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In Germanic languages, there is no strict word order.

Old English also did not have a strict word order, unlike today.

As a result of the noun cases, the meaning of a sentence did not change because of the word order.

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Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Is the Sun feminine or masculine?

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Noun cases in Old English Vs. Present

- The noun changes according to the place where used
- The same noun in four different forms

Nominative - bāt (the boat)

Accusative - bāt (the boat)

Dative - bāte (to the boat)

Genitive - bātes (of the boat)

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Why are the words used in Beowulf are different?

Impact of Germanic language family

With - Wiþ
Drink - Drincan
Question - fræġn

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The vocabulary is different from today. Before the Norman invasion (1066), there were not much influence from Romance languages.

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450 C.E - 1100 C.E

Spoken by Anglo- Saxons

Literary texts - Beowulf

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Some OE affixes were entirely lost.

OE -ed ‘again’ --> Latin ‘re-‘

OE el- 'foreign' --> to-

Some survived native affixes like -ship (friendship), for- (forsake), and with- (withstand) lost their productiveness.

Certain affixes which are still productive today, like -hood, over- and under-, plunged into comparative inactivity for a time after the Norman Conquest.

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A generous amount of words was borrowed from Latin

Less popular and arrived mainly through written language

The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were especially active in Latin borrowings.

Terms relating to law, medicine, theology, science, and literature, were often justified in the beginning by technical or professional use and later acquired a wider application (Bough & Cable, 2005)

History, spacious, include, nervous, legal, picture, polite

Latin contributed also with several suffixes

-able, -ible, -ent, -al, -ous, -ive

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From 1250 to 1400 -
English and French co-existence for long or short time --> English reshaped by substitution of duplicate words by means of either,

01.   One word eventually died out

OE ēam --> French uncle
OE anda --> French envy
Dryhten and frēa --> French prince

or,

02.   Both survived with differentiated meanings

- doom and judgment

- hearty and cordial

- OE stench, smell (of unknown origin) , French words aroma, odor, and scent, stink, perfume, fragrance from French.

- OE ox, sheep, swine, and calf (the animal)

French beef, mutton, pork, and veal (the meat)

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Governmental and administrative words

Fundamental terms such as crown, state, empire, realm, reign

The word office and the titles of many offices like chancellor, treasurer, chamberlain, marshal, governor, councilor

Most designations of ranks such as noble, peer, prince, princess, duke, duchess, count, countess

Titles of respect like sir, madam, mistress.

Ecclesiastical

religion, sermon, baptism, confession

Law

justice, equity, judgments, crime, sue, plead, felony, trespass, assault

Military

army, navy, peace, combat, arms, soldier and names of officers like captain, lieutenant

Fashion

fashion, dress, lace, embroidery, kerchief, adorn, blue, vermillion, jewel, ruby, diamond

Meals

dinner, feast, appetite, taste, fish, salmon, gravy, salad, beef, pork, plate

Domestic economy and social life

curtain, chair, quilt, towel, garner, wardrobe, recreation, jollity, dance, carol, music, chess, conversation

Art

art, sculpture, music, color, image, beauty

Architecture

cathedral, palace, mansion, tower, cloister

Literature

poet, prose, rime, story, tragedy, title

Learning

treatise, compilation, study, logic, geometry, grammar, noun, clause

Medicine

physician, surgeon, distemper, pain, remedy, balm, ointment, poison

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French was the language of nobility and church and court while English was the inferior, making the pour of French words into English greater.

1250 is the boundary line of two distinct stages of borrowings.
-  Before 1250, a less numerous portion of words were borrowed.

-  After 1250, the upper class transferred much of their French governmental and administrative vocabulary, their ecclesiastical, legal, and military terms, familiar words of fashion, food, and social life, the vocabulary of art, learning, and medicine into English. (Baugh & Cable, 2005)

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Grammatical changes occurred in the English language accompanied with social, political consequences of the Norman conquest (1066) resulted in the unprecedented lexical changes in English.

The arrival of a large stock of new words mainly from French and Latin

A great many amounts of OE words died out

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Coining of new words using prefixes and suffixes

Usually nouns, adjectives using –er, -ness, -ed, -y, -wise, -ize

Most common form of word formation

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Deriving one word from another without changing the form

Nouns to Verbs ( to bayonet, to gossip, to invoice)

Adjectives to nouns (an ancient, a brisk)

Verbs to nouns (an invite, a laugh)

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Combination of two or more free morphemes

Predominantly nouns – (sheep-brand, waterdock, Frenchwoman, freshman, scrape-penny)

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Reasons for borrowing

Richard Mulcaster - foreign words were borrowed ‘either of pure necessitie in new matters, or of mere brauerie...'

Necessity
Renaissance influenced the need for borrowings in scholarly fields

Inkhorn terms
Utilising Latin loan words as a sign of superiority or sophistication.

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One of the pressing linguistic needs of the new scientific community lay in terminology.

The Latin term can be ‘borrowed’ in its entirety into English, Borrowing

The Latin word can be translated element for element into English. Calque

A new English word can be invented. Coinage

An existing word can have its meaning extended so that it acquires. Conversion

(Graddol et al, 2007, p. 95)

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French –

military words (bayonet, feint)

life sciences (anatomy, muscle)

general vocabulary (docile, entrance, invite)

Classic Greek –

literary criticism, rhetoric, theology, natural science (anathema, cosmos, larynx, pathos)

Italian –

warfare (fuse, salvo, squadron)

commerce (argosy, artichoke, felucca)

arts (cupola, fresco, madrigal, opera)

Spanish –

commerce and warfare (anchovy, armada, cargo, sherry)

exploration (cannibal, cockroach, potato)

Portuguese –

exploration (flamingo, molasses, mosquito)

Dutch –

seafaring and trade (deck, firkin, skipper, cambric, splice, yacht, brandy, cruise, keelhaul, cloop, smack, yawl)

oil-painting (sketch, easel)

drinking (booze)

(Barber, 2000, p. 191 - 192)

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Latin was a primary source for borrowings

belly/ventral (fiction 1693, medicine 1695),

book/bibliography (religious miscellany 1664),

egg/ovum (biology 1672),

naked/nudity (zoology 1607),

saying/dictum (poetry 1586),

sun/heliocentric (travel, 1667).

(Nevelainen, 2017)

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Introduction of the printing press

expanded available vocabulary by 75% from 1500 to 1600. (Lancashire, 2012, p. 637)

The Renaissance

The Industrial revolution

Exploration and colonization

William Shakespeare

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EME period is considered to be between 1500 - 1700 A.D.

The frequency of new words peaked during the early 17th century.

English began gaining traction in the scholarly fields.

The beginning coincides with the ascendency of Henry VIII

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Barber, C. (2000). Early Modern English. In The English Language: A Historical introduction (Canto, pp. 175-198). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139106894.011

Baugh, A., & Cable, T. (2002). A History of the English Language. Routledge.

Baugh, A., & Cable, T. (2005). A History of the English Language. Routledge.

Görlach, M. (1991). Introduction to early modern English.

Graddol, et al. (2007). Changing English. London, UK: Routledge. https://www.routledge.com/books/Changing-English-isbn9780415376792

Lancashire, I. (2003). The lexicons of early modern English. Digital Studies/Le champ numérique, (8).

Nevalainen, T. T. A. (2017). Early Modern English. https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/310846/Nevalainen_Early_Modern_English_rev.pdf?sequence=1

Smith, J. J. (2013). Essentials of Early English: Old, Middle and Early Modern English.

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Came about with developments in the fields of law, medicine, philosophy and literature

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Due to:

Trade and commerce, or

Invasions, expansions and war

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1) Borrowing from foreign languages
2) Newly coined words
3) Expansion to the meaning of existing words

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This was done through word formation processes

Eg: affixation, compounding and conversion

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The Early Modern English period exhibits the fastest growth of vocabulary in the history of the language, which is shown through the list of new words per decade and half-century in the Chronological English Dictionary (Görlach, 1991)

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1) Old English - 450 CE to 1150 CE
2) Middle English - 1150 CE to 1500 CE
3) Early Modern English - 1500 CE to 1700 CE

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With this came the exposure to habits, traditions, artefacts and lifestyles of new cultures and in turn, the need to have words to describe them

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The English language has a copious vocabulary owing to its mixed lexicon

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Expansion of meaning in pre-existing words

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Expansion of meaning in pre-existing words

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Occurred due to the growing complexity of language and the need to expand the usage or form of words

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Alex - A24238
Heshani - A23836
Matheesha -  A23695
Adheesha - A24543

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The English language has a copious vocabulary owing to its mixed lexicon

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Came about with developments in the fields of law, medicine, philosophy and literature

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Predominantly took place during the Early Modern English period, due to the Renaissance

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This was done through word formation processes

Eg: affixation, compounding and conversion