-hand testimony of African American anti-slavery campaigner Frederick Douglass, and African American woman Mary Reynolds, who, like Douglass was formerly enslaved.

The textile industry was a very beneficial period for world changing inventions but had caused slavery and child labor for young kids working long shifts every day of the week and sleeping in the bed of strangers while also getting separated from their family working different shifts which caused many more problems for the development of the kids which could cause a quicker death from working in harsh conditions.

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Tiny clogs and child poverty in the Industrial Revolution- Natale pitti 

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Tiny clogs and child poverty in the Industrial Revolution- Natale pitti 

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workers can earn good wages from working

Cotten shortages or low demand clothing could shut down the mills

Then workers had to work without wage, and without that it was harder for them to get cloths, food, and a place to live

Clogs where the work-a-day shoes for women in the Industrial Revolution of Manchester

Children would wear clogs that they never own, since they where lent them by charter street ragged school

They gave them shoes to wear since some kids and there families couldn’t afford for shoes

To stop the children and there families pawning for money they just let the workers borrow there clogs

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Rahee Trivedi

Nicknamed 'Cottonopolis' - Manchester was the international center of the world’s cotton industry. The city imported upwards of a billion tons of cotton a year.

Manchester's cotton industry was connected to transatlantic slavery

Great wealth, at what cost? In 1860, > 80% of processed cotton for Manchester was grown by enslaved African people on southern plantations in the United States. Manchester’s manufacturers only got the cotton in the quantities and at the prices they desired because of this system of human exploitation.

“Urban metropolis” - inventions, like an original Richard Arkwright Water Frame, child-sized clogs from Charter Street Ragged School - which helped develop and build the Industrial Revolution

However revolutionary, cotton mills, factories, and workplaces were extremely uncomfortable and unpleasant to work in. Allergies? Good luck!!

“Liverpool and Manchester Railway”. 1st inter-city railway that carried passengers AND goods. Main reason for the construction of this railway was to be able to transport cotton more efficiently between Manchester’s mills and ports

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Dalton was born in the village of eagles field in Cumbria on September 6th of 1766. By the time he was 26 he began to realize that the way he saw color was different to other people. He gave his first account of color vision to the Manchester literary and philosophical society in 1794

Dalton used everyday objects as reference points and to describe colors in a common language. Green woolen cloth appeared as a dark brownish red color to him. In his eyes it resembled soil

Dalton had green red color blindness or better known as deuteranopia this discovery was only made in 1995.

dalton wanted his eyes tested after death as he had his own suspicions. he believed the jelly part of his eye was tinted blue acting as a filter. An autopsy was performed after he died in 1844 perfectly colorless was the result

He was the president in the literary and philosophical society for almost 30 years. He donated to the museum of science and industry in 1997.

Many of his anniversaries were celebrated this year such as events the university of Manchester. In one of his comparisons he explained that the face of a leaf is a good match to a stick of red sealing wax

Dalton was what made people research color blindness because before him it wasn’t something that was talked about or researched

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MANCHESTER’S SMOKE NUISANCE: AIR POLLUTION IN THE INDUSTRIAL CITY

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MANCHESTER’S SMOKE NUISANCE: AIR POLLUTION IN THE INDUSTRIAL CITY

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The World Health Organization estimates about 7 million people dying of exposure to fine particles in the pollutes air yearly.

primary source of air pollution is from the burning og fossil fuels. Especially in the 19th-century Manchester, people used coal as there primary source of energy. The consequences of burning fossil fuels the effects on human like consequences of burning fossil fuels.

Because of the creation of the steam engine coal was a primary source of pollutants. It creates carbon dioxide, ash and water vapour which pollute the air.

The mills just kept getting bigger which increased the pollution that was caused.

people got more concerned about the air, which they protested for. Which they got but in order for that they had to come up with new ideas for production of material.

Legislation had previously tried to limit pollution made by factories, there were some efforts made to limit smoke in the city of Manchester.

Anti-pollution activists emerged when people started to believe that black billowing smoke signified the loss of profits due to the coal not being burned fully.

The World Health Organization estimates about 7 million people dying of exposure to fine particles in the pollutes air yearly.

primary source of air pollution is from the burning og fossil fuels. Especially in the 19th-century Manchester, people used coal as there primary source of energy. The consequences of burning fossil fuels the effects on human like consequences of burning fossil fuels.

Because of the creation of the steam engine coal was a primary source of pollutants. It creates carbon dioxide, ash and water vapour which pollute the air.

The mills just kept getting bigger which increased the pollution that was caused.

people got more concerned about the air, which they protested for. Which they got but in order for that they had to come up with new ideas for production of material.

Legislation had previously tried to limit pollution made by factories, there were some efforts made to limit smoke in the city of Manchester.

Anti-pollution activists emerged when people started to believe that black billowing smoke signified the loss of profits due to the coal not being burned fully.

The World Health Organization estimates about 7 million people dying of exposure to fine particles in the pollutes air yearly.

primary source of air pollution is from the burning og fossil fuels. Especially in the 19th-century Manchester, people used coal as there primary source of energy. The consequences of burning fossil fuels the effects on human like consequences of burning fossil fuels.

Because of the creation of the steam engine coal was a primary source of pollutants. It creates carbon dioxide, ash and water vapour which pollute the air.

The mills just kept getting bigger which increased the pollution that was caused.

people got more concerned about the air, which they protested for. Which they got but in order for that they had to come up with new ideas for production of material.

Legislation had previously tried to limit pollution made by factories, there were some efforts made to limit smoke in the city of Manchester.

Anti-pollution activists emerged when people started to believe that black billowing smoke signified the loss of profits due to the coal not being burned fully.

The World Health Organization estimates about 7 million people dying of exposure to fine particles in the pollutes air yearly.

primary source of air pollution is from the burning og fossil fuels. Especially in the 19th-century Manchester, people used coal as there primary source of energy. The consequences of burning fossil fuels the effects on human like consequences of burning fossil fuels.

Because of the creation of the steam engine coal was a primary source of pollutants. It creates carbon dioxide, ash and water vapour which pollute the air.

The mills just kept getting bigger which increased the pollution that was caused.

people got more concerned about the air, which they protested for. Which they got but in order for that they had to come up with new ideas for production of material.

Legislation had previously tried to limit pollution made by factories, there were some efforts made to limit smoke in the city of Manchester.

Anti-pollution activists emerged when people started to believe that black billowing smoke signified the loss of profits due to the coal not being burned fully.

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John Dalton and color blindness- Matteo Intravaia

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John Dalton and color blindness- Matteo Intravaia

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before the late 1700s, color blindness was not something researched or even acknowledged before John Dalton.

He first realized that he saw color differently than others when he was around 26.

He gave his first account of his vision at the Manchester Literary and Philosophical society during 1794.

He called his condition "Daltonism" after his name.

He used everyday objects as references, and compared his vision to that of others.

‘Green woollen cloth, such as is used to cover tables appears to me a dull, dark, brownish red colour. A mixture of two parts mud and one red would come near it. It resembles a red soil just turned up by the plough’.

– John Dalton

John Dalton had red-green color blindness, known as deuteranopia. Dalton thought that the jelly part of his eyes were tinted blue and thus acted as a filter. Because of this, he wanted his eyes to be examined after-death, and they were described as "perfectly colorless".

his eyes were preserved and later donated to the Museum of Science and Industry in 1997.

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How did the life and observations of chemist John Dalton help us understand colour blindness?

'Blue, not vivid', wrote the chemist John Dalton in 1798-99, to describe the knot of silk thread glued into the top of this notebook. In daylight it appeared brown, and by candlelight, blue. A forest green is how I might describe it, or a dirty green. The notebook, from the collections of the Science Museum Archives, is over 200 years old, so the colour of the threads may have changed since Dalton's time, but to me it is definitely green. You can judge for yourself when it is on display at the Museum of Science and Industry on 25 October 2016 for the Manchester Science Festival.

It is 250 years today since John Dalton was born in the village of Eaglesfield in Cumbria (6 September 1766). By the time he was 26, and living in Manchester, he had begun to realise that he saw colour differently to other people. He gave his first account of his colour vision to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society in 1794, and it is the first description of colour blindness, a condition that took his name - Daltonism.

Dalton was a meticulous observer. But for me, what is most interesting about Dalton's study of his colour vision is the way he used everyday objects as reference points: to describe colours in a common language, and to compare his perception to that of others. Those everyday objects are very much of Dalton's time, so they give a personal insight into 18 th century Manchester.

'Green woollen cloth, such as is used to cover tables appears to me a dull, dark, brownish red colour. A mixture of two parts mud and one red would come near it. It resembles a red soil just turned up by the plough'.

- John Dalton

In another comparison, he wrote, 'The face of a laurel-leaf ( Prunus laurocerasus) is a good match to a stick of red sealing-wax'. The image below is how it would have looked to Dalton, using a piece of red sealing wax thought to have belonged to Dalton (from the collections of the Museum of Science and Industry) and viewed with a photographic filter.

We now know that Dalton had red-green colour blindness, or deuteranopia. This was discovered in 1995, when DNA analysis revealed that he lacked the gene for the receptor sensitive to medium wavelength (green) light. Dalton had speculated that the jelly-like part of his eye, the vitreous humour, was tinted blue, acting as a filter, so he asked that his eyes be examined after death. On 28 July 1844, the day after he died, local doctor Joseph Ransome performed the autopsy. 'Perfectly colourless' was the result. The eyes were retained by the Literary and Philosophical Society, of which Dalton had been President for nearly thirty years, and donated to the Museum of Science and Industry in 1997. The results of the DNA analysis of a tiny fragment of this tissue were published in the journal

There are many celebrations of Dalton's anniversary this year, such as this exhibit at the Science Museum and events at the University of Manchester. Our event for Manchester Science Festival will showcase our collections, and some of the ways colour vision has been tested since Dalton's days. There will be sheep's eye dissection demonstrations, to see that jelly-like vitreous humour, and the part of the eye that was sampled for the DNA analysis. Plus, there will be games and simulations that explain why being colour blind has its advantages in the animal kingdom. We'll also run a book on the colour of that green thread, and post our results on the blog here in November. I'm sure you can do better than 'dirty green'.

Top and middle image credit: Science Museum/Science and Society Picture Library

Bottom image credit: The Board of Trustees of the Science Museum, London

Alice Cliff is the Curator of Science and Technology here at the Science and Industry Museum.

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Read our post on John Dalton's studies into colour blindness, written to commemorate the 250th anniversary of the famed Manchester scientist birth.

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Child labor in the Industrial Revolution 

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Child labor in the Industrial Revolution 

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Children worked in large numbers in mines, glass factories, the textile industry, agriculture, canneries, and as newsboys, messengers, shoe shiners, and peddlers.

As America was becoming more industrialized, many poor families had no choice but to send their children to work in order to help the family survive.

Between 1890 and 1910, no less than 18 percent of all children ages 10‒15 worked.

Age was only one consideration in deciding whether a child was ready for work.

Kids will soon start to work in these dangerous factories once they are 5 years old?

Lots of kid have passed away while working in these factories do to how the machine malfunctioned.

Children in the mills usually worked eleven or twelve hour days, 5-6 days a week.

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OUR WORK TO EXPLORE MANCHESTER, COTTON AND SLAVERY

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OUR WORK TO EXPLORE MANCHESTER, COTTON AND SLAVERY

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From the late 18th century, the manufacturing of textiles in new, machine-filled cotton mills transformed the town into a booming industrial centre

Global Threads is a public history collaboration between the museum, UCL's Centre for the Study of the Legacies of British Slavery,

working together to think about the opportunities and challenges around using and developing our collections to tell more inclusive stories about our shared history in the museum.

Sarah Parker Remond's story and find out what happened when she visited Manchester to campaign for abolition The displays also consider the legacies of these histories today.

Manchester is a city shaped by cotton. Yet innovation and profits went hand in hand with exploitation, on a local and a global scale

MANCHESTER GOODS

His research involves an exploration of how Langworthy Brothers, like thousands of other Manchester textile merchants and manufacturers,

In the Textiles Gallery, displays explore how the labour of millions of enslaved people forced to work on cotton plantations in the Americas met industrial Manchester's demand for raw cotton.

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The gantry was first built in the 1880s to support a steam-powered traveling crane and was at the heart of the thriving Liverpool Road Goods Station.

The gantry moved back and forth across the top of the structure and was controlled by an operator from a platform or cabin above.

The exact date is unknown but it was in place by 1884 and was likely built around the same time as New Warehouse, which was completed in 1882

the earliest powered overhead crane was McNicoll and Vernon’s Patent Steam Travelling Crane introduced in 1858

What is now the Power Hall was built as the new shipping shed at Liverpool Road Station in 1855 to speed up the movement of goods to and from the railways.

For 150 years, Liverpool Road Station was bursting with produce from all over the world, including raw cotton, live pigs, timber, and fresh fruit and vegetables, providing Manchester’s manufacturers easier access to a global market

Goods from across the world were transferred from rail to road transport and out across the North West, a machinery like the gantry crane.

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Clogs were the work day shoes of the Industrial Revolution Of the men, women, and children

Children who wore them never owned them

They were lent by Charter Street Ragged School in Angel Meadow to children whose families could not afford clogs

They are CSRS loaned and can’t be pawned so poor people and children can’t pawn them off

Workers could own good wages in Manchester’s textile mills, but work was never guaranteed

Cotton shortages or low demand for cotton cloth could shut down the mills

Many struggled to afford food, clothes, and a place to live so Charter Street in Angel Meadow in Manchester was one of the worst slums in the 19th century but they provided food clothing and basic education to the poor.

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SLUMS AND SUBURBS: WATER AND SANITATION IN THE FIRST INDUSTRIAL CITY

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SLUMS AND SUBURBS: WATER AND SANITATION IN THE FIRST INDUSTRIAL CITY

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Due to the first industrial city, Manchester, one in three people cannot access clean drinking water, causing loads and loads of deaths from disease each year. Clean water is on the global agenda.

Manchester has a known reputation as the most unsanitary and unhealthy place in Britain, putting the average lifespan of the people living there at only 17 years old.

In 1847, only 11,000 homes in Manchester had clean or piped water. 12,000 homes had to rely on a shared tap, while thousands more obtained water from streams or wells, which were always contaminated.

The build-up of waste in the rivers of Manchester increased the risk of flooding. By the 1860’s, River Irwell was extremely contaminated that the riverbed increased at a rate of 3 inches each year.

Soon, the local government started to invest in pipes for fresh water for the people. In 1851, fresh water arrived and allowed Manchester Corporation to extend the pipes of fresh water throughout the city, benefiting the people. However, inequalities expanded due to this.

In the late 1860’s, John Frederick Bateman designed a pioneering scheme to create a reservoir that would bring water to the city. The project began in 1885 and water reached Manchester in 1894, ending the shortage of water supply.

Many advances in engineering enabled a reform for Manchesters environment due to protests and campaigns. In 2018, UN announced its Water Action Decade to make sure the goal of clean water and sanitation was reached. Activism and empowerment continued, and soon will stop water pollution for good.

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-Cotton mills: most cotton mills during this time were using children, who did not have any home or money to even feed themselves sometimes.

-use before industrialization and what children’s main purpose were Their main purpose was to help around the house.

- and assisting a family business or working in a field, like in a medieval setting.

-Early industrial work: Textile mills were first made in the late 1700’s  conditions in these mills included long hours

-strict discipline and harsh punishments for something like stealing a slice of bread.

-Debates on conditions for these children.

People began to question the act of child labor itself.

-Kids the age of 5 and up were working 16 hours a day with no recesses or breaks for food or water were not permitted.

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Cottonopolis = was a nickname giving to Manchester as it was the center of the cotton industry. 

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The cotton of “Cottonopolis” - Matthew cavallo 

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The cotton of “Cottonopolis” - Matthew cavallo 

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MANCHESTER PRODUCED SOME OF THE TEXTILES USED BY SLAVE TRADERS, IN RETURN IT GOT THE COTTON PICKED BY THE ENSLAVED PEOPLE IN THE AMERICAS.

BY 1780, MOST OF THE COTTON SPUN AND WOVEN IN MANCHESTER WAS GROWN BY THE ENSLAVED PEOPLE IN THE CARIBBEAN AND SOUTH AMERICA (INCLUDING BRAZIL  AND GUYANA).

PLANTATION OWNER ON THE COLONIES INTENSIFIED THE EXPLOITATION OF LAND AND ENSLAVED PEOPLE TO SUPPLY RAW COTTON TO MANCHESTER.

THE RISE IN VALUE OF RAW COTTON. CAUSED THE RAPID EXPANSION OF TEXTILE INDUSTRIES IN MANCHESTER.

SEA ISLAND COTTON ( A TYPE OF COTTON WITH LONG SILKY FIBERS) WAS PRIZED BY MANCHESTER COTTON SPINNERS.

THE DEMAND FROM MANCHESTER MANUFACTURERS LED TO THE PLANTING OF SEA ISLAND COTTON UP AND DOWN TO THE COAST OF SOUTH CAROLINA AND GEORGIA.

RAILROADS SPED UP THE TRANSPORTATION OF RAW COTTON TO MANCHESTER, BEFORE MOVING COTTON BY CANAL BOAT TOOK UP AROUND 12 HOURS WHILE WITH THE RAILROADS IT ONLY TOOK JUST UNDER 2 HOURS, ALSO THE RAILROAD MADE HUGE PROFIT OFF OF TRANSPORTING COTTON AND TEXTILES.

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The first ever steam powered cotton mill was built in Shudehill in Manchester in 1782 by Richard Arkwright. Mill-owners were quick to build engine-powered mills among Manchester’s growing spurts, where there was workers & factories thriving.

In the mid 1840s, there was around 500 smoking industrial chimneys on Manchester’s sky, as it was increasing. But these booming effects caused dreadful side effects such as terrible work conditions. According to Victorian industrialists although, smoke became a signifier of economic success & technological progress.

In Manchester air pollution was a terrible problem which was caused by a burning coal, & fossil fuel. Steam engines made it possible to heat energy using coal, causing very bad effects on the air. Although it made the air terrible it was a revolutionary idea that changed the machinery world forever.

Burning coal is usually carbon dioxide, ash & water vapor. Smoke & soot are produced when coal is burned, but combustion isn’t complete.

Researches found that the effects of coal smoke on humans is terrible. Coal in the air practically gives us the greatest immediate risk to human health, & leads to heart & respiratory disease & increased mortality.

Manchester’s mill owners encouraged for more technologically advanced engines to power their business & increase their profits. Smart inventions made it so mill owners wouldn’t use a lot of coal to produce more energy.

Manchester’s smoke advisors also tried to persuade mill & factory owners to adopt gas-powered engines to reduce the amount of smoke they produced. Gas powered engines were possible in the late 19th century (late 1800s), but gas was still much more expensive then burning coal.