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Maayan, I. (2011, March 24). Meiosis in Humans | The Embryo Project Encyclopedia. The Embryo Project Encyclopedia. https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/meiosis-humans

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According to Maayan (2011), in the first metaphase, the tetrads line up with the cell's equatorial plane. Attached to each homologous chromosome's centromeres are spindle fibers.

During anaphase, the homologous chromosomes divide and are drawn to the cell's poles by the spindle fibers. Sister chromatids stay together at this point, in contrast to mitosis.

Finally, in telophase, the split chromosomes arrive at the poles and de-condense. During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm separates, producing two haploid daughter cells, and a nuclear membrane may form around each set of chromosomes.

Chromosomes de-condensed during telophase one condense once more in each haploid daughter cell from Meiosis one during prophase two. The nuclear envelope dissolves if made during telophase one.

Chromosomes align alone along each daughter cell's equatorial plane during metaphase two.

In anaphase two, spindle fibers pull the sister chromatids apart toward the cell's poles.

Chromatids reach the poles and de-condense back into chromatin during telophase two. Nuclear membranes surround each set of chromosomes, and then the cytoplasm of each daughter cell is divided by cytokinesis, producing four distinct haploid gametes.

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Biology Online. (2019, October 7). Independent assortment Definition and Examples - Biology Online Dictionary. Biology Articles, Tutorials & Dictionary Online. https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/independent-assortment

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In sexually reproducing species, meiosis produces gametes, or sperm and eggs. The creation of genetic variety, which is necessary for adaptation and evolution, relies on this process. According to Biology Online (2019), independent assortment and crossing over are the methods utilized to create diversity. Random fertilization also adds to genetic variation because sperm can fertilize any egg. Crossing over is crucial to genetic diversity because it can create genetically distinct gametes by rearranging alleles between the maternal and paternal chromosomes.

The two successive meiosis divisions are meiosis one and meiosis two. Different periods of each division are essential for chromosomal behavior.

According to Fowler et al. (2013), during meiosis one, homologous chromosomes split during the reductional division. The first stages of the process are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Similar to mitosis, sister chromatid separation takes place during meiosis two. The process has four stages: prophase 2, metaphase 2, anaphase 2, and telophase 2.

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Aryal, S. (2018, September 21). Mendel’s Experiment and Laws | Molecular Biology / Genetics. Online Microbiology Notes. https://microbenotes.com/mendels-experiment-and-laws/

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According to Aryal (2018), Gregor Mendel first proposed Mendel's law of independent assortment, one of the foundational ideas of genetics. Mendel discovered that offspring inherited distinct features independently during his research with pea plants, which led to the development of this principle. His research helped to establish the field of contemporary genetics and shed light on the inheritance of features from parents to children.

According to the law of independent assortment, alleles for distinct genes segregate independently during gamete production. In other words, an allele's biological selection for one feature is unrelated to its selection for any other trait. Mendel's dihybrid cross-experiments provided evidence in favor of this law. In conclusion, an allele's biological selection for one feature is unrelated to its selection for any other trait.

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BYJU. (2017, December 5). Mitosis - equational division. BYJUS; Byju. https://byjus.com/biology/mitosis/

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Mitosis is essential in cell division to guarantee that genetic material is distributed equally across daughter cells. There are multiple discrete phases, each with unique occurrences promoting the systematic chromosome division. The steps are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

According to BYJU (2017), chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes during prophase; these comprise two sister chromatids connected by a centromere. As the nucleolus vanishes, the nuclear envelope starts to disintegrate. Furthermore, microtubules that emerge from the centrosomes and travel in opposite directions to the cell poles begin to create the mitotic spindle.

The nuclear envelope breaks down during the prometaphase, enabling spindle fibers to directly reach the chromosomes. Spindle microtubules attach to kinetochores, which are protein structures on the centromeres. The centrosomes continue moving apart, establishing a bipolar spindle apparatus.

Chromosome alignment along the metaphase plate, or the cell's equatorial plane, defines metaphase. Each chromosome is connected to spindle fibers from both poles via its kinetochores. This alignment is essential to guarantee that every daughter cell receives identical chromosomes.

Sister chromatids can split apart and travel in opposing directions to the cell poles during anaphase because the cohesin proteins that keep them together break down. The shortening spindle strands pull apart the now-individual chromosomes. The cell is stretched and elongated via the elongation of non-kinetochore microtubules.

Research (BYJU, 2017) shows that separated chromosomes arrive at their poles and break into chromatin during telophase. Two separate nuclei exist within a single cell due to the nuclear envelope reforming around each set of chromosomes. During this stage, the mitotic spindle disintegrates.

Although cytokinesis is not technically a part of mitosis, it typically occurs alongside telophase and separates the cytoplasm into two daughter cells. Animal cells pinch the cell membrane inward through a cleavage furrow, while plant cells form a cell plate between the dividing nuclei.

Mitosis guarantees that every daughter cell inherits an identical copy of the parent cell's genetic material.

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Key Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis

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Key Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis

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According to Biology (2014), meiosis and mitosis serve different biological functions. Growth, repair, and asexual reproduction are the main functions of mitosis, which produces two genetically identical daughter cells. In contrast, meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction, creating gametes with half the parent cell's chromosomal number, resulting in four genetically different daughter cells. Mitosis involves two successive divisions, whereas meiosis consists of a single-division cycle. A critical distinction between the two processes is the number of chromosomes. Meiosis adds genetic diversity through crossing over and independent assortment, whereas mitosis creates clones. Additionally, meiosis contains special stages, including synapsis, tetrad formation, and reductional division, that are not present in mitosis. Clones produce clones and genetically varied gametes, which is a substantial difference between the two procedures' final results.

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Eukaryotic cells can divide through two processes called mitosis and meiosis, which are comparable in several ways. Meiosis aims to create gametes (egg and sperm cells) with half the parent cell's genetic material, essential for sexual reproduction and genetic diversity. In contrast, mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells, mainly used for growth and repair in an organism. Understanding their similarities is crucial to comprehend the differences in mitosis and meiosis. Interphase (which contains DNA replication) comes before both of them. They follow the same division pattern (prophase → metaphase → anaphase → telophase). Both of them need cytokinesis to divide their cells.

DISCO PUG is a fun way to remember the differences in these two cellular reproduction processes.

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Aryal, S. (2018, September 21). Mendel’s Experiment and Laws | Molecular Biology / Genetics. Online Microbiology Notes. https://microbenotes.com/mendels-experiment-and-laws/

Biology Online. (2019, October 7). Independent assortment Definition and Examples - Biology Online Dictionary. Biology Articles, Tutorials & Dictionary Online. https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/independent-assortment

Biology, B. (2014). Mitosis vs Meiosis [YouTube Video]. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bRcjB11hDCU

BYJU. (2017, December 5). Mitosis - equational division. BYJUS; Byju. https://byjus.com/biology/mitosis/

Cornell, B. (2016). Mitosis versus meiosis | bioninja. Old-Ib.bioninja.com.au. https://old-ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-3-genetics/33-meiosis/mitosis-versus-meiosis.html

Fowler, S., Roush, R., & Wise, J. (2013, April 25). Introduction - Concepts of Biology - OpenStax. Openstax.org; OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/1-introduction

Maayan, I. (2011, March 24). Meiosis in Humans | The Embryo Project Encyclopedia. The Embryo Project Encyclopedia. https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/meiosis-humans

Shields, J., & Henderson, A. (2019, August 5). There is an easy way to understand mitosis and meiosis. HowStuffWorks. https://science.howstuffworks.com/life/genetic/mitosis-and-meiosis.htm