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Between 2003 to 2015, multilingual students showed two to three times more progress in reading and math than students who speak English only. With this progress, the achievement gaps between multilingual students and their peers have narrowed substantially.

This new analysis we conducted of results from the National Assessment of Education Progress contradicts previous reports that academic progress has stalled for multilingual learners.

We make this observation as former teachers and researchers who have spent more than two decades focused on understanding the experiences of multilingual students.

Our findings not only show that multilingual students are learning more now than in the past, but they also suggest to us that schools and districts are serving these students more effectively.

Who are multilingual students?

Multilingual students include all students who speak a language other than English at home. About 1 in 5 children in the U.S. fall into this category.

Among multilingual students, one subgroup is English learners, who are not yet proficient in English. About 1 in 10 students in the U.S. is classified as an English learner.

A second subgroup is former English learners, who were not proficient in English when they entered school but have since developed English proficiency. No national data about the size of the former English learner population is available, but statewide data indicates that it's slightly smaller in size than the current English learner population.

Finally, the third and smallest subgroup of multilingual students are those who speak a language other than English at home but who were already proficient in English when they started school.

Why our findings differ

Past analyses of data from the National Assessment of Education Progress - better known as NAEP - have focused only on outcomes for students currently classified as English learners. However, this produces misleading conclusions. By definition, English learners are not yet proficient in listening, speaking, reading or writing English, and their language skills impact their scores on reading and math tests. Once students become proficient in English and are able to perform at higher levels on these tests, they are no longer considered English learners. In other words, as soon as a student gains mastery, she is moved out of the English learners group. This has led researchers William M. Saunders and David J. Marcelletti, among others, to argue that the achievement difference between current English learners and other students on reading and math tests is a " gap that can't go away."

As research in New York City, two large California districts and other states demonstrates, many English learners become proficient in English between the time they enter school and when they are given the NAEP in fourth and eighth grades. These analyses indicate that about 25 to 50 percent of students who enter kindergarten as English learners have been reclassified as former English learners before grade four. Seventy to 85 percent of such students have been reclassified as former English learners before grade eight.

Thus, the current English learner group in these grades consists of those students who - by definition - have relatively low English test scores, either because they have recently immigrated to the U.S. or have struggled to acquire English language and literacy skills in U.S. schools.

We suggest that districts and states should analyze combined outcomes for both current and former English learners, which we refer to as the Ever English Learner subgroup. We have shown graduation rates for the full group of Ever English learners are quite similar to rates for students never classified as English learners.

Analyzing outcomes for Ever English Learners is not currently possible with NAEP data. Instead, in our new analysis, we took the most similar approach we could, analyzing outcomes for all multilingual students, which consists primarily of current and former English learners. We define multilingual broadly to include students at different levels of proficiency in their multiple languages. Given our prior work, we were not surprised to find that NAEP trends for multilingual students as a whole looked different than trends for current English learners. We were, however, surprised, by the extent of the progress multilingual students had made, given that this group has been historically and chronically underserved.

What's behind the gains?

We cannot yet pinpoint the reasons why multilingual students have made such strong progress on NAEP. A variety of changes in education policy and practice have impacted multilingual students in recent years and may be related to these patterns. For example, the No Child Left Behind Act, which was implemented during the years we studied, may have increased attention to outcomes for English learners. In addition, these years also saw a rapid expansion of dual language immersion programs, in which multilingual students and monolingual English speakers learn alongside one another. Rigorous research has shown that these programs have positive effects on achievement for all students. In addition, many states have recently adopted new requirements for the preparation that teachers of English learners must have, and this additional preparation may increase teachers' effectiveness with English learners.

Multilingual students still encounter many barriers in U.S. schools, including often having bilingualism treated as a problem rather than a resource. Yet our research suggests that nonetheless, multilingual students are demonstrating strong gains in reading and math. Understanding the reasons behind these gains will be critical to making sure the progress continues.

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Multilingual learners doing better in US schools than previously thought

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Between 2003 to 2015, multilingual students showed two to three times more progress in reading and math than students who speak English only. With this progress, the achievement gaps between multilingual students and their peers have narrowed substantially.

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What is pre-teaching?

Pre-teaching is the teaching of knowledge, vocabulary, and skills required for an upcoming lesson. It is most commonly used for English Language Teaching (ELT) but can be used by any teacher for any lesson.

Before diving into some examples, it's important to set the parameters for what pre-teaching is and isn't.

Generally, pre-teaching refers to the teaching of knowledge shortly before a main lesson or unit of work so that students will be able to complete the main unit of work successfully.

It's not the use of 'prior knowledge' or a staged curriculum. These are longer-term concepts that are structured to help students in their overall educational trajectory. Pre-teaching, on the other hand, is a one-off event designed to lay the foundations for a single lesson or unit of work.

Here, we're just referring to the idea of identifying students' gaps in knowledge in the lead up to a lesson, and attempting to bridge that gap so that the upcoming lesson will be successful.

Let's jump into some examples.

7 Examples of Pre-Teaching

1. Vocabulary Lists

Vocabulary lists are the most common form of pre-teaching the help English language learners prepare for an upcoming lesson. The teacher gives the students a list of words that need to be used in the upcoming unit of work. The students study the words so that they will be able to use them in the lesson.

But it's not just English language teachers who use this strategy.

It's so commonly used in classrooms that teachers don't even give it a term: we just do it naturally! When I'm about to start a unit on shapes with my Grade 1 class, you bet "triangle", "hexagon" and "pentagon" are going to be in our words list for the week!

One of the downsides of this method is that you teach the word "out of context". This means students might know the words but not know how to use and apply them. So, when we go into the main lesson, there might still be a learning curve as students may still struggle to comprehend the words in context.

2. Flipped Learning Homework

Flipped learning is an approach to education where lesson content is presented at home for homework before the main lesson occurs. What we used to teach in the classroom is now presented for homework. This model came about because we realized that we spent far too much of our time talking at students in the classroom. We can just give them a video! Then, in the classroom, we can actually discuss the ideas.

You could consider flipped classrooms to have a strong element of pre-teaching in them. The idea is to present all the 'knowledge' before hand, so in the classroom the main event can be student-centered activities!

It's reasonable that some people might say this isn't really pre-teaching because the content taught in the homework section is the "main event" knowledge for the unit of work.

But, I'd argue it's still a form of pre-teaching. Let me know what you think - tweet me your thoughts! @helpfulprof

3. Preparatory Research

I'll often ask my students to interview their family about an upcoming classroom topic. If we're studying "immigration", I might ask them to go home and gather some information about when their family migrated to the country and which country they came from originally.

This preparatory research gets students into the mindset needed for the main lesson. They come to class with a little bit of the necessary knowledge: that 99% of us are immigrants, that we're a diverse bunch of people, and we all have different experiences and cultures to draw upon in our past.

Here's another example: once, I asked my students to go home and take note of how many hours they spent playing outside and how many hours they spent watching TV - every night for a week! They didn't know it, but I was making sure they had the skill of survey research so when it came to teaching about it in class, I knew they all had experience doing it. It warmed them up for the main event so it was easier to teach.

4. Literature Analysis

I love teaching Grade 6. My favorite part about it is reading novels together. We'll spend afternoons for weeks on end reading our novels together in class. And sure, part of this is so they can improve their reading skills.

But it's more than that.

We have to read the book before we can start doing our literature analysis of it! Here, the act of reading the book together is the "pre" part of the teaching, and the main event is the subsequent analysis of the characters, plot, moral of the story, etc. But without that preparatory work of reading the book, the teaching can't happen at all!

5. Preview Lessons

I love a good preview lesson. This is the sort of lesson that we have on Friday in preparation for the week ahead. During these lessons, I give students the baseline knowledge required.

That might be some vocabulary, but it could be other things too - like knowledge of history, or some math skills that might be required in order to complete the lesson next week.

By presenting those baseline skills before hand, the students come to class on Monday with the knowledge and skills required to really dig into the lesson content.

6. Guest Presenters

Inviting in a Guest Presenter into the class can be a great way to inspire students in preparation for a unit of work. At our school, we like to ask in a first nations presenter prior to teaching about first nations issues.

This does two things: it provides some base knowledge required for the lesson, and creates a buzz around the lesson.

We can often then refer back to the knowledge the guest presenter provided during the unit of work. We can talk about when the guest showed us something, used certain words, or talked about an idea, to help students to create connections in their minds.

Here again, the preparatory session sets students up for success in the lesson.

7. Assigned Readings

As a university professor, I assign readings to my students all the time. That's because I need them to go home and learn about the ideas we're going to be talking about. I want my students to come to class ready to talk, debate, argue, and present their ideas!

An assigned reading might be considered part of the 'core curriculum', but it's not - or at least, not for me. I want my students to know about the ideas in the readings, but in reality what's most important in my classes is my students' ability to critically examine ideas and talk to each other about them.

That's the main event!

Criticisms (and Defenders)

Pre-teaching is the subject of significant criticism. Some examples include:

Students need Ambiguity. Chia Susan Chong believes that it's okay for students to not know every word in the text. The point of reading is for comprehension, and by focusing too hard on every single word you're drawing attention away from the main goal of reading.

It Crowds the Curriculum. You might be adding too many lessons and more content into your course and unnecessarily burdening students with more homework. Don't add information that's not necessary!

But some defenders highlight its benefits:

It's our job to Prepare Students. A lesson that has too much new information is too steep of a learning curve. By pre-teaching, we're preparing students for what's to come, giving them the best chance to succeed.

It's better to Teach it Right the First Time. If you don't spend time preparing students and putting them in the best situation to succeed, you'll end up having to return to the content to re-teach it and implement remedial education strategies.

Conclusion

Some people might argue I've significantly expanded the definition of pre-teaching in this article. But I've tried to be consistent with the core premise of the concept. I tried to identify examples of when we get students prepared and give them baseline knowledge and skills before the main event. For me and my teaching, anything I get my students do in the lead-up to the lesson itself to prepare my students is still teaching - it's just a different type of teaching we might refer to as 'pre-teaching'.

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7 Examples of Pre-Teaching for Educators (2021) - Helpful Professor

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What is pre-teaching? Pre-teaching is the teaching of knowledge, vocabulary, and skills required for an upcoming lesson. It is most commonly used for English Language Teaching (ELT) but can be used by any teacher for any lesson. Before diving into some examples, it's important to set the parameters for what pre-teaching is and isn't.

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If you are a classroom or content-area educator trying to figure out how to teach English language learners (ELLs), you are not alone! You are off to a good start by looking for ways to support your students!

There are many things you can do that will make a big difference to ELLs, and they often prove helpful for other students in the class as well.

Here are some ideas to help you begin. Look for a few ideas you can try and one or two topics where you would like to learn more information.

Note: This article also includes some research-based recommendations offered by Dr. Diane August in her 2018 American Educator article, Educating English Language Learners: A Review of the Latest Research.

Getting Started

1. Get to know your students.

ELLs are a tremendously diverse student group. In order to serve your students effectively, it will be helpful to:

In addition, it's helpful to know more about their home language, literacy skills in that language, prior schooling, and current levels of English proficiency (keeping in mind that students' levels may have changed during the pandemic since the last time they were assessed).

You don't have to do this all at once and it's best not to overwhelm students or families with a lot of questions at the beginning, but taking some small steps early on can make a big difference throughout the year. Learn more from the following:

Videos: Why building relationships with ELLs matters

2. Be mindful of your communication.

In order to communicate effectively with your students:

Speak clearly and naturally, without going too quickly or slowly.

Simplify language without "dumbing it down."

Be mindful of your body language.

Encourage your students through positive body language and expressions, especially when they make mistakes.

Be patient and encourage classmates to do the same if needed.

Encourage students to raise their hand if they don't understand a word.

Avoid slang and idiomatic expressions.

Video: Why positive body language matters when working with ELLs

3. Create a language-rich environment.

ELLs will benefit from increased exposure to print and language. A print-rich environment will include access to books and reference materials, labels (in students' languages and English) and posters, and student work on bulletin boards. Word walls are also a great support for ELLs, and may be organized around a number of concepts, including:

the alphabet and phonetic sounds

new vocabulary words

sight words

grammar rules

conversational phrases

writing structures.

Video: Using sentence frames with ELLs

4. Learn how to plan lessons that incorporate best practices for ELLs.

Take a look at our article on lesson planning for ELLs for ideas on how to:

identify background knowledge needed to understand the lesson

connect content to students' experience

identify content and language objectives

identify key vocabulary and academic language needed for the lesson

scaffold and differentiate instruction

incorporate peer learning into your instruction.

Video: Teaching ELLs the names of all 50 states

Language and Literacy Instruction

5. Learn some basic information about how students acquire a new language.

A good place to start is a basic overview of the process and stages of language acquisition. It's also important to learn about the four key domains, or skill areas, of language: speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Students need instruction and practice all four of these domains.

Drs. Andrea Honigsfeld and Maria Dove include "interaction" in that list for the helpful acronym SWIRL:
Image credit: Input and output in language development. WelchEducation.com. Used with permission.
Keep in mind the following:

Students are assessed in the four language domains each year through their English language proficiency (ELP) assessment, although that assessment may have been disrupted or done under difficult circumstances during the pandemic. Your ESL colleagues should have access to that data and you can check your students' proficiency levels across different domains.

Students may be stronger in one domain than another.For example, a student may be more proficient in speaking than writing.

ELLs need explicit language instruction, scaffolding, and modeling in across all four domains.

Related resources

6. Teach academic oral language skills.

Oral language skills are an essential part of a student's language and literacy development. Students will need guided practice and modeling to develop the academic language needed for classroom discussions and presentations. You can see more ideas for how to do so in the resources below:

In order for ELLs to access grade-level content, they may need additional literacy support and instruction. Here are a few initial steps to take; much more information is available in the links below.

Learn more about students' literacy skills in their home language and in English. If students need to develop their foundational skills, work with an ESL teacher and reading specialist together to identify some helpful strategies and resources to use.

Provide students with opportunities to engage more deeply with grade-level text. Some strategies for doing so are available in the resources below, but you may wish to request additional training for staff in this area since it takes some practice.

Give students numerous opportunities to write across content areas and for a variety of audiences. Ideas for scaffolding ELLs' writing follow below.

To see some related strategies in action, take a look at our Classroom Video library. Many of these videos and classroom materials were developed as part of our Common Core and ELLs project developed with Dr. August.

Related resources

8. Try only one new thing at a time.

Teaching multiple new things at the same time often doesn't work! When introducing new material, remember the following:

If you are teaching new language, use old content.

If you are teaching new content, use old language.

Video: Try one new thing at a time

Students' Home Languages as a Resource

9. Draw upon students' home languages as a resource.

Students' home languages are a valuable resource. Even if you don't speak those languages and are not working in a bilingual setting, there are way to tap into them to support instruction.

For example, Dr. August shares a number of research-based strategies that draw upon the home language such as the following:

using bilingual glossaries

providing background information in students' home languages

peer work in students' home languages

explicit instruction in how to use cognates or build on their own skills in their home language.

Related resources

Learn more about what using students' language can look like in this related series from Larry Ferlazzo on Education Week, this resource guide on translanguaging, and these recommendations from Tan Huynh.

Monitoring Student Progress

10. Use informal assessment on a regular basis.

It's important to use informal tools to monitor student progress in addition to more formal measures. That might mean something like quick comprehension checks during a lesson or exit tickets. You may also wish to use tools such as graphic organizers. More ideas are available in the resources below.

Coming up with a correction/feedback policy

While it is difficult to know when to correct students, constructive and effective feedback is essential to student progress. Nevertheless, it is important to balance between encouragement and error correction. One way to do this is to focus on one or two concepts at a time when listening to or reading student work. Let students know what you will be focusing on so that they in turn can focus on those particular concepts in the assignment.

Another strategy is to circle errors in writing assignments, and have students try to figure out what the mistakes were. Most of the time students are able to correct their own writing errors once they focus on the circled area. If they are still stuck, try giving them the answer and asking them to explain why it is correct. If they don't know the answer, ask them to consult with a classmate. If no one else knows the answer, review the structure as a group.

Related resources

Video: Assessment for ELLs

11. If a student is struggling, proceed with care.

If a student is struggling, it's important to proceed carefully and in collaboration with colleagues. Discuss your concerns with an ESL teacher to identify some targeted areas of instruction and ideas for progress monitoring. (Dr. August shares some ideas towards the end of the her research review for this kind of monitoring.) In addition, talk with the student's family to determine whether there is any important information you should know about factors that might impact the student's learning.

Keep in mind the following:

Nationwide, ELLs are both over-identified and under-identified for special education. Over-correction in one direction can lead to misjudgments in the other.

There is no single checklist or factor that can determine when a student needs extra support and what kind of support that might be, which is why it is imperative to work in close collaboration with ESL educators, family members, special educators, and reading/speech specialists if you are reviewing a student's situation.

The types of support that students receive in special education are different than those that students receive in ESL classes. Referral to special education is not a silver bullet where students will "at least get some help." A special education referral is a step that should only be taken after careful progress monitoring and targeted instruction (in the absence of an immediate and obvious need for services) and in consultation with a team that includes ESL educators and the student's family.

Related resources

Video: Having enough data to look at progress over time

Tips for Collaboration

12. Reach out to your ELL colleagues for ideas.

Don't hesitate to reach out to ELL colleagues in your building or district (they may have a wide range of titles). They are experts in supporting ELL instruction. Even if schools have not made formal collaboration time a priority, you can start with small steps. A concrete question or example is often a very good place to start collaboration.

If you find the collaboration helpful, share your successes with colleagues and administrators - you may be able to advocate for more collaboration time in the future! While it may be difficult to find time to meet on a regular basis, increased collaboration among all of the educators working with ELLs will improve their chances for success.

Video: Collaborating to support an ELL with special needs

Closing Thoughts

There is a lot of information here, but remember that it's ok to start with small steps. And when something doesn't work, don't hesitate to go back to the drawing board! Make some adjustments and try again, and if it still doesn't work, move on to a new strategy. You will soon find what works for your students and will come to appreciate the privilege to be a part of their journey.

Video: When new strategies don't work

Discussion Questions

What are some strategies that you can try here on your own?

What are some topics you would like to learn more about in professional development?

What is an example of a lesson you might teach differently in the future?

What are some ways you can try collaborating with your other ESOL or bilingual colleagues?

Recommended Resources

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Supporting ELLs in the Mainstream Classroom: 12 Strategies for Language Instruction

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If you are a classroom or content-area educator trying to figure out how to teach English language learners (ELLs), you are not alone! You are off to a good start by looking for ways to support your students!

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By Barbara R. Blackburn
Although we have always known the importance of teaching vocabulary, there has recently been a focus on academic vocabulary, especially vocabulary tiers, across the domains and content areas. Let's take a look.

Tiers of Vocabulary

Tiers of Vocabulary were introduced by Isabel Beck and Margaret McKeown in 1987. As they describe them, Tier One words are acquired through everyday speech. These words are common and are typically taught at early grades or learned through everyday use around them.

Tier Two includes academic words that appear across all texts. They may change meaning due to use, and they present a challenge if experienced in text initially. Vocabulary instruction for these words typically adds to students' understanding of the meaning.

Tier Three vocabulary is domain or content area specific. They are critical for building conceptual understanding in content, but they need to be learned via explicit instruction. These words are best taught when they are needed in the context of the lesson.

Tier Two Words provide an opportunity for thorough vocabulary development. These should be words that you focus on in depth, since they will have applications not only in the specified text, but across other texts and areas of the curriculum.

Janet Allen's Academic Vocabulary

In Tools for Teaching Academic Vocabulary (Stenhouse, 2014) Janet Allen organizes academic vocabulary by context. She explains there are four types of words: general academic words, domain- or discipline-specific terms, topic-specific vocabulary, and passage-critical words.
First, there is general academic vocabulary, which is not discipline-specific. Students frequently see these words, such as analyze, synthesize, contrast, and restate. It's important to provide detailed instruction with lots of practice, so that students are very familiar with them.

Next, she describes domain- or discipline-specific words, which are frequently used within a specific discipline, such as language arts, history, science or math. These words include terms such as foreshadowing, hypothesis, rational number, or aerobic exercise. Within the content area, these words should be reinforced regularly.

Third, there are topic-specific words. They are needed to understand a specific lesson or topic and are typically critical to an understanding of the concept. Direct instruction is usually necessary with these terms. Examples include Holocaust, biome, and impressionism.

Finally, passage-critical words are those that are necessary to understand a specific text. These words are crucial to comprehension of the passage. Particularly for specialized words, direct instruction is needed. Janet explains that in Sandra Markle's book BATS: Biggest! Littlest!, sample passage-critical words include echolocation, horning, roost, and wingspan.

Whichever structure you use, thinking about the different types of vocabulary will help you teach words in a more meaningful way, as opposed to having students simply memorize definitions of random word lists.

Three Strategies for Teaching Academic Vocabulary

No matter which categories of academic vocabulary you use, it's important to consider how to teach vocabulary. We'll look at three strategies for vocabulary instruction: using visuals, playing games, and exploring multiple meaning words. A fourth popular technique - word walls - is highlighted in this resource at Teaching Tolerance.

1. Using Visuals to Enhance Understanding

Visuals can help students understand new concepts. I was in a social studies classroom in which the teacher was presenting geography terms such as equator, latitude, and longitude.

She drew a circle on the board to illustrate the Earth, and then she wrote the word equator across the center. She wrote the word latitude horizontally from west to east where the latitude lines go across the Earth. Finally, she wrote the word longitude from north to south to clearly illustrate the meaning of the word. She provided visual context for her students as they encountered the terms for the first time.

I have used a graphic organizer to help students demonstrate their understanding in ways that required them to synthesize information about a term or concept and refine it down to the key points. Using a graphic organizer, students can discuss different elements of a particular vocabulary term.

Then my students could create their own graphic organizers to take notes about and demonstrate their understanding of vocabulary. I remember one student bringing me a graphic organizer she had completed about the Pythagorean Theorem. She had used right triangles to organize the information. Using visuals helps students connect their learning.

2. Playing Games

We need to experience new words and concepts multiple times in a variety of ways. Too often, we expect students to fully understand a word after they have read it one time. However, reading a word multiple times doesn't ensure understanding either. Your students need to play with words in fun and different ways to help them learn.

James Good, a middle school drama teacher, points out that his students find the language of Shakespearean plays challenging. For key scenes, his students are broken into groups with five acting parts and a group director.

"Students identify difficult turns of phrase or specific vocabulary words and make their best educated guess as to meaning. They run lines with one another to improve pronunciation and dramatic reading. The director makes suggestions as to simple stage movements that can be done in the small space at the front of the room. The group discusses appropriate tone, body language, and facial expression. Concerning themselves with the dramatic aspects of presenting to the other three groups more or less forces them to make meaning. Each group takes a turn in a kind of 'drama slam.' They try to outdo the others and get delightfully hammy."

3. Multiple Meaning Words

Particularly in specific content areas, it's important to teach words that have multiple meanings. I was observing a student teacher in a science classroom one day, and he asked, "Does anyone know what grounded means?" It was his opening question for a lesson on electricity. Immediately one student shouted out, "That's what happened to me last week when I made a C on my test!" Everyone laughed, but that's an excellent example of a multiple meaning word. We need to specifically teach students the different meanings of these words. Janet Allen shares a chart that helps.

A Final Note

Understanding the various aspects of academic vocabulary, as well as strategies to support vocabulary instruction, is a key part of our overall instruction. Consider how you can use the types of vocabulary within your content area to improve your students' comprehension.

Barbara Blackburn was named one of the Top 30 Global Gurus in Education in 2017. A former teacher, school leader and university teacher educator, s he is a best-selling author of 21 books including Rigor is Not a Four Letter Word and Rigor and Differentiation in the Classroom: Tools and Strategies (Routledge, 2018). A nationally recognized expert in the areas of rigor and motivation, she collaborates with schools and districts for professional development. Barbara can be reached through her website or her blog. Follow her on Twitter @BarbBlackburn.

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3 Strategies for Teaching Academic Vocabulary

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By Barbara R. Blackburn Although we have always known the importance of teaching vocabulary, there has recently been a focus on academic vocabulary, especially vocabulary tiers, across the domains and content areas. Let's take a look. Tiers of Vocabulary Tiers of Vocabulary were introduced by Isabel Beck and Margaret McKeown in 1987.

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A MiddleWeb Blog

A school is an ocean of words. Yet some language learners are drowning in academic classes when content-specific words (Tier 3) are not explicitly taught ( Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2008).

However, there is an effective process to teach these discipline-specific words. Dr. Stephen Fleenor, author of Teaching Science to English Learners (2019), shared an easy-to-implement process for teaching Tier 3 words from any discipline in our November podcast conversation. Here are the highlights.

What not to do

Before we discuss what to do, we have to address ineffective vocabulary instruction. Stephen urges us not to assign a list of 20-30 Tier 3 words taken from the glossary for students to memorize. This does not work because it lacks the context that teaches the words' meanings.

Additionally, memorizing an extensive list of words is counterproductive because the goal of teaching content vocabulary is application, not coverage or memorization. With a smaller daily list, students are more likely to apply these specialized words correctly during class and afterwards.

Create a vocabulary set

Think about a particular topic or concept (e.g. WWII, ecosystem, human rights, solving for x). Now ask yourself which words need to be taught for students to understand and engage the central concepts. Think of the vocabulary set for a Tier 3 word as a "mini solar system." The central concept is the sun, and other supporting words orbit around it.

For example, in science, if the target Tier 3 word is trophic cascade, we must teach the following terms as a set first: consume, apex predator, secondary consumer, consumer, and producers. In this solar system of words, trophic cascade is the sun while all the other words orbit around it. These secondary words can be arranged together to help explain the concept of the target word.

A Tier 3 word set usually consists of various nouns and a key verb. The essential verb associated with trophic cascade is consume, which is valuable to teach because it is a word that appears frequently across content areas. We call these Tier 2 words. Tier 3 word sets, then, can pull double duty, teaching Tier 2 and Tier 3 words at the same time.

Invite construction

Stephen recommends giving students a diagram of the target Tier 3 word. Then invite students to construct a meaning of the target Tier 3 word with just the supporting words as clues. To further scaffold the process, label the key elements in the diagram. You could even provide a sentence stem or frame that forces students to use the target Tier 3 word when talking.

Additionally, you might consider allowing students to co-construct the meaning as a pair or small group, share aloud their ideas, and then come to a consensus on the definition with the teacher's assistance.

Prompt students to also look at prefixes, roots, and suffixes in the word to help them construct the meaning. In our example, some students might recognize the word cascade, and if they do, they might be able to apply it to their construction of the meaning.

Offer multiple contexts

Focusing on a small set of words allows teachers to expose students to those words in various contexts. Applying the meaning of a Tier 3 word to a different scenario is also a higher order thought process. Through these different contexts, students gain a deeper understanding of the concept through discussion.

For example, you might introduce the term trophic cascade with a killer whale scenario, but in subsequent days, students might learn about trophic cascade in relation to rats in Borneo, wolves in Yellowstone, or lions in Kenya. With each scenario, students form a deeper, fuller understanding of the concept of ecological imbalance .

Design question stems and frames

The goal of teaching Tier 3 words is not just comprehension but also mastery. To help students master the Tier 3 words, create sentence frames and stems that structure their use. Sentence frames and stems support critical thinking. By design, they can help students form connections between words or think about the topic more deeply.

Examples include:

► If the [Tier 3 word #1] was to change, how would this affect [Tier 3 word #2]?
► When [Tier 3 word #1] occurs, what would happen to [Tier 3 word #2]?
► As [Tier 3 word] is occurring, what is produced as a result?
► After [Tier 3 word] occurs, what does this lead to?
In my Grade 6 Geography class, I was teaching students about the concepts of imports and export as they are aspects of Region, which is one of the 5 themes of geography. I used this visual to teach them the concepts. I then would have sentence starters such as: ► Thailand exports [ ] to [ ] because.... (Thailand exports coconut to the United States because their climate is not tropical enough to grow coconuts year round.)
► Thailand imports [ ] from [ ] because ... (Thailand imports gasoline from the Middle East because Thailand does not have oil deposits.)
These question stems and frames can be easily converted into answers by taking out the questioning phrases, such as "how would" and "what would happen." When the stems are declarative instead of interrogative, they add an extra layer of support for students who need it. Remember to only offer the scaffold if students need an extra boost to speak and write in that content-specific register.

Two of Stephen's favorite stems when responding are:

► The relationship between [Tier 3 word #1] and [Tier 3 word #2] is _____.
►[Tier 3 word #1] affects [Tier 3 word #2] by ____.

Assess Tier 3 words

Design a prompt, exit ticket, or a task that requires the use of the target Tier 3 word (the "sun" word) at the end of the lesson. The response can be spoken, written, or acted out.

There are different levels at which teachers can design the formative assessment. They are:

1. Create: Create a metaphor for the Tier 3 word.
2. Evaluate: Explain what the greatest impact of the Tier 3 word would be if it was increased or decreased.
3. Analyze: Discuss the Tier 3 word's relationship with something else.
4. Apply: Explain how a particular Tier 3 word would function in a different context.
5. Understand: Provide examples of the Tier 3 word.
6. Remember: Describe the Tier 3 word.

These strategies work across disciplines

Though most of the examples in this article are science-based, the process of using a vocabulary set can be used in any discipline. Stephen's message is twofold:

► we must explicitly teach Tier 3 words, and
► the key principle behind vocabulary instruction must shift from memorization to application.
References
By following his model, we not only ensure that language learners master content-specific standards, we also develop their ability to construct meaning and think critically, which are skills they will need for an engaged life beyond the school walls.

Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2008). Creating robust vocabulary: Frequently asked questions and extended examples. New York: Guilford Press.

Fleenor, S., & Beene, T. (2019). Teaching science to English learners. Irving, TX: Seidlitz Education.

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Teaching Content-Specific Vocabulary to ELs

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A MiddleWeb Blog A school is an ocean of words. Yet some language learners are drowning in academic classes when content-specific words (Tier 3) are not explicitly taught ( Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2008). However, there is an effective process to teach these discipline-specific words.

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We're all terrible at something. For me, the list includes mini-golf, piano, and the torturous mash-up of yoga, ballet, and Spanish Inquisition techniques known as "Barre3."

Take a moment to imagine something you are terrible at doing. Recall your physical clumsiness, your desperate flailing efforts, the flush creeping up your neck in response to the cruel sneers of all those looking on as you work really hard, try your very best, and still fail.

For a handful of children in any classroom, this kind of misery is a daily experience. It happens every day during reading or math.

Most of us can avoid the things we're no good at doing. I simply steer clear of mini-golf courses, piano recitals, and Barre3 studios.

Students who struggle with reading and math don't have that option. They have to attempt what is hardest and most agonizing for them on a daily basis, for many hours of the day.

An Epiphany

There's plenty we can do as teachers, of course, to make these kids less miserable. Build a supportive classroom culture. Focus on their strengths. Differentiate instruction so they experience success on a daily basis.

Still, the only true antidote to failure is success. Once these kids learn to read and do math, they can take a breath and begin to enjoy it. But the path to proficiency can be steep and winding, and walking that path is often excruciating.

Take Pablo, a 2nd grader with a learning disability who is fascinated by ancient Egypt and Greek mythology. But all the books he can actually read are about balloons, crayons, and talking chickens in polka dot dresses.

How do we help these kids?

Often they get more of the same, and it mainly falls under the category of remediation. Tutoring after school, so they can do more worksheets that didn't help them the first time around. Summer school, so they can experience year-round academic misery while their friends are biking to the pool or playing their Xboxes. Pull-out interventions focused on material the other kids mastered last week, causing them to miss this week's content because they're not in class.

After two years of teaching and many hours of engaging in various kinds of remediation, I had an epiphany that I think has made my struggling students' lives a little easier. Here it is:
Remediation is often a terrible way to help kids catch up. Pre-teaching is more effective and more fun.
An example of what I mean:

Manuel is the only 1st grader in the class who still doesn't know how much a dime is worth. Nickels and quarters look pretty much the same to him-he knows one is worth five cents, the other 25, but it's hard to keep them straight.

Here's what remediation looks like for Manuel:

Later that day or at tutoring the next morning, I meet with Manuel one-on-one for about 20 minutes to walk him through the values of each coin once again.

Worst case, he still doesn't get it. Best case, he finally understands what the other kids mastered days ago. Either way, he knows he's dumb. Nothing I can say will convince him otherwise.

By contrast, let's look at an example of what I mean by pre-teaching. First, we have to go back in time, to the day before the first lesson in our money unit.

The intervention itself looks pretty much the same. I spend 20 minutes with Manuel outside of class, walking him through the values of the coins, but in this case the other kids haven't had the lesson yet.

I tell him what we'll be doing in our money lesson tomorrow, and I give him a "preview" of that lesson before any of the other kids get to see it.

Fast forward to the money lesson. To the surprise of his classmates and Manuel himself, he's ahead of the curve for once. He knows some of the answers before the other kids do. He is one of the first students to finish the game we play with the coins. I ask him to go help Will, the top math student in the class, who is usually the one to help Manuel.

Cost-Benefit Analysis

In both scenarios, I have spent the same amount of time with Manuel. I have spent that time doing the same thing with the same concept.

But with remediation, he still feels dumb. Even if he did finally understand the concept, he's still behind, and he will probably be behind again tomorrow.

Pre-teaching has a very different outcome. Manuel is one of the top students in the class. He experiences the role of "helper" instead of "helped." Manuel also got more out of the whole-class math lesson, for a simple reason: He spent it doing the right thing the right way, not fumbling through errors in a frantic attempt to catch up.

There's an added benefit for his teacher, too. During that pre-teaching session, I got some clues about what might confuse other kids in the class when the time came for the lesson. For example, just as with Manuel, nickels and quarters might look similar to them. They'll probably be OK counting by fives and tens, but they might struggle to add five or ten to 25.

I can anticipate these errors, using Manuel's confusion as a possible preview of stumbling blocks for the other kids.

Transformative Moments

Pre-teaching isn't a magic spell. Sometimes Manuel will still struggle, even with help on the front end.

There's also an argument to be made that you can't assume a student will fail at a certain concept before he has a chance to try it. The usual model-teach a lesson, see who doesn't get it, then help those kids in a small group or one-on-one-has its place.

But within a few weeks of school, we generally understand a great deal about which concepts tend to trip up our struggling readers and mathematicians. For little Janet from the Marshall Islands, who has trouble distinguishing vowel sounds in English, the "short e" and "short i" sounds will probably be tricky. For Manuel, who struggles with number sense, the idea that a single coin can have a value of either 25 cents or a single cent may take a little while to sink in.

If we're wrong, and the child would have been just fine without any pre-teaching, we gave him a little extra boost. But when we're right, the difference between pre-teaching and remediation can be profound.

For the same 20-minute investment of time, we can change the way a child sees himself as a reader, thinker, or mathematician. We can give Manuel the rare experience of being the kid who gets it first, who helps the other kids figure it out, who is ready with the answer the moment he hears the question.

For children accustomed to struggle, those moments can be transformative. They can make reading an act of pleasure instead of torture. Math can become fun instead of frustrating. The feeling of confidence can linger long after the class has moved on to the next concept.

Responsibility and delight can coexist. My struggling readers and frustrated math students often display a determination to succeed that inspires me. But they're a lot more likely to hang on to that determination if they experience a little delight along the way.

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Why I Prefer Pre-Teaching to Remediation for Struggling Students (Opinion)

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We're all terrible at something. For me, the list includes mini-golf, piano, and the torturous mash-up of yoga, ballet, and Spanish Inquisition techniques known as "Barre3." Take a moment to imagine something you are terrible at doing.

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How to Pre-Teach Vocabulary: TEFL Skill Lesson & Demo

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It's all about the approach -- asset mapping | Deanna Lewis | TEDxRillitoRiver

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English Language Learners

A look at what English learners need in order to develop the skills and motivation to improve their ability to read in English.

ZUMA Press Inc / Alamy Stock Photo

English learners (ELs) are the fastest growing group of students in the United States, and the NEA expects that by the year 2025, roughly one fourth of our students will be ELs. These students bring a rich diversity into our classrooms-they represent over 400 languages. With this beautiful diversity comes a need for educators to understand language acquisition and linguistic differences and similarities.

Because English learners are far from monolithic, it's dangerous to paint them with one brush, especially when it comes to teaching reading. It is critical that we consider students first, before considering content. It's also important that language acquisition be addressed in balance with reading instruction. All states have language standards to support linguistic development.

ELs may not have had the same opportunities with English as native English speakers, but they have other experiences with language, including speaking and hearing another language since birth. And in addition to language, students enter classrooms with backgrounds and experiences that influence their ability to read.

Additional factors come into play when teaching reading to English learners. If a child has already "cracked the code" in their first language (L1)-so that they understand the connections between sounds and symbols-reading instruction will differ from that of a child who has not yet cracked the code in their L1. Some factors to consider include:

the student's first language proficiency (listening, speaking, reading, and writing),

the student's current English language proficiency,

the student's background knowledge and opportunities,

the student's access to language at home, and

similarities and differences between the student's first language and English (cognates and written features).

The primary grades are traditionally highly language-rich environments. Many students, no matter their language experience, are emergent readers and writers. At this very early stage of school, phonemic awareness and phonics should be explicitly and systematically taught to all learners. This helps students learn to crack the code. Since reading is not a natural experience, students must be taught to lift letters off the page, turn them into sounds, connect sounds, and make words.

Decoding, however, is only one aspect of reading-another is comprehension. ELs who already read in their L1 can transfer knowledge and skills they've learned to acquiring English. Some may also benefit from individualized, explicit phonics instruction. For example, a third-grade newcomer EL from Venezuela may need additional support with English letters and sounds that are nonexistent in Spanish. Formatively assessing students' first language reading by listening to them read in their L1, asking them questions about their reading life, and/or talking to caregivers about their reading experiences will help teachers make instructional decisions.

There is much we can learn from observing a child read in their primary language even if we don't speak or understand the language. The simple act of sitting side-by-side with a student and observing them with a book in their language allows us to see how they interact with text, and we can listen for expression and watch for visual clues of engagement or excitement.

What Do ELs need?

ELs need high quality tier one reading instruction. Here are some characteristics of tier one reading instruction that is designed to meet ELs' cognitive, affective, and linguistic needs.

Cognitive needs: Instruction provides ELs with access to grade-level state standards with the support of second language acquisition methods. Teachers can set high expectations for ELs while providing them with supports such as:

Native language resources,

Visuals and gestures,

Opportunities to listen and speak with peers,

Sentence stems for speaking and writing, and

Content and language objectives.

Affective needs: Instruction supports ELs' confidence, self-assurance, positive identity, and self-efficacy as readers. Teachers can provide a safe environment for reading that follows a gradual release of responsibility and represents all learners by:

Building a strong classroom community,

Fostering a love of literacy,

Allowing and encouraging reading in L1, and

Providing books that represent students' experiences.

Linguistic needs: Instruction supports ELs' English proficiency and bridges or leverages students' first language and uses English Language Proficiency Standards and grade level state standards to guide students to reach literacy goals for listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

This work is not the sole responsibility of the English as a second language teacher but rather a collaborative effort by all stakeholders.

3 Ways Teachers Can Help Motivate ELs as Readers

Motivation to read is built by creating environments where students want to pick up books and then don't want to put them down. Here are three ways teachers can create conditions to motivate ELs as readers.

1. Provide books that represent students: Rudine Sims Bishop wrote about the importance of seeing ourselves and learning about the world and others in books we read. Providing rich bookshelves with selections that represent students and their experiences can help students feel connected, build community, and motivate students to turn the pages.

2. Factor in student choice and interest in reading materials: Readers are more apt to read and understand a book they find interesting than one they don't. They bring their own experiences and background knowledge to the text. By removing limits, such as letting ELs read books in their primary language, we leverage their assets and increase engagement and reading growth.

3. Increase student talk and interaction: By definition, ELs are acquiring English. They benefit from multiple opportunities to listen, speak, read, and write in English. Saving space for students to talk about the books they are reading is an excellent way to help them think about their reading and comprehension.

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An Asset-Based Approach to Supporting English Learners' Reading Skills

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English Language Learners A look at what English learners need in order to develop the skills and motivation to improve their ability to read in English. ZUMA Press Inc / Alamy Stock Photo English learners (ELs) are the fastest growing group of students in the United States, and the NEA expects that by the year 2025, roughly one fourth of our students will be ELs.

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Older version, but more user-friendly. See pages 8-9

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There's a scene in the movie Love Actually where Jamie, played by Colin Firth, is learning Portuguese. He's sitting in a classroom with row after row of other language students listening to headphones and repeating simple Portuguese phrases, over and over again.

You might recognise the language learning trend that this scene was referencing. It is called the " Audiolingual Method " and became popular throughout the 1940s through the 1960s, declining after that. The idea was that if you heard something enough, and you repeated it, you could memorise it and eventually learn the language.

That is just one of probably hundreds of language learning theories that have picked up steam at some point in the last century and then faded away.
There are many others.
When looking at the wide variety of approaches to learning languages, you might be tempted to ask, "Do we actually know anything about how people learn languages?" Especially when so many websites and services claim that their method is "based on science!"

It turns out that we do know quite a bit about language learning, and one of the concepts that has particularly strong support in the research is the input hypothesis developed by the linguist Stephen Krashen.

So, let's dive into that.

In this article, I want to outline the input hypothesis and describe what it proposes about how we learn language. You'll learn that, if you want to learn English, you will make progress fastest by ensuring that you create opportunities to expose yourself to comprehensible input in English.

What is the Input Hypothesis?

The Input Hypothesis was developed by Stephen Krashen in the 1970s and 1980s. It's actually a group of 5 hypotheses. They're a bit complex, but here's a very simplified version of them:

1. The Input Hypothesis states that language learners improve in a language when they are given language input that is slightly more advanced than their current level. Krashen called this "i + 1" where "i" is a person's current language level and "+1" represents language that is slightly more advanced than their current level.

2. The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis states that acquisition of language is different to learning language. Krashen argued that learning-what we do when we study grammar rules-doesn't work nearly as well. Instead, language is acquired and that happens through an unconscious process when we are exposed to comprehensible input.

3. The Monitor Hypothesis states that consciously learning language (like studying grammar rules or doing vocabulary exercises) can help a person monitor language output, but it doesn't result in improvementsto using language. In other words, learning grammar rules can help you measure your language ability, but not really improve it.

4. The Natural Order hypothesis states that language acquisition happens in a natural order, which is pretty much the same for everyone. It further says that language instruction doesn't change this "natural" order.

5. The Affective Filter hypothesis states that affect-how you're feeling-changes language acquisition ability. Krashen argues that negative emotions, like embarrassment or fear, make a person less able to acquire a language.

What does all that mean?

That's all a bit complex, but, very simply, Krashen is saying this: the process of "learning a language" is not the same kind of process as, say, learning geography or philosophy. We can't read a book about it and then come to "know" it.

Instead, language acquisition happens through an unconscious process. The necessary ingredient-the critical, essential core-of that unconscious process is comprehensible input.

What is comprehensible input?

Comprehensible input in English is English language that you can understand. Language inputs are things that you hear (like podcasts, the radio, conversations, and so on) as well as things you read (like books, articles, English blog articles, etc).

Krashen is careful to specify that you can't just read or listen to anything and improve your language. You have to read or listen to things you can understand. Language acquisition happens best, he says, when the input is just slightly more advanced than your own level.

What evidence is there for the input hypothesis?

So is Krashen right? Is comprehensible input important? Is there evidence for the input hypothesis?

There's a lot of evidence to suggest that he is.

Evidence in native language learning

For one thing, we've known for a long time that children who grow up in richer linguistic environments develop greater linguistic competence in their own language. We also know that students who read more outside of school become better writers. Reading, more than any other activity, is also the best predictor of vocabulary development in adults.

It's not just reading. Researchers have also found that children who heard more stories in pre-school were judged to have better linguistic abilities at age 10.

These findings are consistent with the input hypothesis because each of them suggests a relationship between exposure to language and language ability.

There also seems to be some experimental evidence that suggests it is the language input that is driving the improved language ability. In several studies, researchers have found evidence that reading is more effective than practice exercises for improving vocabulary and spelling.

Together, these results suggest that it is exposure to language, and not language instruction, that results in better linguistic development.

Evidence in second language learning

This also seems to be the case in acquiring second languages.

Several studies have found that those language learners with more exposure to language are more proficient in it. There's also significant evidence that second language learners regularly acquire grammar rules that they have never been taught, demonstrating that language acquisition can happen without instruction.

We've also seen that approaches to language teaching that rely on comprehensible input, such as the or Total Physical Response, can be successful. Similarly, students can effectively learn a language by learning other subjects in that language-indeed, these types of "immersion" programmes have very successful learning outcomes.

These programmes don't necessarily teach the language, but students acquire the language through substantial input, demonstrating that substantial learning occurs through exposure to the language, even in the absence of direct language instruction.

The Clockwork Orange study

Perhaps one of the clearest examples of this was a study that used the book A Clockwork Orangeby Anthony Burgess.

If you're familiar with the book, you'll know that it contains a number of words from a Russian slang dialect called nadsat. There are 241 nadsat words in the book, and they are each repeated throughout the book 15 times on average.

The researchers asked study participants to read the book. While most books include a nadsat dictionary, the researchers provided versions of the books without adictionary, so the subjects couldn't look up the meaning of the words. After they finished the book, the subjects were given a vocabulary test on the meaning of 90 of those nadsat words.

Subject's scores ranged from 50 to 96 percent correct on the test, with an average of 76 percent. This demonstrated that these readers had acquired the meaning of at least 45 foreign language words, simply by reading.

This study demonstrates that significant learning can occur through comprehensible input, even without direct instruction.

Comprehensible input matters

Taken together, the research demonstrates that learning can and often does occur simply from language input-reading and listening. And, it shows that second language acquisition can happen even without teaching or explicit instruction.
Key takeaway: lots of comprehensible input is how to acquire a language effectively.
"Compelling" input is best

Krashen further suggests that input should not only be comprehensible but also compelling. That means it should be interesting to the learner.

Krashen argues that, sure, exposure to comprehensible input is important. But if the learner isn't interested in that input, they won't pay attention to it. And attention is an essential component of the learning process.

Krashen says,

"To make sure that language acquirers pay attention to the input, it should be interesting. But interest may be not enough for optimal language acquisition. It may be the case that input needs to be not just interesting but compelling."

Compelling input, he says, is input that is so interesting, you forget it's in another language.

He gives several examples of this: students who were startled by their improvement in English after they found reading material in English they really enjoyed and became avid readers; or, students who were not interested in learning Mandarin, but who made vast improvements in it after they found stories that they liked to read in Mandarin.

I've written on this myself about Brazilian video gamers making massive progress in English, not because they were trying to learn English, but because they loved playing video games, and those happened to be in English. I've argued playing video games is one very effective way to learn a language precisely because it offers lots of comprehensible-and compelling-input.

Krashen argues that these activities that you find so interesting that you want to keep doing them-even if they're challenging-are how you can get the input you need to really acquire a language. He says,

"An important conjecture is that listening to or reading compelling stories, watching compelling movies and having conversations with truly fascinating people is not simply another route, another option. It is possible that compelling input is not just optimal: It may be the only way we truly acquire language."

This is the entire thesis behind Leonardo English and the English Learning for Curious Minds podcast. It was to provide something compelling and interesting for English learners to listen to. Most traditional listening activities aren't only boring, they simply don't work very well.

What about output?

Okay great, comprehensible input is very important to learning a language. That means lots of and .

But what about output? Aren't speaking and writing important, too?

There actually is a comprehensible output hypothesis, proposed by another linguist named Merrill Swain. She argues that some language learning occurs when a learner produces output and notices a gap in their language ability ( How do I say that word again?). They may then change their output approach, and in so doing, develop their language ability.

Swain acknowledges that this cannot explain all language acquisition, but it may explain some language acquisition.

Krashen disagrees and provides several responses. Three of his arguments are:

1. That output is relatively rare in language learning. Language learners do not speak and write nearly as much as they listen or read.

2. He provides evidence that some individuals achieve significant language acquisition without much output.

3. There is a lack of direct evidence supporting this hypothesis.

He concludes,
"Given the consistent evidence for comprehensible input, and the failure of other means of developing language competence, providing more comprehensible input seems to be a more reasonable strategy than increasing output [for language learning]."

What does it all mean?

Researchers seem to agree that speaking and writing help language acquisition. Krashen, himself, acknowledges the utility of writing for improving language development.

But it also seems to be clear that speaking-by itself-is not an effective way to learn a language. We probably need both, but we especially need input.

What does this mean for you-the English learner?

It means a few things:

1. Make sure you give yourself lots of input. Read lots and listen lots.

2. Make sure your input is appropriate for your level-it should be "comprehensible". Aim for materials that you can already understand about 70% to 90%.

3. Include output activities (speaking and writing), but focus on them a bit less than input activities.

Here is some more specific advice for you at various levels of English ability.

The beginner level

If you are a beginner, aim for exposing yourself to lots of input. Find easy reading activities and listening activities you can understand.

Choose short listening activities that are easy enough for you.

Read simple English texts, and read a lot.

Language apps may be useful at this level to you to build your vocabulary of basic words.

Feel free to use translation tools like Google Translate.

Put a lower priority on speaking and conversation. While these are useful, they may not be as useful as listening or reading. However, speaking activities that provide lots of input, like shadowing, may be especially useful.

Put a lower priority on focused grammar study. Look up grammar rules when you think it will be useful to you, but don't spend too much time on this. Most of the important grammar should come intuitively with enough input.

The intermediate level

Intermediate learners are best served by consuming as much comprehensible input as possible. Use native English texts, but modify them so they are accessible for you. Part of that should include engaging in conversation.

Do lots of listening activities. English Podcasts are ideal for this, especially those that come with transcripts and key vocabulary to help make it more accessible. English Learning for Curious Minds was created for learners at exactly this level.

Do lots of reading activities. Read in English every day if you can. The more reading, the better. But, read things you like so that you continue even when it feels challenging.

Engage in speaking activities and, if you can, find a conversation partner. Conversation provides lots of input and gives you very useful speaking practice.

Do writing activities, too. These will help you get better at writing and using language.

Take time to study grammar rules that you notice you don't really understand, but do not make this a large focus.

The advanced level

At this level, you should consume native texts. Continue to find texts that are challenging for you, but not too difficult. Consume texts in a variety of genres.

Listen widely. Listen to lots of different kinds of audios in English.

Read widely. Continue to read things you're interested in, but also search out things that are maybe a bit outside your comfort zone.

Speak regularly. Try to seek out new people to converse with.

Write when you like. Unless you're specifically aiming to improve your writing, you can make this a lower priority.

Don't actively study grammar, but look up grammar rules if you're not sure. But remember, you don't have to follow every grammar rule-native speakers certainly don't!

The take-away: focus on comprehensible input in English that you enjoy

This article was more scientific than you might have been expecting. But, while sifting through the specifics of the Input Hypothesis is a bit complicated, the takeaway is actually quite simple:

We learn language through an unconscious process that happens when we're exposed to it.

We'll learn language the fastest when we're given lots of language input at a level that we can understand.

And, we're more likely to give ourselves lots of input when we like that input-when we're listening to or reading material that is interesting to us.

These days, there are lots of people on the Internet trying to convince you to take English lessons. Sure, language lessons may be appropriate for some people. But I am a language teacher, and I can tell you that not everyone should learn English in the classroom.

You don't need English lessons or tutoring. You can learn English on your own.

And your English learning programme doesn't have to be complicated.

If you do just this one thing, you'll see improvement in your English ability: make sure that you listen to English and read in it.

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Lafayette, R. C., & Buscaglia, M. (1985). Students learn language via a civilization course-A comparison of second language classroom environments. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 7(3), 323-342.

Nagy, W. E., Herman, P. A., & Anderson, R. C. (1985). Learning words from context. Reading Research Quarterly, 20(2), 233-253.

Saragi, T., Nation, I. S. P., & Meister, G. F. (1978). Vocabulary learning and reading. System, 6(2), 72-78.

Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In: Gass, S., Madden, C. (Eds.). Input in Second Language Acquisition (pp. 235-256). Newbury House.

Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (1995). Problems in output and the cognitive processes they generate: A step towards second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 16(3), 371-391.

Wells, G. (1986). The meaning makers: Children learning language and using language to learn. Heinemann Educational Books Inc.

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What Is Comprehensible Input and Why Does It Matter for Language Learning?

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There's a scene in the movie Love Actually where Jamie, played by Colin Firth, is learning Portuguese. He's sitting in a classroom with row after row of other language students listening to headphones and repeating simple Portuguese phrases, over and over again. You might recognise the language learning trend that this scene was referencing.

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In our work with educators of English language learners (ELLs), we often find that there is a lack of resources in our field about how to equitably grade ELLs. This blog post offers some insights and ideas that we hope will spur further discussion.

First, we'll share the reason behind our focus on this topic, as well as a summary of challenges related to grading ELLs. Next, we'll give you a brief overview of related research before sharing our own recommendations developed in response to our research, which we call the Five Pillars of Equitably Grading ELLs. (You can find a related infographic on the SupportEd website.) We'll end the post by providing a space for you to share your thoughts, add some additional resources, and share some references with you.

Resources from Larry Ferlazzo

This post complements the following from Larry Ferlazzo:

We also produced a webinar with Larry, available on the SupportEd website (scroll down to "The Five Pillars of Grading ELs Equitably).

COVID-19 updates

For more information on grading equitably during COVID-19, see the following:

Why this topic?

As part of developing a blended ELL assessment professional development course for the Mid-State Regional Bilingual Education Resource Network in Central New York State, we were asked to create a component on grading ELLs. We thought our task would be straightforward enough, but once we started researching the topic, we found very limited resources specifically for ELLs.

In an effort to gather more information, we reached out to our online professional learning network. Diane posted the following questions on the Colorín Colorado Facebook page, the Advocating for ELLs Facebook page, and Twitter in early January 2018:
We're doing a little research on grading ELs at SupportEd. Could you please share your answers to these questions? 1. What are the challenges that you and your colleagues may have in grading ELs? 2. What are some strategies or tools that you find particularly helpful in grading ELs? 3. Do you have any exemplary EL-friendly report card samples you can share?
The responses were numerous and came quickly. Many of our online colleagues shared that they were also looking for guidance around this topic. We also took part in a Twitter #ELLCHAT on January 8 on the same topic with a similar response from colleagues around the country. (You can see a transcript from that Twitter chat by registering for a free account from Participate.com.) We'll summarize the top three challenges that we read about next. Please note we don't share answers to questions 2 and 3 since we incorporate some resources to address these questions in our Five Pillars.

Challenges from the Field

The challenges we saw most often were:

1. Issues with the structure and content of report cards: Teachers mentioned not having an ELL-specific report card, and they also mentioned not being able to adapt their curriculum or school report card so that the ELA skills graded are "on level". (Example: 4th grade beginner student failing ELA because she does not meet grade four ELA standards and is performing at a grade two level.)

2. Lack of validity in grading content: One comment was, "Sometimes a child's grades are just a reflection of how well the teacher taught to their learning style, rather than a true representation of what the child knows." Another colleague wrote, "Separating ELD from content knowledge! So integral to each other - how to assess accurately??" She noted these are listed separately on report card, but there is no tool to assess them.

3. Challenges with school or district policy: Often, educators commented that existing policies at the school and district level don't address the unique considerations inherent in grading ELLs, such as inflexible time limits for exemption from letter grades regardless of the students' language proficiency and educational backgrounds.

Synthesis of Research on Grading Challenges for Teachers of ELLs

The challenges our colleagues reported on social media are in line with what the research tells us, namely that there are many obstacles that may prevent ELLs from benefiting from equitable grading practices. Here we summarize some of findings from relevant research. Please note that this is not an exhaustive literature review!

Research shows that grading, even among teachers at schools with clear grading policies, is often inconsistent (Reeves, 2008; Seeley, 1994). This inconsistency can lead to inequitable grading practices and even failure for certain groups of students, such as ELLs (Waldsburger, 2012). Many teachers believe that report card grades should be based solely on students' mastery of grade-level content standards, which can be challenging for some students. Jung and Guskey (2012) note that while an ESOL teacher may complete a supplemental progress report for ELLs, that piece of assessment information does not often support the general education teacher in assigning grades.

Another obstacle in grading in general is that many classroom teachers feel uncertain about how to hold all students to the same expectations for performance as other students (Guskey, 2011). Teachers can find it challenging to differentiate instruction and grading for ELLs while trying to meet the needs of the other students in their classroom (Pawan & Craig, 2011). Even those teachers who are able to differentiate instruction may find it difficult to score learning tasks and assign grades based on differentiated student work.

Still another challenge that stands in the way of equitable grading for all students is the belief that grades should be used to identify and maximize differences among students (Guskey, 2011). Many teachers feel that there should be students who perform well and students who perform poorly, such as with a normal bell-shaped curve. Jung and Guskey (2012) share that teachers often grapple with questions of fairness, such as giving a passing grade to an ELL who did not meet grade-level content standards. However, Guskey (2011) notes that when teachers identify what they want students to learn and be able to do and when they do all they can to support students in meeting these goals, it is possible for all students to obtain high scores on academic tasks and thereby receive high grades.

The literature we reviewed notes several recommendations for improving ELL grading systems as a whole (e.g., Waldsburger, 2012). For example, one recommendation is not giving letter grades to newly arrived ELLs who are beginning to learn English. Another option is to provide narrative assessments only or use a system of pass, fail, and high pass that measures effort, language growth, and content standard mastery based on students' levels of language proficiency. Tomlinson (2001) suggests providing two grades for all students. The first would be a traditional, standards-based grade, and the second would be a grade based on an individual student's progress towards language and content learning goals. Similarly, several authors (e.g., Jung & Guskey, 2010; Tomlinson, Moon, & Imbeau, 2015) recommend three grades for differentiated classrooms based on a student's product (mastery of content), process (effort, motivation, and participation), and progress (improvement over time).

Our Recommendations: The Five Pillars of Equitably Grading ELLs

We drew from our colleagues' responses, the research we synthesized on grading ELLs, our review of best practices in ELL grading, as well as our own expertise in the field to create five recommendations for equitably grading ELLs. We call them the Five Pillars of Equitably Grading ELLs. For each pillar, we provide a few steps to incorporate that pillar. In defining and describing the five pillars, we fully realize how intertwined effective instruction and equitable grading are. You simply can't fairly grade ELLs if you haven't already positioned them to access the instruction of content.

Pillar 1: Identify the content and language standard(s).

In setting up a system in which ELLs can be graded fairly, teachers first need to define which content as well as language standards they would like their students to meet. Hand in hand with these two sets of standards go content and language learning objectives for ELLs based on these standards. We recommend that teachers share these content and language learning objectives with ELLs using "student-friendly" versions to the degree possible. Also, we recommend that teachers identify success criteria for ELLs in meeting the objectives, and share models of strong work samples with ELLs so that students are aware of teachers' expectations. Model work samples should also include models produced by ELLs at different levels of proficiency so ELLs can see themselves reflected in exemplary student work.

Pillar 2: Incorporate scaffolding to support ELLs in achieving the standards.

Depending on their level of English proficiency, most ELLs will not be able to access grade-level content standards without appropriate scaffolding. We recommend using three types of scaffolds in the areas of materials, instruction, and strategic grouping of students to work toward removing linguistic barriers for ELLs. In implementing scaffolds, we recommend you do so based on ELLs' English language proficiency level as well as individual ELL strengths and needs and also the demands of the particular lesson (Staehr Fenner & Snyder, 2017). In addition, we recommend that teachers set expectations with students for the gradual removal of scaffolding, as appropriate. ELLs should be aware that scaffolds are temporary and will be removed as they gain language proficiency and content knowledge and skills. Further, we stress that it's crucial for ESOL and content teachers to collaborate to determine appropriate scaffolds for their ELLs to meaningfully access content.

Pillar 3: Support ELLs' progress toward mastery.

We believe that grades should not be used punitively for any students, and especially not for ELLs who are already more inclined to drop out of school than non-ELLs. Therefore, we suggest providing ELLs sufficient time and opportunities for learning, such as offering " lunch bunch" and after-school opportunities to do schoolwork with guidance from teachers, tutors, or peers. In addition, we recommend focusing on ELLs' progress towards mastery as well as their achievement. It is important to underscore that we are evaluating ELLs' progress towards mastery, not just whether they have mastered the objective or not. In spite of careful scaffolding, all grade-level standards may not always be 100% achievable for certain ELLs. It may be more motivating for an ELL to recognize his or her progress than to see an achievement score alone.

Also, since many ELLs have responsibilities such as work and taking care of siblings outside of school, they may not be able to complete all assignments on time. Therefore, we recommend allowing ELLs to turn in some work late without penalty if they are in communication with the teacher about the unique circumstances. Moreover, late work may be a sign that an ELL is needing more support to be able to access the content, understand the directions, and/or complete the task. Finally, if homework is given, we recommend using it as an opportunity for non-graded practice.

Pillar 4: Assess ELLs' progress equitably.

In order to equitably assess ELLs, teachers need to design assessments and supports that allow ELLs to access and demonstrate mastery of content and/or language objectives. To equitably assess ELLs' progress, it is critical to also scaffold assessments (not just instruction) for ELLs based on individual ELL strengths and needs. For example, depending on an ELL's level of English proficiency, that student could be provided sentence frames, images, or a word bank to lighten the "linguistic load" of the assessment to be able to provide a more valid picture of what that student knows and can do in a particular content area. During instruction, ELLs should have ample classroom opportunity to practice with any scaffold that will also be provided during an assessment. Another aspect of equitably assessing ELLs' progress comes in the form of group work. While we recommend strategically grouping ELLs as a form of scaffolding instruction, for grading group work we recommend assigning individual scores instead of a group grade to students, including ELLs. In this way, individual students aren't penalized if all students aren't contributing equally to a particular group project.

Pillar 5: Involve ELLs, families, & colleagues.

We have often found that ELLs and their families do not have a full understanding of grade-level expectations, how grades are given, and what each section of a report card means. We advocate for explaining grade level expectations, the grading process, and report cards to ELLs in their home language whenever possible. In addition, ELLs and their families should be involved in the entire grading process, beginning the school year or their enrollment in school with an overview of what the grading expectations and processes look like. Such meetings are also a good time for ELLs and their families to set goals for their learning. Finally, while collaboration and co-teaching have been on many teachers' radar for some time now, co-grading may not be. We strongly recommend that ESOL and content teachers co-grade, collaborating to assign grades to ELLs on formative and summative assessments as well as discuss final grades on report cards. In that way, the level of collaboration will strengthen, and all teachers can leverage their expertise when it comes to ELLs.

Your Thoughts

While we offer our ideas on guidance around equitably grading ELLs, we also encourage you to share your thoughts here. If you have any samples of ELL-friendly report cards, grading policies, success stories, or additional considerations, please share them in the blog post comments!

Additional Resources

References

Guskey, T. (2011). Five obstacles to grading reform. Educational Leadership, 69(3), 16-21.

Jung, L. A., & Guskey, T. R. (2010). Grading exceptional learners. Educational Leadership, 67(5), 31-35.

Jung, L.A. & Guskey, T. R. (2012). Grading exceptional and struggling learners. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Pawan, F. & Craig, D. (2011). ESL and content area teacher responses to discussions on English language learner instruction. TESOL Journal, 2(3), 293-311.

Reeves, D. (2008). Leading to change: Effective grading practices. Educational Leadership, 65(5), 85-87.

Seeley, M.M. (1994). The Mismatch Between Assessment and Grading. National Education Association. National Education Association. Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/teachexperience/ ask040326.html.

Staehr Fenner, D., & Snyder, S. (2017). Unlocking English learners' potential: Strategies for making content accessible. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). Grading for success. Educational Leadership, 58(6), 12-15.

Tomlinson, C.A., Moon, T. and Imbeau, M.B. (2015). Assessment and student success in a differentiated classroom, Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/siteASCD/publications/assessment-and-di-whitepaper.pdf

Waldspurger, T. (2012, March). A? B? C? Assigning meaningful grades for ELLs. Presented at the TESOL Convention, Philadelphia, PA.

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The Five Pillars of Equitably Grading ELLs

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How can teachers equitably grade ELLs? Learn more about challenges, related research and resources, and recommendations developed by the Diane Staehr Fenner, Jill Kester, and Sydney Snyder.

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The new question-of-the-week is:
How do you handle grading for English-language learners in mainstream content classes?
Grading can be one of the banes of a teacher's existence. An added complication can be when an English-language learner is in a "mainstream" content-subject class-what are the best ways a teacher can handle this situation in an equitable way?

Today, Margo Gottlieb, Kristin Spears, Becky Corr, Pamela Mesta, and Olga Reber offer their responses to this question. You can listen to a 10-minute conversation I had with Margo, Kristin, and Becky on my BAM! Radio Show. You can also find a list of, and links to, previous shows here.
Grading shouldn't be "formulaic"
Co-founder and lead developer of WIDA, Margo Gottlieb is an expert in curriculum, instruction, and assessment of language-learners, having started her career as a teacher and currently working with teachers and school leaders across the United States and internationally. Margo is author/co-author of more than a half dozen professional books, including Breaking Down the Wall: Essential Shifts for English Learners' Success (Corwin, 2019):

Grading is an institutional tradition, yet how do you describe it? Is it a metric, as in a number or letter? If so, how much better is a B than a C, or how much more has been learned if your students score 81 (a B) versus 79 (a C)? Does grading represent standards-referenced performance? If so, what is the difference in the designations "making progress" v. "approaching" in representing students' knowledge of grade-level content?

In either instance, what does "grading" mean for English-language learners (ELLs) whose knowledge base is in a language other than the one in which instruction and assessment are imparted? What does it mean for ELLs participating in dual-language programs where teachers must conform to reporting achievement only in English? How can we maximize equity of grading practices for the heterogeneous mix of ELLs and ELLs with Individualized Education Programs in mainstream content classrooms?

Grading for ELLs, as for all students, should not be formulaic, it shouldn't be rigid, it shouldn't be a mystery or a surprise. Grading shouldn't be a norm-referenced event where students are ranked or compared with their peers. In essence, grading should be part of ongoing assessment as and for learning-based on student self-assessment and negotiation between teachers and students-that is integral to teaching and learning. As an outgrowth of conversations between multilingual learners and their teachers, grading should stem from mutually agreed upon decisions about students' demonstration of learning.

Admittedly, the linguistic, cultural, and personal histories of ELLs are unique; these distinct qualities should provide the context for teachers to begin their discussion with the students. Content teachers across disciplines have the responsibility of maximizing ELLs' opportunities to learn; to do so, they must: 1) provide a variety of scaffolds for ELLs to make meaning from oral and written text, 2) be strategic in inviting ELLs to interact with peers in one or more languages, 3) give ELLs choices in how to demonstrate learning through multimodalities (such as visually, orally, digitally, or in writing), and 4) listen to and invite student voice.

So, what can mainstream content teachers do when negotiating grades with their ELLs? Here are some practical ideas:

While language and content are often indistinguishable during instruction, when it comes time for grading, mainstream content teachers must consider ELLs' oral language and literacy in relation to their conceptual understanding. Through ongoing discussion between teachers and students, grading should become a transparent negotiated process in which ELLs are vested to do their best.
Formative assessments Kristin Spears is an ESOL coach and teacher in Spartanburg, S.C., District 6 where she helps plan and conduct ESOL professional development and collaborates with elementary teachers on how to best serve the ELs in their classrooms. In her teaching career, she has worked in various upstate S.C. schools with students in grades K-8:
Like so many other issues in education, grading ELLs is a tricky topic. There is no easy, one-size fits all answer. Why? Because like our native English speakers, each ELL is unique. So often, teachers ask, "How can I give him/her a grade? He/She just moved here! They can't even speak." They want their students to be exempt from this seemly unfair situation. Often, teachers aren't trained in how to proceed with these students, so they want to be exempt from their heart and head dilemmas of how to reach, teach, and grade their students.

But grading is not the underlying issue; it is giving the appropriate assessment to grade. How a teacher approaches assessing a nonspeaking newcomer in the 3rd grade is completely different from assessing an ELL that was born here. Assessing a newcomer with a strong foundation in their native language is different from assessing a newcomer with limited education.

High-stakes testing is unavoidable; therefore, ELLs should be exposed to the same format as these tests. However, they should not be the primary form of classroom assessments. When using these multiple-choice tests to prepare students, consider including these scaffolds based on each ELL's proficiency level: picture references, oral administration, and eliminating answer choices.

Formative assessments are more appropriate for ELL students, especially newcomers, and more informative for the teacher. In their book, New Frontiers in Formative Assessment, Noyce and Hickey define the use of formative assessments as "the process of monitoring student knowledge and understanding during instruction in order to give useful feedback and make timely changes in instruction to ensure maximal student growth." The key word in that definition is during. While summative assessments take time out of the instructional day, formative assessments are built into the daily or weekly routines of the classroom.

Some examples of formative assessments are: labeling and drawing models, completing graphic organizers, keeping a content journal or reading log, conducting an interview, rating scales, and ticket out the door. The amount of scaffolding needed on each assessment depends on a student's language-proficiency level. A newcomer may need to label a premade picture with a word bank or match pictures while intermediate students should draw and label their own diagram. A limited-English-proficient student might need sentence frames for their journal, while an intermediate student might just need a sentence starter. We want students to continue to move forward in their zone of proximal development. This is also known as productive struggle, pushing students to reach their fullest potential. Once a child has reached mastery with a particular scaffold, that scaffold is removed.
Assessing content apart from language proficiency
Another benefit of formative assessments is the immediate feedback teachers and students gain. Gottlieb, in her book Assessing English Language Learners: Bridges to Educational Equity, refers to this as assessment for learning. Assessment for learning gives teachers the data they need to make informed instructional decisions about how to proceed with content instruction. Does content need to be retaught? Are more language supports needed? Can a picture or diagram be used to help explain the content? Teachers use their expertise to continually monitor and adjust and then assess again. Over time, these formative assessments create a portfolio of student work that can be used for grades but, more importantly, can be used to document student gains and successes.

Becky Corr is the president of EdSpark Consulting, which is dedicated to igniting partnerships for diverse learners through professional development, technical writing, and systems analysis. In her role as the English-language development team lead in the Douglas County school district in Colorado, she coaches, mentors, and supports teachers and facilitates family-engagement opportunities:

"English is a language, not a measure of intelligence."

- Unknown

Grades are a measure of a student's growth toward and mastery of intended outcomes and content standards. They are a form of feedback to students, parents, and other educators about a student's grasp of the content and standards. Students and parents take that feedback to heart. For students who are learning English, grades are an important source of feedback and pride.

When the classroom instruction and assessments align to what students can do according to their English proficiency, then grading becomes much easier. In the absence of instructional and assessment strategies for English-learners, students really struggle with learning the content, and grades can sometimes reflect that. Students and parents can really take that feedback to heart. Take, for instance, a student who made excellent grades when they were learning in their first language before they arrived in the United States. If they come to the U.S. and receive poor grades because the instruction they are receiving is not comprehensible or the assessment is a measure of their language rather than their content knowledge, they can start to question their identity as a good student as well as their intelligence.

English-learners have the dual challenge of learning language and content at the same time. They have to work at least twice as hard. When students are held to high expectations and receive the appropriate support for language, then mastering the content standards becomes possible. It is important to expect English-learners to master the content and communicate this expectation along with the assurance that they will be provided with language support.

When assessing English-learners, it is important to assess their growth toward and mastery of the content standards separate from language. In other words, the assessments must match what a student is able to do at their current proficiency level. Collaboration with the ESL teacher is helpful when it comes to assessment and throughout the teaching and learning cycle. If the instruction throughout the unit is not comprehensible to the student, then modifying an assessment or providing an alternative method of assessment will not be helpful. On the other hand, if collaboration between the ESL teacher and content teacher has been strong and students have benefited from comprehensible input, then providing an assessment that matches the proficiency level of the students is beneficial. Most states have a document similar to the WIDA Can-Do Descriptors or the NYSESLAT Performance Level Descriptions. If unsure of a student's English-proficiency level, collaborating with your ESL teacher will be helpful for putting into context what a student is able to do.
"Four essential considerations" Pamela Mesta's experience includes administration, ESOL, bilingual, elementary, early childhood, educational technology, professional development, and interpretation/translation. She currently works as an ESOL supervisor in a Maryland public school district and is also an adjunct college professor. Mesta has her B.A. in communications, her M.A. in education, and has done postgraduate work in ESOL, educational technology, and school administration. Her certifications include ESOL Pre-K-12, Elem/MS 1-6, Administrator I/II, and national-board certification in early childhood.
Students' identities-how they see themselves within the academic world-are influenced by the feedback they receive from teachers. When the content knowledge of English-learners is validly assessed separate from language proficiency, the result is powerfully affirming.

Olga Reber's experience includes ESOL, EFL, professional development, and interpretation/translation. She currently works as an ESOL resource teacher in a Maryland public school district and is also an adjunct college professor. Reber has her B.S. in secondary education/foreign language instruction, her M.A. in linguistics, and has done postgraduate work in educational technology. Her teacher certification is ESOL Pre-K-12.

Pamela Mesta and Olga Reber are also the authors of the book: The Classroom Teacher's Guide to Supporting English Language Learners:

1. Connect with your ELL specialist! This person will be your best point of contact for where to begin with each of your ELLs. Remember, you are the master of your content, and he/she is the master of language development. Together, you can decide what linguistic and content modifications to the curriculum must be made, how language and content goals will be interconnected, and what expectations you both have for student progress.

2. Get to know your learners! Take some time to get to know information about your ELLs. This includes details about their prior schooling experiences, cultural backgrounds, values, and interests. It is also important to research grading systems from their previous schools/countries and discuss these differences with your students. This will help to establish a clear understanding of your expectations. Do some research on the stages of language learning and find out what ELL levels your students are, based on recent language assessments conducted by your ELL specialist. Knowing what levels they are will help you to set reasonable, yet achievable expectations for learning. When an ELL is below grade level in content knowledge, establish a baseline of where they are performing and "grow" their content knowledge from there. If separate objectives have been set for the student, their achievement should be measured with alternate assessments based on those objectives.

3. Match instruction to assessment! Teach students how to be learners first before teaching and assessing content. Modify assessments the same way you modify instruction based on your students' cultural backgrounds and linguistic levels. These modifications should be woven into all formative and summative assessments. The most important thing to remember is that grades should never be a direct reflection of language level, meaning that students should have the opportunity to do well regardless if they are newcomers or advanced ELLs. Oftentimes, this involves creating individualized, differentiated assessments. Provide clear rubrics for assessments and projects along with exemplars that can serve as models.

4. Formatting is not universal! It is best not to assume ELLs are familiar with the assessment format you are using (multiple-choice tests, constructed-response items, etc.). It is best to have study guides (with answers) and review handouts that match not only the contents of the test but also the format so ELLs can practice both. These supports will also help your ELL specialist, as he/she may not be familiar with the content. Allow ample time for students to study the information once they have experienced it in the same format the test is going to be administered. In some cases, allow the use of notes. Visuals used in assessments should be also be the same ones used in notes, instructions, and handouts.

Grading English-language learners (ELLs) can be a bit tricky if you haven't had much experience in this area. No worries! Here are four essential considerations to guide your practice:

Thanks to Margo, Kristin, Becky, Pamela, and Olga for their contributions!
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Please feel free to leave a comment with your reactions to the topic or directly to anything that has been said in this post.

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Strategies for Grading ELLs in Content Classes (Opinion)

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Five educators share suggestions for grading English-language learners in "mainstream" content classes, including emphasizing formative assessments and separating language proficiency from content knowledge.

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English Language Learners

Schools can better support students who are still learning English by working to involve their families in their education.

Marmaduke St. John / Alamy Stock Photo

The most impactful plans for student growth engage not only the learner but also his or her family. In fact, research points to parents and caretakers as invaluable stakeholders in students' academic achievement. Unfortunately, parents who are new to English are often left out of family engagement at the school level to some degree. How can we do a better job of appealing to and including the parents of English language learners (ELLs) as valuable members of the school community?

Here are six keys to successfully engaging ELL parents and families.

1. Make It Reciprocal

Engagement is a partnership between the parents and the school to serve the best interests of students. The school is responsible for meeting certain expectations, some of which are legally mandated through the Every Student Succeeds Act, such as provisions for translation of vital school information into students' home languages.

Parents also have specific obligations, which aren't always clear, especially when there are cultural differences-we cannot assume that the American idea of doing school is shared by all families in our community. Teachers can help by explicitly communicating parents' key responsibilities, such as taking an active role in helping their child learn to organize his or her study time. Parents can also be encouraged to monitor engagement, limit distractions, build consistency, and celebrate periods of concentration.

Parents can also set aside a quiet place for their child to learn and read at home, and be available to answer questions. They should utilize school-based technological and translation resources, including bilingual dictionaries, home anchor charts, and web-based language translation applications, if needed. They should also take time to discuss school matters with their child, asking questions about the school day: friends, concepts learned, struggles and discomforts, successes and achievements.

2. Aim for Authenticity

Efforts to engage diverse parent groups must be authentic and meaningful. Begin with a deep dive of your school's unique demographics. What values, interests, and funds of knowledge are represented on campus? Is the school's interest in students' home lives perceived as genuine?

Support authenticity by intentionally fostering a welcoming, inclusive environment where families see reflections of themselves. Work to engage firsthand resources to your school, including bilingual staff members. Champion relationship building through collaboration. Authenticity breeds connection.

3. Use a Culturally Responsive Approach

Where do families' deeply rooted cultural values show up in the school? How do parents' cultural perspectives drive expectations for parent engagement? Do we use these references to ignore, diminish, or empower our families as members of our school community?

To make the shift toward empowerment, be mindful of culturally relevant dates and holidays, and avoid scheduling important events on these days. Ensure that school-based activities, language, and school menus reflect cultural considerations. Be critical of trivial displays of culture. Openly communicate norms for parent engagement, and work to share this information in a variety of ways. Invite student and parent input, and make a point of reframing cultural or linguistic misconceptions as teachable moments.

4. Keep It Simple

Communication is essential to successful parent engagement efforts. We should aim for clarity in all of our exchanges with parents, especially those who are still new to English.

Explore your school's registration paperwork and parent communications from a fresh perspective. What can be streamlined, condensed, or eliminated? Be particularly mindful of acronyms, educational jargon, and terms that may be unfamiliar to parents, including ones related to mental health like trauma.

Look for ways to provide appropriate support for language learning parents. Many of the strategies we use to make content comprehensible for ELLs are also helpful in working with linguistically diverse parent populations. Think: visuals, graphic organizers, and translated or icon-based cheat sheets for potentially unfamiliar terminology (for example, immunizations, English language development services).

Actively facilitate advisory, advocacy, and mentorship roles that are inclusive of caretakers who are learning English.

Intentionally craft and promote volunteer opportunities and teacher aide positions that appeal to diverse parent groups.

Host a variety of parent-school partnership events.

Offer outreach partnerships and community liaison roles that require cross-cultural or multilingual expertise.

Create an accessible bank of relevant tools and resources based on parent interest.

Organize parent-created learning sessions.

Collect input via English-learner parent focus groups, advisory committees, suggestion boxes, surveys, and interviews.

Consistently utilize parent feedback to inform decision making at the classroom, school, and district levels.

5. Increase Capacity

Grow English learner caretakers as leaders in the school community by providing a range of low-risk opportunities for parent input, feedback, and cultural sharing. Here are some ideas:

6. Find Your Way Home

In building and nurturing relationships with ELL families, the value of teacher home visits cannot be understated: They provide essential insight into a student's home life and unique learning needs, and "support academic gains and positive social integration for ELLs." They are linked to improved academic progress and attendance rates. Perhaps most importantly, teacher home visits lay a foundation of trust as the frontrunner to school-based parent engagement.

In the vast majority of cases, our English learner parents have high hopes for their children's scholastic well-being and wish to contribute to that success. When parents feel that they are a part of an inclusive learning culture and have a clear awareness of their role in their child's learning, true partnerships can occur.

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6 Tips for Engaging the Families of English Language Learners

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Schools can better support students who are still learning English by working to involve their families in their education.

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Educating through the COVID-19 pandemic has been difficult, but one thing I have learned is that family partnerships are indispensable to a thriving community. The resilience that we've built during the pandemic through partnering with families was only possible through our interdependence in school.

I titled my Teacher of the Year platform "A Joyous and Just Education." By joyous, I mean that all students have a deep sense of belonging in their schools, because those schools know who they are, and we uplift their strengths, their culture, their linguistic gifts. By just, I mean that we are identifying inequities and barriers to access that and are working creatively to make space more accessible and better places to learn.

This is especially important for English language learners (ELLs), who learn and think differently. Establishing a strong partnership is a win for students, families, and teachers alike. We can all benefit from the rich cultural and linguistic experiences these families bring to the school community.

Sometimes barriers can get in the way of family engagement. That can leave families' expertise and contributions unrecognized and untapped by schools. So how can you tap into this rich resource, especially when it comes to conversations about special education? Here are some things to keep in mind about culture, language, and immigration-plus some strategies to help you get started.

Expectations of Schools

How a family participates in a child's education, including special education services, can depend on what the family understands their role in their child's education to be. It can also have to do with how the family feels at the school.

For example, in many Latin American countries, public education calls for a family's participation in terms of providing school uniforms and materials. Families are also expected to prepare children for school by teaching social, behavioral, and emotional life skills. Often, public schools in Latin America do not invite families to teach academics, partner with the teacher, or provide information on the child's learning like they do in the United States, according to research.

Sometimes barriers can get in the way of family engagement. That can leave families' expertise and contributions unrecognized and untapped by schools.

As educators, it's our job to communicate to all families that we want to draw on their valuable assets. Those assets can greatly contribute to their child's development and learning, especially if a child is struggling in school.

Take, for instance, first-generation immigrants who may not have had access to education past primary school or who may not yet speak fluent or academic English. Those family members may assume they can't contribute to their child's academic development. Here again, schools can help them understand the important contributions they are already making and can continue making as experts of their children.
Strategies

If your school is holding parent-teacher conferences, send home a letter explaining what conferences are and their purpose (some families may think that they or their child did something wrong). Encourage families to prepare questions to ask at the conferences.

Consider activities that allow families to participate regardless of language, like painting a mural or helping in the school garden.

Find ways for families to share their perspective on what matters most to them about their child's education.

Engage students in creating an artifact (like a drawing or a letter) for their family members using their home language or cultural depictions, telling what they want to share about school

Cultural Perspectives About Disability

Different cultures may have different perceptions, definitions, and expectations about disabilities. Those cultural associations or stigmas can impact how families view their child's disability. Some families may blame themselves for their children's disabilities. Others may believe a curse is to blame for the disability, rather than a medical cause. Of course, be careful not to make assumptions about families' preferences or perspectives based on their culture or language.

As one example of a cultural view, people in many Latin American countries use the term "disabilities" to mean a visible or medical disability. Learning disabilities that are not immediately obvious may not be considered disabilities.

Also, many Latinx families think of kindness, good behavior, a strong work ethic, and collective responsibility to family as "being educated." So the idea that a child may have a learning disability may conflict with the family's perception that their child is an active and able part of their community. They may disagree with or feel discouraged by the news of their child's disability. On the other hand, some of the Native American families I've collaborated with have viewed disabilities more holistically. They have shared that their communities tend to focus on supporting the strengths of people with disabilities.

Clearly, different cultures respond differently to the concept of "disabilities." But no matter the culture, families may also have questions about whether a disability is something the child will "grow out of " or whether the struggle is actually related to learning English. It's important to be prepared for these questions with updated information about the child's evaluation and about instruction and progress in English.

Talk with families to frame the term "disability" by focusing on the child's strengths and needs. Here are three important messages to communicate:

A child's learning or thinking difference is not a deficit.

The child has many strengths from which to build.

There are specific supports the child can receive to build on those strengths.

Most families want to make sure their child has access to the supports they need to learn and thrive. When we frame special education supports this way, the conversation shifts from focusing on deficits to finding opportunities for better learning experiences.
Strategies

To learn more about cultural perspectives on disability, talk with colleagues, like ELL teachers, family liaisons, or interpreters. Other families with experience in special education can also provide insights.

When you speak with the family, share your insights about the student's strengths and interests, as well as examples of personal interactions with the student. This will help families understand that you care and that you see the child's strengths-not only the disability.

Allow the family to share information about the child's strengths at home and in the community, especially non-academic strengths. Include the family members' strengths, too.

Ensure that families understand the services that their child is receiving or is eligible to receive.

Language

Families of English language learners have a legal right to access school documents and meetings in their home language. That includes special education paperwork and communication. Both oral and written translation of special education information requires expertise in the services and terminology.

Ideally, the translation and interpretation will also take cultural factors and nuances into account, especially given the different cultural perspectives on disability. It also should be provided in a format that is accessible and user-friendly.

After the information is translated, it's critical that families understand the terms-and the implications of those terms. For example, a translator may use the Spanish term "problema de aprendizaje," which translates to "learning problem." This term may not convey to families that this "problem" is a disability that needs to be addressed by special services.
Strategies

Explain to families that they have a right to access information in their home language. Be clear that you value their language and see it as an asset for their child.

Learn more about your school's or district's translation services to make sure families have full access to information they need to participate meaningfully in this process. For example, the school district may provide a translation hotline. In addition, community members or other parents can be trained as volunteer interpreters. (Students should not serve as interpreters in these situations.)

If you are working with an interpreter, sit down before family meetings to talk through any areas of concern. Ask about particular issues, cultural factors, or perspectives you should understand.

If adequate language support is not being provided to families, raise your concern with colleagues or administrators. Look for additional information and resources from ELL/bilingual colleagues, family liaisons, district departments, or your state ELL department.

Immigration Concerns

Some immigrant families may have mixed immigration status, meaning that not all family members are documented U.S. residents or citizens. Family members may feel uneasy about participating in formal school meetings, filling out paperwork, or sharing personal information with the school. Perhaps families are unsure of their rights or those of their children. They could also be concerned about immigration enforcement.

You should approach families with empathy when talking about the complexities that immigrant families face. Take the time to understand a family's concerns that might come up when discussing services available and legal paperwork. Educators like you can put practices into place that help build a culture of caring and safety at your school.
Strategies

Communicate clearly with families and colleagues that all students in the United States have a right to a free, appropriate education, regardless of immigration status. The immigration status of a child or family member has no impact on eligibility for special education services.

Keep in mind that families may be wary of signing documents (related to the special education process or otherwise), especially if they have experience with detention or deportation. By building trust, you should be able to partner with families to obtain services that make a significant difference.

For similar reasons, families may also be worried about coming to school or sharing personal information. Schools are still considered "sensitive locations" where immigration enforcement should not take place. Students also have certain legal protections regarding personal information and privacy, regardless of immigration status. If families have questions about these topics, direct them to accurate, updated information from administrators or school district personnel.

Draw on strategies to work around barriers to communication with families. Know that family members who are working and do not have work visas may be more vulnerable at work. This could mean that they are unable to answer their phones during work hours or take time off of work for school meetings.

Partnerships that Promote Growth
For English language learners who learn and think differently- and their families-navigating school can be complex. As an educator, you can draw on a student's and family's assets to lay the foundation for genuine, solid partnership. By doing so with an open mind and empathy, you will begin building a trusting relationship that will benefit your students, often in life-changing ways.
Reprinted courtesy of Understood.org. © 2021 Understood for All, Inc. All rights reserved.
Strategies for Promoting Good Family and Community Engagement

NEA's Center for Great Public Schools offers micro-credentials to help you engage parents and communities. Here are just a few of the helpful tips they offer:

Save information you collect from each student and their family and use it to tailor culturally responsive practices to that student's needs.

Ask families to identify their preferred communications method and use method to ensure equal access for all families.

Conduct home visits to build trusting partnerships with families.

Involve students and families in a project that addresses a problem in the school community.

Share student progress data with families in multiple ways to ensure it is accessible and understandable.

Collaborate with a community partner to design and implement a family-focused event, service, or program.

Identify family needs and create are sources guide that addresses those needs.

To learn more and sign up, go to www.nea.org/professional-excellence/professional-learning/ micro-credentials.

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4 Things to Know About Partnering with Families of English Language Learners | NEA

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Educating through the COVID-19 pandemic has been difficult, but one thing I have learned is that family partnerships are indispensable to a thriving community. The resilience that we've built during the pandemic through partnering with families was only possible through our interdependence in school.