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 Native Americans  2200 BC - 1600 AD: Period Characteristics

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 Native Americans  2200 BC - 1600 AD: Period Characteristics

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1. Oral literature: epic narratives, creation myths, stories, poems, songs.

2. Use stories to teach moral lessons and convey practical information about the natural world.

3. Deep respect for nature and animals.

4. Cyclical worldview.

5. Figurative language/parallelism.

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Pre-Colonial North Americans Spoke Over 300 Languages

Prior to European colonization, there were over 300 languages spoken by the North American Natives, and according to some estimates, possibly as many as 500. Each nation spoke its own language and communicated with others either through interpreters or sign language.

https://www-worldhistory-org.webpkgcache.com/doc/-/s/www.worldhistory.org/article/2347/ten-north-american-native-facts-you-need-to-know/

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They were responsible for discovering popcorn

https://www.uvm.edu/news/story/popcorn-american-original#:~:text=Popcorn%20is%20a%20fascinating%20food,important%20food%20of%20the%20Aztecs.

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2200 B.C.—Tower of Babel (Genesis 11:1-9)

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1607—Early settlement at Jamestown

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies  1600-1800 period characteristics.

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies  1600-1800 period characteristics.

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1. Wrote mostly diaries and histories, which expressed the connections between God and their everyday lives.
2. South to "purify" the Church of England by reforming to the simpler forms of worship and church organization described in the New Testament.
3. Saw religion as a personal, inner experience.
4. Believed in original sin and "elect" who would be saved.
5. Used a plain style of writing.

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" Colonies: Authors and Works

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" Colonies: Authors and Works

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William Bradford
-"Of Plymouth Plantation"

Anne Bradstreet (poetry)

John Edwards
-"Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God"

Edward Taylor
-"Huswifery"

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" Colonies: Fact #1

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" Colonies: Fact #1

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Most Puritans had a sense that they were living in the last days (they believed God's judgment was on the RCC). Thus they lived in expectation of the soon return of Christ. There were among the Puritans both pre- and post-millennialists.

https://www.samstorms.org/enjoying-god-blog/post/10-things-you-should-know-about-the-puritans

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10 Things You Should Know about the Puritans

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10 Things You Should Know about the Puritans

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" Colonies: Fact #2

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" Colonies: Fact #2

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The term “Puritan” was initially used as a pejorative label

The Puritan movement emerged in the late 16th century as a response to what they perceived as corruption and remnants of Catholic practices within the Church of England

https://www.havefunwithhistory.com/facts-about-puritans/

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The Puritans were a group of English Protestants who emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries as a movement seeking to reform the Church of England.

Inspired by the Protestant Reformation, they aimed to purify the church from what they perceived as remnants of Catholic practices and return to a more pure and biblical form of worship.

The term "Puritan" initially carried a negative connotation but eventually became associated with their distinct religious and social movement.

The Puritans emphasized a strict interpretation of the Bible and placed a strong emphasis on personal piety, individual responsibility, and a disciplined lifestyle.

Also Read: Famous Puritans

They believed in the doctrine of predestination, which held that God predestined certain individuals to be saved and others to be damned. This belief system led to a deep sense of religious introspection and a constant striving for evidence of one's own salvation.

Puritans Facts

1. The Puritans were a group of English Protestants who sought to purify the Church of England

The Puritans were a group of English Protestants who sought to purify the Church of England from within during the 16th and 17th centuries.

The term "Puritan" originated as a nickname used by critics who accused them of being overly strict and austere in their religious beliefs and practices. However, the Puritans themselves embraced the label and saw it as a badge of honor.

2. The term "Puritan" was initially used as a pejorative label

The Puritan movement emerged in the late 16th century as a response to what they perceived as corruption and remnants of Catholic practices within the Church of England.

Also Read: What's the Difference Between Puritans and Quakers?

They sought to reform the church according to what they believed were the pure teachings of the Bible. Puritans emphasized the importance of personal religious experience, the authority of Scripture, and the need for a disciplined and moral society.

3. Puritans believed in a strict interpretation of the Bible and placed a strong emphasis on personal piety

Puritans believed in a strict interpretation of the Bible and placed a strong emphasis on personal piety, individual responsibility, and a disciplined lifestyle.

They believed that all aspects of life should be governed by religious principles, including work, family, and social interactions. Their aim was to create a society that exemplified Christian virtues and upheld a high moral standard.

4. Many Puritans migrated from England to the American colonies

Many Puritans migrated from England to the American colonies, seeking religious freedom and the opportunity to establish a pure Christian society. The Massachusetts Bay Colony, founded in 1630, became a significant Puritan stronghold.

Other colonies, such as Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire, also attracted Puritan settlers. The Puritans' desire to establish religious communities played a crucial role in shaping the early American colonies.

5. The most well-known Puritan settlement in America was the Massachusetts Bay Colony

The Massachusetts Bay Colony was established as a theocratic society, where church and state were closely intertwined. Puritan leaders, such as John Winthrop, saw the colony as a "City upon a Hill," a model Christian community that would serve as an example to others.

Puritan society in the colonies was characterized by strict moral codes, communal responsibility, and a collective sense of purpose. The church played a central role in community life, and religious leaders had significant influence over both religious and secular matters.

6. Puritan society was highly structured and governed by strict moral codes

Puritan society was highly structured and governed by strict moral codes. Activities such as gambling, theater-going, and dancing were frowned upon and sometimes prohibited. The Puritans believed in leading a simple and disciplined life, free from worldly distractions.

They considered such activities as potential sources of temptation and viewed them as sinful or wasteful. Instead, they encouraged activities centered around worship, study, and work.

7. Puritan worship services were characterized by simplicity, focus on preaching, and the study of Scripture

Puritan worship services were characterized by simplicity, focus on preaching, and the study of Scripture. They rejected elaborate rituals and ceremonies present in the Church of England.

The sermon held a central place in their religious gatherings, with ministers delivering long and intense sermons aimed at teaching and admonishing the congregation. Prayer and singing of psalms were also important aspects of Puritan worship.

8. Puritans believed in the doctrine of predestination

Puritans believed in the doctrine of predestination, which held that God predestined certain individuals to be saved and others to be damned. They believed that human beings were inherently sinful and that salvation could only be achieved through God's grace.

This belief led to a strong sense of religious introspection and a constant striving for evidence of one's own salvation. The idea of predestination also shaped their understanding of societal hierarchies and their perception of success or misfortune as indications of divine favor or disfavor.

9. Puritans placed a strong emphasis on education and literacy

Puritans placed a strong emphasis on education and literacy. They established schools and universities, such as Harvard College, to ensure that people could read and understand the Bible.

The ability to study and interpret Scripture was seen as essential for personal piety and a well-informed religious community. Puritan parents were encouraged to educate their children, both boys and girls, to ensure they could read and engage with religious texts.

10. Puritan women had distinct roles within the household and society

Puritan women had distinct roles within the household and society. They were expected to be obedient to their husbands, raise children, and maintain domestic order.

Women's primary role was considered to be that of a wife and mother, responsible for the spiritual and moral upbringing of their families.

While women did not hold formal positions of authority within the church or government, they played an influential role within the home and had certain rights and responsibilities. Puritan women were also active in charitable endeavors and contributed to the community's social fabric.

11. The Salem witch trials, which took place in Massachusetts in 1692-1693, were a dark chapter in Puritan history

The Salem witch trials, which took place in Massachusetts in 1692-1693, were a dark chapter in Puritan history. Accusations of witchcraft led to the execution of several individuals.

The trials were marked by mass hysteria, fueled by religious fervor and a belief in supernatural forces. Many factors contributed to the witch trials, including social tensions, economic pressures, and a rigid worldview that viewed any deviation from societal norms as potentially Satanic.

The trials serve as a stark reminder of the dangers of religious fanaticism and the consequences of unchecked fear and intolerance.

12. Puritans had a strong work ethic and believed in the virtue of hard work

Puritans had a strong work ethic and believed in the virtue of hard work. They saw labor as a means of serving God and fulfilling one's religious duties. Puritans emphasized the concept of the "Protestant work ethic," which linked economic success and prosperity to godliness.

They believed that diligent labor, thriftiness, and responsible stewardship of resources were important aspects of their Christian faith. This belief in the value of hard work and economic productivity contributed to the development of capitalism in America.

13. Puritans had a significant influence on American culture and politics

Puritans had a significant influence on American culture and politics. Their values, including individualism, self-reliance, and the pursuit of moral virtue, contributed to the development of the American identity.

The emphasis on personal responsibility and the belief in the importance of community and social order helped shape American ideals of democracy, civic duty, and social equality. The legacy of Puritanism can be seen in various aspects of American society, including its legal system, educational institutions, and cultural norms.

14. Over time, Puritanism declined as a distinct religious movement

Over time, Puritanism declined as a distinct religious movement, but its influence continued to shape American society through subsequent generations. As new waves of immigrants arrived in America and religious diversity increased, the strict practices and beliefs of the Puritans gave way to a more pluralistic society.

However, the Puritan legacy persisted in the form of religious freedom and the separation of church and state, which became fundamental principles in the United States Constitution.

The Puritans' quest for religious liberty laid the foundation for the First Amendment, protecting the freedom of religion and expression.

15. The legacy of the Puritans can be seen in the cultural and moral traditions of the United States

The legacy of the Puritans can be seen in the cultural and moral traditions of the United States, as well as in the principles of religious freedom and individual liberty that are fundamental to American society.

Puritan ideals of hard work, discipline, and moral responsibility continue to influence American attitudes toward work, success, and personal morality.

The Puritans' commitment to education also laid the groundwork for the development of a robust educational system in the United States. Their influence on American culture and politics continues to shape the nation's values and institutions to this day.

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15 Facts About Puritans - Have Fun With History

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The Puritans were a group of English Protestants who emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries as a movement seeking to reform the Church of England. Inspired by the Protestant Reformation, they aimed to purify the church from what they perceived as remnants of Catholic practices and return to a more pure and biblical form ...

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1507: Early Settlement of the first American colonies - Jamestown

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1692: Salem Witch Trials

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1741: Jonathan Edwards "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God"

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Rationalism, "The Age of Reason", "The Age of Enlightenment" 1607-1783: Period Characteristics

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Rationalism, "The Age of Reason", "The Age of Enlightenment" 1607-1783: Period Characteristics

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1. Mostly comprised of philosophers, scientists, writing speeches and pamphlets

2. Human beings can arrive at truth (God's rules) by using deductive reasoning, rather than relying on the authority of the past, on religious faith, or intuition

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Rationalism, "The Age of Reason", "The Age of Enlightenment": Authors and Works

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Rationalism, "The Age of Reason", "The Age of Enlightenment": Authors and Works

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Benjamin Franklin
—Autobiography

Patrick Henry
—"Speech to the Virginia Convention"

Thomas Paine
—"The Crisis"

Phyllis Wheatley
—poetry

The Constitution

The Bill of Rights

The Declaration of Independence

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Rationalism, "The Age of Reason", "The Age of Enlightenment": Fact #1

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Rationalism, "The Age of Reason", "The Age of Enlightenment": Fact #1

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Scientific breakthroughs

The Age of Reason saw many scientific breakthroughs, including the diving bell, the fire extinguisher, the thermometer, the sextant, and the flush toilet.

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imnovation-hub.com%2Fsociety%2Fscientific-breakthroughs-enlightenment%2F&psig=AOvVaw0wuMZ3Jaj--taXiuLJktzS&ust=1731775638658000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CAYQrpoMahcKEwiw5tuQ5d6JAxUAAAAAHQAAAAAQBA

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Rationalism, "The Age of Reason", "The Age of Enlightenment": Fact #2

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Rationalism, "The Age of Reason", "The Age of Enlightenment": Fact #2

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Classification of nature

In 1735, Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus presented a classification of nature into three kingdoms: stones, plants, and animals. This system is still used in biology today.

https://www.britannica.com/summary/The-Enlightenment-Timeline#:~:text=1735,been%20revised%20over%20the%20years.

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The Enlightenment | Timeline | Britannica

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Timeline of significant events related to the Enlightenment. The main goal of this wide-ranging intellectual movement was to understand the natural world and humankind’s place in it solely on the basis of reason. The movement claimed the allegiance of many thinkers in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries.

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1607 Early Settlement—Jamestown

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1775-1783 Revolutionary War

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Rationalism, "The Age of Reason", "The Enlightenment" 1775-1783: Period Characteristics

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Rationalism, "The Age of Reason", "The Enlightenment" 1775-1783: Period Characteristics

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1. Mostly comprised of philosophers, scientists, writing speeches and pamphlets

2. Human beings can arrive at truth (God's rules) by using deductive reasoning, rather than relying on the authority of the past, on religious faith, or intuition

# data[].attributes.headline
Rationalism, "The Age of Reason", "The Age of Enlightenment": Authors and Works

# data[].attributes.subject
Rationalism, "The Age of Reason", "The Age of Enlightenment": Authors and Works

# data[].attributes.body
Benjamin Franklin
—Autobiography

Patrick Henry
—"Speech to the Virginia Convention"

Thomas Paine
—"The Crisis"

Phyllis Wheatley
—poetry

The Constitution

The Bill of Rights

The Declaration of Independence

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Rationalism, "The Age of Reason", "The Age of Enlightenment": Fact #1

# data[].attributes.subject
Rationalism, "The Age of Reason", "The Age of Enlightenment": Fact #1

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Influence on the French Revolution

Some of the governing ideas of the Enlightenment were evident in the New Constitution, though it's difficult to say if the Enlightenment directly caused the French Revolution.

https://www.vaia.com/en-us/explanations/history/the-french-revolution/enlightenment/

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The Enlightenment was a period of knowledge and questioning the Status Quo. Learn more about it and how it influenced the French Revoluition

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Rationalism, "The Age of Reason", "The Age of Enlightenment": Fact #2

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Rationalism, "The Age of Reason", "The Age of Enlightenment": Fact #2

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John Milton's Paradise Lost (1667) is considered one of the greatest poems of the Age of Enlightenment. Alexander Pope's An Essay on Man (1733) was an essay poem that provided philosophical and educational information in poetic form.

https://www.vaia.com/en-us/explanations/english-literature/literary-movements/age-of-enlightenment/#:~:text=Alexander%20Pope's%20'An%20Essay%20on,meant%20for%20education%20or%20enjoyment.

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Age of Enlightenment: Meaning & Summary | Vaia

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Age of Enlightenment: ✓ Summary ✓ Period ✓ Quotes ✓ Literature ✓ Vaia Original

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1775-1783 Revolutionary War

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1. Everything in the world, including human beings, is a reflection of the Divine Soul.

2. People can use their intuition to behold God's spirit revealed in nature or in their own souls.

3. Self-reliance and individualism must outweigh external authority and link conformity to tradition.

4. Important social and political movements include the Abolitionist, Utopian, and Women's Suffrage Movements

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Transcendentalism, "The American Renaissance": Authors and Works

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Transcendentalism, "The American Renaissance": Authors and Works

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Ralph Waldo Emerson
—Nature
—"Self-Reliance"

Henry David Thoreau
—Walden
—Life in the Woods

Louisa May Alcott
—Little Women

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Transcendentalism, "The American Renaissance" : Fact #1

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Transcendentalism, "The American Renaissance" : Fact #1

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Influencing the First Amendment

The writings of Transcendentalists influenced the thinking of some Supreme Court justices and the judicial interpretation of the First Amendment.

https://firstamendment.mtsu.edu/article/romantic-and-transcendental-movements/#:~:text=1857%2C%20public%20domain)-,The%20American%20Romantic%20and%20Transcendental%20movements%20of%20the%2019th%20century,Herman%20Melville%20and%20Nathaniel%20Hawthorne.

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Transcendental and Romantic writers believed that government may not interfere with freedom of expression. Some First Amendment court opinions have roots in these movements.

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Transcendentalism, "The American Renaissance" : Fact #2

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Transcendentalism, "The American Renaissance" : Fact #2

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Creating utopian communities

Transcendentalists contributed to the formation of utopian communities, such as Brook Farm.

https://www.britannica.com/art/American-Renaissance#:~:text=The%20Transcendentalists%20contributed%20to%20the,communities%2C%20such%20as%20Brook%20Farm.

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American Renaissance | Romanticism, Transcendentalism, Realism | Britannica

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American Renaissance, period from the 1830s roughly until the end of the American Civil War in which American literature, in the wake of the Romantic movement, came of age as an expression of a national spirit. The literary scene of the period was dominated by a group of New England writers, the

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1840-1860
Transcendentalism

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After the death of Mahsa Amini in 2022, Iranian women and men protested against the mandatory hijab laws and broader gender inequalities. The slogan “Woman, Life, Freedom” became a global rallying cry.Despite severe crackdowns, the protests have intensified discussions on human rights in Iran and drawn international attention.

https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/09/16/iran-2-years-womans-death-no-change

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Iran: 2 Years On From Woman’s Death, No Change

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Iranian authorities’ brutal repression against women has only continued in the two years since the death in morality police custody of Mahsa Jina Amini sparked nationwide protests.

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In 2023, Brazilian Indigenous leader Sonia Guajajara became a prominent voice against illegal deforestation in the Amazon and fought for the rights of Indigenous peoples.Her efforts contributed to stricter enforcement of environmental laws and greater international awareness of Indigenous struggles.

https://valorinternational.globo.com/environment/news/2024/04/15/sonia-guajajara-acknowledges-progress-urges-stronger-policies.ghtml

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Sônia Guajajara - Foto: Wenderson Araujo/Valor

Fifteen months after taking office in a ministry that had never existed in Brazil's history, Minister of Indigenous Peoples Sônia Guajajara offers a positive assessment of the period. She emphasizes that this April is more about celebration than worry regarding the current situation. However, she admits that public policies concerning her ministry still require reinforcement to enhance protection and ensure rights. She also praises the growing international recognition of indigenous peoples' role in sustainability discussions.

Regarding internal matters, the minister said that the law passed by Congress last year, which established the so-called "milestone thesis"-according to which indigenous peoples have the right to occupy only lands they inhabited before the 1988 Constitution-has hindered land demarcation pace. However, she assures that this won't halt the ministry's efforts, emphasizing progress made in land demarcation.

Addressing the Yanomami crisis, Ms. Guajajara said the government underestimated the situation's complexity following actions last year to remove gold diggers from the territory. Nevertheless, she assured that the federal government has replanned its strategy, aiming for a permanent state presence to ensure the physical and food security of the people inhabiting Brazil's largest indigenous land, spreading through 9.5 million hectares-twice the size of Switzerland.

On the global stage, Ms. Guajajara is grateful for the international community's recognition of the importance of her work, while asking that the same value be given within Brazil, something she believes is beginning to happen. The minister emphasizes the leading role played by indigenous representatives in international events related to the environment and adds that the coordination between governments and businesspersons with indigenous peoples tends to generate a better understanding of what it means to practice sustainability and generate value for economic production. She also said she is wary of what has come to be called "greenwashing"-the behavior of companies or governments that sell a sustainable self-image but are not. She has also indicated that she will align with the opposition faction within the government against oil exploration at the mouth of the Amazon River.

Ms. Guajajara granted an exclusive interview to Valor before her presentation at the Skoll World Forum, a sustainability and social entrepreneurship event held in Oxford, UK, last week. Read below the main excerpts:

Sônia Guajajara: Indeed, there's been a growing recognition that indigenous peoples are crucial in ensuring sustainable use of territories, and I think this understanding has gained traction since the Paris Agreement [signed in 2015], within the Climate Conferences [COP], and through Pope Francis's remarks emphasizing indigenous knowledge as science. All of this has helped broaden people's perspectives to bring this issue to the forefront because indigenous peoples are the ones most engaged in sustainability. However, I always caution against the improper appropriation of the concept, as sustainability exists in the various ways indigenous peoples engage with nature. When everything is labeled as sustainable, sometimes it may not correspond to what it truly means. Monocultures are a prime example. We must be cautious of various initiatives that use the term "sustainable" but don't actually align with its true meaning.

Ms. Guajajara: It means enjoying without destroying the relationship and ways of life with nature itself. Protecting the forest, and caring for the animals. And bringing this relationship into the cultural sphere because part of indigenous culture has to do with what nature offers. For example, the chants. In our culture, indigenous people speak of trees, animals, and water. If we don't have all of that protected, the culture weakens. Therefore, utilizing but also knowing and protecting all of this is part of the well-being we advocate for. It's about respecting nature and all of its diversity.

Ms. Guajajara: Well, we are in a world in transition, and when we talk about sustainability, environmental protection, and reducing climate change, we are also talking about changes in behavior, whether in consumption or production methods. Today, the United Nations and the FAO have been talking a lot about this change in food systems, for example. These are new ways that need to be adopted urgently for an agroforestry system and a multiple production system so that we can prevent the temperature [average of the planet] from increasing above 1.5 degrees. That's the issue that is being debated, and few measures are being taken to prevent it. Reducing oil exploration is also one of those measures that need to be adopted urgently to avoid reaching the point of no return. So, it's not just a matter of giving up certain things, but it's really about promoting change and taking advantage of the opportunity to think about a fair transition so that we can contribute to global goals. It involves more than a single decision. It's about global awareness so that we can truly achieve the goals of reducing the effects of climate change.

Ms. Guajajara: The ministry was born at a very auspicious moment when the world was bringing indigenous peoples to the center of political debate. It's a ministry that brings together the main global agendas, such as the environmental agenda, climate, sustainability, biodiversity, culture, and human rights. The country gained a lot with the creation of this ministry, and the world looks at it today as a major advancement. As a direct effect, we immediately resumed the demarcation of indigenous lands in Brazil. While in ten years, only 11 territories were demarcated, we have already demarcated eight indigenous lands in one year, and we are working to advance even further this year. We conducted the eviction of four indigenous lands, removing invaders, whether miners, loggers, or squatters from these lands, and we have a list of 28 [demarcations] as priorities to be carried out in the four years of the term. The eviction of these lands has already significantly contributed to the reduction of deforestation in the Amazon. I know it's a challenge, but it's also a great opportunity for us to advance on issues that were stalled due to political decisions in the previous government.

Ms. Guajajara: Well, land demarcation is a process with several stages and legal deadlines to be met. So, it's difficult to say that we will be able to demarcate all the lands in four years because we have a very large backlog, and everything needs to go through several stages that can be time-consuming. That being said, it's clear that the progress of the milestone thesis has indeed disrupted the pace we intended because even though the Supreme Federal Court has considered it unconstitutional, the law passed by Congress brought several other guidelines that force us to update all the processes. Therefore, while the Supreme Court does not reaffirm its position of unconstitutionality, this law is in force. And with the law in force, there are several points there that need to be considered. But this doesn't make us stop all the processes because we have the Federal Constitution, which is greater and guarantees this territorial right and the federal government's duty to demarcate them. But for now, we continue working to update all processes so that we don't violate the law currently in force.

Ms. Guajajara: The Yanomami territory is the largest indigenous territory in Brazil, perhaps in the world. It's an area that corresponds to two Swiss [territories] and is difficult to access, with many complexities. When we took over the government and the situation, there were 20,000 gold diggers inside the territory, and the children were dying of malnutrition, malaria, and several other treatable diseases. It's a chronic and historical situation. We worked for an entire year, from the emergency decree issued by President Lula, to restore the health of the Yanomami people. However, early on, we understood that the bigger problem there was not only to guarantee health care but to first remove the root of the problem, which was the gold diggers. Since then, there has been a reduction of over 80% of gold diggers in the area. However, after the action, there was information provided by the Yanomami themselves that the gold diggers were returning, which made us rethink the planning. We installed a government facility there to have a permanent presence with coordinated actions between several ministries that have jurisdiction over indigenous peoples and the environment so that we can now start installing interagency bases within the territory. The idea is to maintain this government base in Boa Vista [Roraima state capital] and, with a more structured team, ensure permanent surveillance, removing the gold diggers who are still there. But it's important to highlight that it's not only about gold diggers. It's organized crime that is there, dangerous people, and we need to be very careful in these operations so that the conflict and violence against indigenous people don't escalate even further.

Ms. Guajajara: We continue to deliver food baskets and provide tools so that they can return to producing their food according to their dietary habits. For this, the government authorized, through a provisional executive order, R$1.2 billion to carry out these operations [to remove all gold diggers], and we have just signed a contract between the Ministry of Indigenous Peoples, Funai [National Indigenous People Foundation], and MGI [Ministry of Management and Innovation in Public Services] so that we can now carry out these direct delivery actions by the ministries, in addition to the reform and construction of 22 basic healthcare units that are being built within the territory.

Ms. Guajajara: What made it difficult was understanding the situation there, and what needed to be done. We did this for a year, and now we are continuing with permanent actions. The difference now is that before, there was complicity from the previous administration [Jair Bolsonaro], which encouraged the invaders to stay. Now we are committed to removing these invaders, restoring the health of the indigenous peoples there, and reforesting and producing according to the indigenous way of life. We are directly monitoring this. We know that one year was not enough to do everything we needed to do, given the history of adverse situations. Now we're going to follow up daily and remove all the gold diggers. This is a commitment of the Lula administration and a commitment of mine as minister of Indigenous Peoples. We're going to give the Yanomami back their territory and their dignity.

Ms. Guajajara: Because in the previous government, there was some coordination to regulate minerals on indigenous lands. There was a bill in Congress. That made the invaders who were there believe that this could happen, and they stayed. Now that expectation is gone. Everybody knows they are there illegally, and they must leave.

Ms. Guajajara: Many business leaders are aware of the need to protect the environment and support the demarcation of indigenous lands because many of them know that a standing forest means rain that will irrigate their crops. There is this more conscious group, which is also part of the UN Global Compact. They genuinely care. But there are others, as President Lula himself says, who persist in working illegally, disregarding environmental laws. These have difficulty understanding and accepting that it's necessary to produce sustainably. And even companies that are not in this production area need to understand that the moment requires a lot from everyone. The collaboration between indigenous peoples, business leaders, government, and society as a whole is essential to promote behavioral and production changes in the world. So, some can't understand yet, but some are increasing their awareness. From our part in the ministry, we are working a lot with those [who have understood], including at the international level, thinking about traceability in the entire production and commercialization process. There's much to be done and much dialogue to strengthen the commitment to promote changes in production methods.

Ms. Guajajara: We indeed have a huge international recognition. The whole world knows about the creation of this ministry and the prominence that President Lula is giving to indigenous peoples. In Brazil, there is already awareness among the people who approach us, but it really needs to improve further. Increasing this understanding of the importance that indigenous peoples and territories have for the world. Last year, at the beginning of the ministry, it was incredible the number of people I received to have this discussion. Universities, deans, representatives of embassy councils, mayors, state and federal parliamentarians, and senators. I could also see how the interest in indigenous peoples' perspectives is growing. I believe it's a growing trend. And now, with the ministry, it allows us to increase understanding even further.

Ms. Guajajara: April has always been considered a month of indigenous struggle and resistance. Although we have so many adversities and have not yet been able to contain all the violence [against indigenous peoples], I believe there is more to celebrate in terms of the opportunity that it represents to be in the federal government. It took 135 years of the Republic for us to have the first ministry, 57 years of Funai to have the first indigenous presidency [of the institution], and to have more than one indigenous lawmaker in the National Congress. Therefore, it's time to celebrate, indeed. But for us to be understood within the country's legal structures, we also need to provoke these changes in awareness, in tackling racism, in accepting the headdresses and indigenous peoples in their own way, in their worldview. We have a lot to advance, but the moment is one of opportunity, and I believe we are making the most of it.

(The journalist's travel was facilitated by an invitation from the Associated Press and the Skoll World Forum.)

Mais recente Próxima Imazon defends "urgent" plan for the Amazon

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Sônia Guajajara acknowledges progress, urges stronger policies

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Brazil's minister of Indigenous Peoples praises increasing focus on indigenous issues within sustainability discussions

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1. Valued feeling, intuition, idealism, and inductive reasoning.

2. Placed faith in inner experience and the power of the imagination.

3. Shunned the artificiality of civilization and sought unspoiled nature as a path to spirituality.

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Romanticism ( Industrialization ) 1800-1860 Authors and Works

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Romanticism ( Industrialization ) 1800-1860 Authors and Works

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Washington Irving
—"Rip van Winkle"

Emily Dickinson
—poetry

Walt Whitman
—Leaves of Grass

Edgar Allan Poe
—"The Raven"

Nathaniel Hawthorne
—The Scarlet Letter

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Romanticism ( Industrialization ) 1800-1860 Fact # 1

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Romanticism ( Industrialization ) 1800-1860 Fact # 1

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Nature as a Source of Inspiration: Romantic artists and writers often found inspiration in nature. They saw it as a powerful, almost spiritual force, and many works depict wild, untamed landscapes.

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Romanticism ( Industrialization ) 1800-1860 Fact # 2

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Romanticism ( Industrialization ) 1800-1860 Fact # 2

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Gothic Revival: The Romantic period saw a resurgence of interest in medieval architecture and the Gothic style, leading to the construction of many neo-Gothic buildings.

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Romanticism ( Industrialization ) 1800-1860 Fact # 3

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Romanticism ( Industrialization ) 1800-1860 Fact # 3

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Influence of Transcendentalism: The American Renaissance was significantly shaped by Transcendentalism, a philosophical and literary movement that emphasized the inherent goodness of people and nature. Transcendentalists like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau advocated for self-reliance, individualism, and a deep connection with the natural world, which profoundly influenced the literature of the era.

https://www.britannica.com/art/American-Renaissance?utm_source=chatgpt.com

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American Renaissance | Romanticism, Transcendentalism, Realism | Britannica

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American Renaissance, period from the 1830s roughly until the end of the American Civil War in which American literature, in the wake of the Romantic movement, came of age as an expression of a national spirit. The literary scene of the period was dominated by a group of New England writers, the

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Romanticism ( Industrialization ) 1800-1860 Fact # 4

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Romanticism ( Industrialization ) 1800-1860 Fact # 4

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Rise of National Literature: During this period, there was a concerted effort to develop a unique American literary voice, distinct from European influences. Authors such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, and Walt Whitman explored themes of American identity, democracy, and the human experience, contributing to the emergence of a national literature that reflected the country's values and aspirations.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Renaissance_%28literature%29?utm_source=chatgpt.com

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Cold War (1947-1991)  period characteristics 

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Cold War (1947-1991)  period characteristics 

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Ideological Conflict: The Cold War was primarily a battle between two opposing ideologies—capitalism and democracy (led by the U.S.) versus communism and authoritarianism (led by the Soviet Union).

Military Tensions: The period saw a massive arms race, with both superpowers developing nuclear weapons. The fear of nuclear war was pervasive, especially during key events like the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962).

Proxy Wars: Although the U.S. and the Soviet Union never directly fought each other, they engaged in proxy wars by supporting opposing sides in regional conflicts. Notable examples include the Korean War (1950-1953), the Vietnam War (1955-1975), and the Soviet-Afghan War (1979-1989).

Espionage and Intelligence Gathering: Both sides engaged in widespread espionage, with intelligence agencies like the CIA (U.S.) and KGB (Soviet Union) playing crucial roles in gathering secrets and influencing events in other countries.

Nuclear Arms Race and MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction): The Cold War saw the development of advanced nuclear weapons by both superpowers, leading to a doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction, where both sides knew that any direct conflict would lead to devastating consequences.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Cold-War?utm_source=chatgpt.com

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Cold War, the open yet restricted rivalry that developed after World War II between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies. The Cold War was waged on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and had only limited recourse to weapons. The term was first used by the English writer George Orwell in an article published in 1945 to refer to what he predicted would be a nuclear stalemate between "two or three monstrous super-states, each possessed of a weapon by which millions of people can be wiped out in a few seconds." It was first used in the United States by the American financier and presidential adviser Bernard Baruch in a speech at the State House in Columbia, South Carolina, in 1947.

A brief treatment of the Cold War follows. For full treatment, see international relations.

Origins of the Cold War

Following the surrender of Nazi Germany in May 1945 near the close of World War II, the uneasy wartime alliance between the United States and Great Britain on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the other began to unravel. By 1948 the Soviets had installed left-wing governments in the countries of eastern Europe that had been liberated by the Red Army. The Americans and the British feared the permanent Soviet domination of eastern Europe and the threat of Soviet-influenced communist parties coming to power in the democracies of western Europe. The Soviets, on the other hand, were determined to maintain control of eastern Europe in order to safeguard against any possible renewed threat from Germany, and they were intent on spreading communism worldwide, largely for ideological reasons. The Cold War had solidified by 1947-48, when U.S. aid provided under the Marshall Plan to western Europe had brought those countries under American influence and the Soviets had installed openly communist regimes in eastern Europe.

The struggle between superpowers

The Cold War reached its peak in 1948-53. In this period the Soviets unsuccessfully blockaded the Western-held sectors of West Berlin (1948-49); the United States and its European allies formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a unified military command to resist the Soviet presence in Europe (1949); the Soviets exploded their first atomic warhead (1949), thus ending the American monopoly on the atomic bomb; the Chinese communists came to power in mainland China (1949); and the Soviet-supported communist government of North Korea invaded U.S.-supported South Korea in 1950, setting off an indecisive Korean War that lasted until 1953.

From 1953 to 1957 Cold War tensions relaxed somewhat, largely owing to the death of the longtime Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin in 1953; nevertheless, the standoff remained. A unified military organization among the Soviet-bloc countries, the Warsaw Pact, was formed in 1955; and West Germany was admitted into NATO that same year. Another intense stage of the Cold War was in 1958-62. The United States and the Soviet Union began developing intercontinental ballistic missiles, and in 1962 the Soviets began secretly installing missiles in Cuba that could be used to launch nuclear attacks on U.S. cities. This sparked the Cuban missile crisis (1962), a confrontation that brought the two superpowers to the brink of war before an agreement was reached to withdraw the missiles.

The Cuban missile crisis showed that neither the United States nor the Soviet Union were ready to use nuclear weapons for fear of the other's retaliation (and thus of mutual atomic annihilation). The two superpowers soon signed the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty of 1963, which banned aboveground nuclear weapons testing. But the crisis also hardened the Soviets' determination never again to be humiliated by their military inferiority, and they began a buildup of both conventional and strategic forces that the United States was forced to match for the next 25 years.

Throughout the Cold War the United States and the Soviet Union avoided direct military confrontation in Europe and engaged in actual combat operations only to keep allies from defecting to the other side or to overthrow them after they had done so. Thus, the Soviet Union sent troops to preserve communist rule in East Germany (1953), Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia (1968), and Afghanistan (1979). For its part, the United States helped overthrow a left-wing government in Guatemala (1954), supported an unsuccessful invasion of Cuba (1961), invaded the Dominican Republic (1965) and Grenada (1983), and undertook a long (1954-75) and unsuccessful effort to prevent communist North Vietnam from bringing South Vietnam under its rule ( see Vietnam War).

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Cold War | Summary, Causes, History, Years, Timeline, & Facts | Britannica

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Cold War, the open yet restricted rivalry that developed after World War II between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies. It was waged on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and had only limited recourse to weapons. The term was first used by writer George Orwell.

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Cold War (1947-1991)  Authors and Works 

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Cold War (1947-1991)  Authors and Works 

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Arthur Miller:

The Crucible (1953): This play is an allegory about the dangers of hysteria, mob mentality, and political repression. Although it is set during the Salem witch trials, it critiques the anti-communist "witch hunts" led by Senator Joseph McCarthy during the Cold War.

George Orwell:

1984 (1949): A dystopian novel exploring themes of totalitarianism, surveillance, and the loss of individual freedoms under oppressive regimes. Orwell's portrayal of a totalitarian state run by "Big Brother" resonates with fears of government control during the Cold War.

John Steinbeck:

The Grapes of Wrath (1939): While written before the Cold War, Steinbeck's work reflects the social and economic inequalities that were exacerbated during the early Cold War period. It focuses on the plight of migrant workers during the Great Depression, addressing themes of injustice, social activism, and economic disparity.

Kurt Vonnegut:

Slaughterhouse-Five (1969): This novel is a satirical, anti-war work that blends science fiction with real historical events, particularly the bombing of Dresden during World War II. Its themes of free will, fatalism, and the absurdity of war were particularly relevant during the Cold War as the threat of nuclear annihilation loomed.

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Operation Kitty: In the 1970s, the CIA launched "Operation Kitty," a covert mission to train cats as spies. The plan was to implant listening devices into cats to eavesdrop on Soviet conversations. However, the project was deemed impractical and was eventually abandoned.

https://express.adobe.com/page/ZZIJKggPP9PV5/?utm_source=chatgpt.com

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The "Doomsday Clock": Established in 1947 by the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, the "Doomsday Clock" symbolizes the likelihood of a global catastrophe. During the Cold War, the clock's hands were set closer to midnight, reflecting heightened fears of nuclear war. In 1953, after the U.S. and the Soviet Union tested hydrogen bombs, the clock was set to two minutes to midnight, the closest it has ever been.

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/cold-war?utm_source=chatgpt.com

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What was the Cold War—and are we headed to another one?

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The 45-year standoff between the West and the U.S.S.R. ended when the Soviet Union dissolved. Some say another could be starting as tensions with Russia rise.

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1. First Black Female Streetcar Conductor: At 16, Angelou became San Francisco's first Black female streetcar conductor. She was drawn to the job because, as she said, "The thought of sailing up and down the hills of San Francisco in a dark-blue uniform, with a money changer at my belt, caught my fancy."

2. Proficiency in Multiple Languages: During her travels in the 1950s, particularly while touring Europe with the opera "Porgy and Bess," Angelou developed proficiency in several languages, including French, Spanish, Italian, Arabic, and Fanti (a dialect of Akan spoken in Ghana)

3. Mute for Five Years: After a traumatic childhood event, Angelou chose not to speak for nearly five years, believing that her voice had caused harm. During this period, she developed her love for literature, memorizing and reciting works of Shakespeare and other poets, which later influenced her profound literary voice.

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Download our free multi-touch iBook The Road to Civil Rights — available for your Mac or iOS device on Apple Books

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“I was a mute from the time I was seven and a half until I was almost 13. I didn’t speak. I had voice, but I refused to use it.” As a child, Maya Angelou was traumatized by abuse. For five years, she was silent, but in time, she found her voice, and that voice has been heard around the world. A single mother at age 16, she embarked on a remarkable career as an actress and entertainer, as a journalist, educator and civil rights activist, and finally, as one of the world’s most eminent authors and poets. Her autobiographical work, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, created an international sensation when it was first published in 1970. Her books and poems made her one of the world’s favorite authors and one of America’s best-loved public speakers. President Clinton requested that she compose a poem for his first inaugural in 1993; she read that poem, “On the Pulse of the Morning,” to an audience of millions on live television. A close friend and associate of both Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Coretta Scott King as well as Malcolm X, Maya Angelou shared her hard-won wisdom — and the vivid memories of her remarkable life — through her books, poems, films and through her interviews with the American Academy of Achievement.

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Emily Dickinson's life interesting facts

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Emily Dickinson's life interesting facts

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1.She was an avid gardener: Dickinson was known more widely as a gardener than as a poet during her lifetime. She studied botany from the age of nine and cultivated a vast array of plants in her family's Homestead garden. She also assembled a collection of pressed plants in a sixty-six-page leather-bound herbarium, containing 424 pressed flower specimens that she collected, classified, and labeled using the Linnaean system.

2.She had a penchant for wearing white: In her later years, Dickinson became reclusive and was often seen wearing white clothing. This distinctive choice contributed to her local reputation as the "woman in white." Her only surviving article of clothing is a white cotton dress, possibly sewn between 1878 and 1882.

3.She was a prolific letter writer: Dickinson maintained extensive correspondence throughout her life, sending hundreds of letters to friends, family, and acquaintances. Her letters often included poems and pressed flowers, reflecting her deep connections with her recipients. These letters reveal a profound intersection of personal withdrawal and intimate extension, showcasing her ability to create intimacy across distance and time.

https://www.newyorker.com/books/under-review/when-emily-dickinson-mailed-it-in?utm_source

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 Edgar Allan Poe's life interesting facts 

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 Edgar Allan Poe's life interesting facts 

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1. He Was a Champion Swimmer: During his teenage years, Poe was known for his athleticism, particularly in swimming. He once swam six miles against the current in the James River in Virginia, showcasing his remarkable endurance and strength.

https://www.yourdictionary.com/articles/edgar-allan-poe-facts?

2. He Created a New Profession: Poe is considered America’s first well-known professional writer and is recognized as the country's first great literary critic and theoretician. He eked out his living through his literary work, establishing a new path for future writers.

3. He Was Likely Named After a Shakespearean Character: Born Edgar Poe in Boston in 1809 to parents who were both actors, it's speculated that he was named after the character Edgar from Shakespeare's "King Lear," a play his parents were performing in the year he was born.

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15 Edgar Allan Poe Facts: The Man Behind the Myths

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You may think Edgar Allen Poe facts would match the energy of his writing, but you may be surprised by the truth. Learn interesting facts about the writer.