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Danushan Rajamoorththi  30110341 Article -01

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Danushan Rajamoorththi  30110341 Article -01

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Ristovska, K, et AL,2014, the impact of globalization, the journal of economic analysis ,vol 47,no 3-f4,pp 83-89.available at: https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?Hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=contemporary+issues+in+business+management+by+globalization+&btng= ( accessed; 1 November 2023).

The article illustrates how businesses management play a key role in the global economy and globalization world. Furthermore, this article is identifying potential success and failures in business management via exploring the impact of globalization on the business. However, I am going to shall outline the contemporary issues in business management via exploring the article.

In this article, author says business leaders change their views from traditional targets to alternative ideas for successful business for bling in the global market according to these views we can know globalization and internationalization change the way of business management. And also, globalization and internationalization it’s a world trend hence it creates more conflict between business and management. Consequence of globalization, information and communication technologies show rapid growth not only that but also international tourism also went up in growth rate into this new challenges are climbing for business professional but the important point of this statement if business managers want to provide service and perform in the global market they should have strategic plans and importantly they want to adapt to internationalization skills it could be the hardest issues for business managers just because we cannot see the whole world   same perspective with same needs .

Secondly, there are developed countries, developing countries in this world. Hence, business managers can not enter business with carry the same plans to different countries.  In the context of the pressure to reduce costs, managers should able to be ready to carry and face the local conflicts to adapt goods to rural market requirements, where the companies are running now. Eventually, we can know easily how globalization and internationalization make the impact in business management.

In conclusion, when business management people understand and do research in globalization, they can easily catch the aspects and contemporary issues in this field also adapt the domestic strategic and rural culture could help and contribute stand the business company in the active area. Followingly, which is important think know the multi domestic aspects international tourism to make more profit in the company.

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Dajanan Yoganathan                                        Student ID - 30086398                                                                          Article 01

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Dajanan Yoganathan                                        Student ID - 30086398                                                                          Article 01

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Outsourcing

Due to globalization, many functions are outsourced by organizations. In this context, outsourcing human resources is one of the crucial aspects.

This study investigates how multinational corporations (MNCs) impact the extent of Human Resource Management (HRM) outsourcing in Greece. The results indicate a substantial contrast in HRM outsourcing practices between foreign MNCs and Greek companies. MNCs tend to outsource HRM functions more extensively than their Greek counterparts. This conclusion is supported by interviews with HRM service providers, who view MNCs as desirable clients due to their demanding requirements and the need for advanced HRM services.

The study acknowledges that some international-level HRM outsourcing agreements, involving global HRM service providers, were not considered, which might have underestimated the prevalence of HRM outsourcing. Firm size does not appear to be a factor influencing the extent of outsourcing, eliminating size differences as a factor in the disparity between Greek companies and MNCs.

The research suggests that foreign MNCs adopt a more innovative approach to HRM, possibly influenced by their managers' familiarity with HRM trends and academic backgrounds. Experience gained from implementing global outsourcing contracts locally also contributes to their openness to HRM outsourcing.

Concerning specific HRM functions, MNCs tend to outsource staffing and restructuring more than Greek firms, driven by their preference for objectivity in staffing and the influence of strategic plans dictated by their headquarters. In contrast, Greek family-owned firms rely on personal referrals for staffing and may have a slower internal approach to restructuring.

The study also finds that Greek companies perceive more cost benefits in outsourcing, primarily because they often engage local independent consultants who charge lower rates compared to major international HR consultancy firms favored by MNCs.

Lastly, the institutional environment plays a significant role in HRM outsourcing. The loose regulatory environment in Greece can facilitate transactions among reliable partners but may also create challenges when providers lack credibility or clients have unclear expectations. A more robust institutional framework could potentially encourage greater adoption of HRM outsourcing by Greek companies.

In summary, this research underscores how MNCs influence HRM outsourcing practices in Greece, highlighting differences in approach, cost considerations, and the role of the institutional environment. And provides insights into how globalization influences the practice of outsourcing, particularly in the context of Human Resource Management (HRM) outsourcing (Galanaki & Papalexandris, 2007).

References

Galanaki , E. & Papalexandris, N., 2007. Internationalization as a determining factor of HRM outsourcing.. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Volume 18(8), pp. 1557-1567.

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Dajanan Yoganathan               Student ID - 30086398          Article - 02

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Dajanan Yoganathan               Student ID - 30086398          Article - 02

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Global expansion

When it comes to global expansion, there are many aspects to consider. In this context, let's focus on the significant impact of globalization and internationalization on global education.

This article addresses the research gap caused by the absence of comprehensive studies that thoroughly examine evidence from different disciplines concerning the often-associated consequences of educational expansion.

They draw evidence from empirical studies in sociology, demography, economics, political science, and anthropology. It also illustrates links between education and economic, health, demographic, and political changes with recent data for a wide range of countries. It concludes with a discussion of insights gleaned from prior research regarding the possible consequences of achieving universal primary and secondary education and for future research on the consequences of educational expansion.

The research underscores the positive effects of universalizing primary and secondary education, particularly in areas like health and demographics. However, it also underscores that the outcomes of education are intricate and contingent on specific circumstances. The influence of education on economic growth, social disparities, and democratization remains a topic of ongoing discussion and can fluctuate depending on a range of factors. To understand the ramifications of expanding education, one must consider extended timeframes, diverse educational levels, educational quality, and the unique settings in which education is implemented.

Health and Demographic Benefits: Extensive empirical evidence strongly indicates that enhancing a nation's educational makeup contributes to its populace's overall well-being. Educated individuals tend to make more informed health decisions, experience longer lifespans, and raise healthier children. Furthermore, countries with higher levels of education among their citizens often witness reduced population growth due to educated individuals' capacity to decrease fertility rates.

Economic Security: Research proposes that broadening educational opportunities can bolster the future economic stability of underprivileged children. It's important to emphasize that while education can enhance economic prospects, it does not guarantee automatic economic success.

Economic Development: The connection between the expansion of education and a nation's economic progress remains a subject of uncertainty. Some studies identify a positive association, while others cast doubt on it. Challenges related to data quality and the intricate nature of economic growth contribute to this uncertainty.

Social Inequality: Expanding education unquestionably benefits disadvantaged groups, yet it may not necessarily lead to a reduction in social disparities, particularly regarding economic background or ethnicity. Access to education may expand more rapidly for privileged groups, potentially perpetuating existing inequalities.

Democratization: Although primary and secondary education can enhance individuals' informed citizenship, its impact on the democratization of societies remains a contentious issue. Developing valid measures for democratization is challenging, and the educational content may play a pivotal role in shaping its influence on democratization (Hannum & Buchmann, 2003)

In summary, globalization is the overarching context that shapes the entire discussion of global education and its impact. It highlights the interconnectedness of education across borders, the sharing of knowledge and experiences worldwide, and the complex and interrelated nature of global issues, from health and economics to social inequality and democratization.

References

Hannum, E. & Buchmann, C., 2003. The consequences of global educational expansion. In American Academy of Arts and Sciences. ed. s.l.:s.n.

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Dajanan Yoganathan Student ID - 30086398 Article - 03

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Dajanan Yoganathan Student ID - 30086398 Article - 03

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Global economic policies, often implemented through tools like trade agreements and Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs), significantly impact the movement of workers and increase the vulnerability of migrant laborers to exploitation. To address these issues, the international community should consider several measures:

Incorporating worker rights and labor standards in migrant labor-management agreements to protect migrant workers and ensure fair treatment.

Evaluating the impact of trade agreements and market liberalization policies on workers and their rights.

Ensuring that minimum labor standards and protections are included in such agreements to safeguard workers' well-being.

Developing immigration laws and policies that consider economic realities, focusing on creating job opportunities in the areas where people live.

Establishing safe migration processes to protect migrants during their journey.

Adopting a migrant rights-based approach that emphasizes economic justice and workers' rights in the workplace.

These measures are essential to mitigate the vulnerabilities faced by migrant workers and promote fair and humane treatment in the global labor market. (Misra, 2007)

The passage highlights the significant impact of globalization and internationalization on the movement of workers, specifically migrant laborers. It outlines several key measures that the international community should consider to address the vulnerabilities and exploitation faced by these workers due to global economic policies.

In summary, the passage makes a strong case for the interconnectedness of globalization, internationalization, and the movement of workers, especially migrant laborers. It underscores the need for comprehensive and global responses to address the challenges and vulnerabilities faced by these workers in the context of a globalized labor market.

References

Misra, N., 2007. The push & pull of globalization: How the global economy makes migrant workers vulnerable to exploitation. Human Rights Brief,, Volume 14(3), p.1..

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Andrew Herod (ed.), Organizing the Landscape. Geographical Perspectives of Labor Unionism, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998, £15.95, xix+372 pp.

Eric Lee, The Labour Movement and the Internet. The New Labour Internationalism, London: Pluto Press, 1997, £14.99, xi+212 pp.

Gregory Mantsios (ed.), A New Labour Movement for the New Century, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1998, $24.00, xix+353 pp.

Kim Moody, Workers in a Lean World. Unions in the International Economy, London: Verso, 1997, £14.00, 342 pp.

Peter Waterman, Globalization, Social Movements and the New Internationalisms, London: Mansell, 1998, £55.00, 302 pp.

Torn by internationalization of finance and production, unable to adapt to networking of firms and individualization of work, and challenged by the degendering of employment, the labor movement fades away as a major source of social cohesion and workers' representation (Castells 1997: 354).

The new unionism

More or less all the books under review refer to a 'new labour internationalism' as a significant break from the dominant post-war trend of nation-statist unionism. Thus for Kim Moody, Workers in a Lean World, 'If capitalism is now more global than ever, so too is the working class it begets' (308). The transnational nature of contemporary capitalism is seen to point towards new international trade-union strategies but also the old notion of an international working class. In a similar vein, Edna Bonaich argues that 'Rapidly globalizing capital obviously calls forth the need for a global labor movement' (Journal of World Systems Research 1998: 3). In all of this we see a certain degree of inexorability with capitalism 'begetting' social classes, and an 'obvious' development of a global labour movement. We should probably recall an earlier debate in the late 1970s around the 'new international division of labour' and the call for workers' organisations to mirror the growing transnational corporations (TNCs). Then as now we cannot base our assumptions on any inevitabilisms. Having said that, this time around there does seem to be considerable pressure and more favourable disposition towards the creation of transnational labour strategies.

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Labour and Globalisation: Results and Prospects | Work, Employment and Society | Cambridge Core

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Labour and Globalisation: Results and Prospects - Volume 14 Issue 2

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Kajinthan Sampathkumar                                   Student ID - 30102698  Article - 01                                

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Kajinthan Sampathkumar                                   Student ID - 30102698  Article - 01                                

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Johnstone , C.J. (2023). Is this the dawn of a post-internationalisation era? [online] University World News. Available at: https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20230628103436107.

The phrase "the sunrise of a put up-internationalisation technology" indicates a big shift or transformation inside the way international locations and the worldwide network interact and have interaction with one another. This idea may be understood in numerous contexts, inclusive of politics, economics, and culture. right here's an overview of what this word might also imply in the political realm, the concept of a put up-internationalisation technology ought to endorse a departure from conventional international cooperation and alliances. it might suggest a weakening or transformation of worldwide corporations like the United nations, the ecu Union, or NATO. some viable elements riding this shift ought to encompass developingnationalism, protectionism, and a choice for more sovereignty and manage over domestic affairs by means ofindividual countries. it could also characterize a pass far from multilateral international relations and international agreements in desire of extra unilateral moves.inside the economic sphere, a publish-internationalisation generation would possibly denote a shift toward greater self-reliant or self-enoughcountry wide economies. this could be driven with the aid of a desire to shield domestic industries, reducedependence on international supply chains, and guard national interests. factors like alternate wars, the reshoring of manufacturing, and monetary nationalism would possibly make contributions to this shift.

Cultural and Social Context:On a cultural and social stage, a publish-internationalisation era could mirror a growing experience of nationalism and a desire to hold cultural identities. it would signify a rise in populism, anti-globalization sentiment, and a preference for countrywide values over global or cosmopolitan ones. this can happen in policies that prioritize home lifestyle, language, and traditions.it is vital to be aware that whether or not we are actually getting into a put up-internationalisation generation or no longer is a subject of debate and hypothesis. Globalization, worldwide cooperation, and interconnectedness have no longer disappeared absolutely. but, in positive areas, there has been a major shift far from the ideas that characterized the late twentieth and early twenty first centuries.

The concept of a publish-internationalisation era also can have both high-quality and poor implications. On one hand, it can signify extra autonomy and manage for man or woman international locations. alternatively, it could lead to improved tensions, decreased worldwide collaboration, and challenges in addressing international troubles which includes climate alternate and pandemics that require internationalsolutions.

In precis, the concept of a submit-internationalisation era suggests a shift in the worldwide panorama away from traditional worldwide cooperation and toward a extra nationalistic or insular approach in variousdomains. This concept is complicated and multifaceted, and its implications are situation to ongoing traitsand debates in the worldwide network.

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Just over a decade ago, in the journal International Higher Education, Uwe Brandenburg and Hans de Wit suggested that the end of internationalisation might be upon higher education. They wrote: "Possibly we must even leave the old concepts of internationalisation and globalisation and move on to a fresh unbiased paradigm."

Their prediction came as a shock to scholars and practitioners heavily invested in internationalisation, but it also opened further conversation for critique of internationalisation in academic circles. During this time, a robust literature on critical internationalisation has emerged. This track of scholarship has continued to interrogate the strategy of internationalisation, revealing the negative consequences of some contemporary internationalisation practices.

Recently, Kumari Beck broke new conceptual ground in her 2021 Journal of International Students article titled "Beyond Internationalisation: Lessons from post-development".

Drawing on post-development theory, Beck hypothesised that internationalisation is due for a collapse because it is built on a shaky foundation. To explain this, Beck referenced the ways in which post-development is conceptualised and theorised. Post-development scholarship critiques international development paradigms that seek to address global problems through impositions of northern ideologies.

The conceptualisation of 'development' these scholars seek to move beyond is disproportionately grounded in the measurement of economic growth being the most important indicator of so-called progress. Post-development scholars often describe, and commit to, a world in which growth is balanced by sustainability and the neocolonial relations of power that mark official development regimes are replaced by collaborative, reciprocal partnerships.

Drawing on post-development theory, Beck suggested that post-internationalisation is a way to leave behind institutional and higher education sector-level internationalisation strategies that are inseparably bound to global neoliberalism and colonial legacies.

Beck envisioned a post-internationalisation 'commons' informed by "communal, relational and pluriversal" forms of education spanning the Global North and South. Building on Beck's work, I exemplify several ways in which a post-internationalisation era has already begun in practice.

The evolution of internationalisation

A significant indicator of post-internationalisation is the rethinking at some institutions regarding the metrics used as evidence of internationalisation. The logic of counting and cataloguing each cross-border activity is very much in question in 2023.

Brandenburg and De Wit questioned the logic of such models of internationalisation a decade ago - "more exchange, more degree mobility and more recruitment", argued the authors, does not answer 'why' or 'wherefore' questions about internationalisation.

For some institutions, moving away from expanding and tracking cross-border activity is the result of staffing shortages. For others, it is part of a deep reflection on internationalisation itself. The COVID-19 pandemic, racial reckonings, the legacies of colonialism and imperialism and the recent anti-rankings movement in higher education have instigated a shift - albeit an incremental one - away from the internationalisation practices that dominated the 1990s to the 2010s.

Two additional tenets that have driven internationalisation activity have come under fire from critics in the past several years. The first is mobility, which is linked to cross-border study and cooperation. In International Higher Education, Laura Rumbley questioned the climate impact of centring mobility as part of an internationalisation strategy.

As noted above, when 'success' is indicated by how many humans move across borders, there will be inevitable climate consequences. For this reason, some institutions are now examining the primacy of mobility as a strategy for internationalisation and focusing on quality of experience over quantity of experiences.

Secondly, critiques of intercultural competence frameworks - an explicit goal of 'internationalisation at home' and other internationalisation activities - have also increasingly come under scrutiny.

Some scholars like Melanie Tervalon and Jann Murray-García have long questioned the logic of treating cultural competence as a form of capital, while anthropologically informed scholars question the conceptualising of 'cultures' as static, singular and inseparable from nation states.

Finally, racial reckoning and decolonisation movements on campuses have exposed the limitations of intercultural communication and its lack of theoretical capacity to identify the structural inequalities that reinforce injustice and discrimination in universities and broader society.

Addressing the big questions

Perhaps the most telling sign of internationalisation's sunset is the movement away from nation-state-centric models of academic cooperation. In universities around the world, transnational advocacy networks are engaging with one another, focused on disciplinary and interdisciplinary projects such as global health crises, peacebuilding and advocacy for the environment.

Other networks have focused on broad concepts such as cultural and linguistic sovereignty amongst Indigenous collaborators and their allies. These projects do not need - and may even be harmed by - nation-state orientations.

Transnational academic networks that have emerged from the technological and communication benefits of globalisation are developing worldwide and indicate a shift from work that is narrowly framed as 'international cooperation' to that which is focused on scholars and students with transnational affinities and commitments. These projects undoubtedly benefit from a diversity of stakeholders but are not innately successful because they are 'international'.

The term post-internationalisation represents a shifting away from the status quo and an opportunity for hope for the field. Internationalisation put itself in a trap by its focus on measuring growth: more cross-border activity, more international agreements, etc.

Strategies such as 'internationalisation at home' and even 'inclusive internationalisation' (which I have written about elsewhere) only serve as temporary solutions to the larger problem of a practice that is currently over-reliant on inconsequential metrics, neoliberal orientations and decades-old models of uncritical intercultural communication.

Post-internationalisation represents a chance to move away from transnational work being co-opted by neoliberal goals, freedom from the narrow conceptualisation of 'national culture' and a refocusing of goals that look beyond the development and instrumental measurement of cultural competence.

As noted above, post-internationalisation framings also allow for deeper engagement with the linguistic and cultural sovereignty that exists within currently defined nation-state borders, and perhaps a more reflexive focus on global justice issues.

What comes after internationalisation?

In conclusion, Beck's framing of post-internationalisation sets up an important question for the field: What happens after internationalisation?

I do not have an answer to this question, but I hope Beck's conceptualisation of a 'commons' can help to provide such a space. As a scholar and practitioner, I suggest that post-internationalisation framings could acknowledge the complexity of cross-border work and sovereignty, and the plural thought of those who are involved in such work.

I would also hope that post-internationalisation frameworks would allow for a focus on the nuanced and intersectional identities of individuals involved in global work, rather than focusing entirely on their nation-state status.

Finally, just as post-development scholars have embraced concepts like 'buen vivir' as going beyond narrow conceptualisations of economic development, I hope this brief article stimulates debate and proposals for what might come after internationalisation.

Christopher J Johnstone is associate professor and director of graduate studies in the department of organisational leadership, policy and development at the University of Minnesota, United States.

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Is this the dawn of a post-internationalisation era?

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Post-internationalisation of higher education represents a chance to move away from transnational work being co-opted by neoliberal goals and the narr...

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Dajanan Yoganathan Student ID - 30086398 Article - 04 

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Dajanan Yoganathan Student ID - 30086398 Article - 04 

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In this article, the research question focuses on how globalization and internationalization have affected the economic sovereignty of small European states since the early 1980s, building on Katzenstein's findings.

Transformation of Business "Social Partners": Before globalization, many small European firms engaged in international transactions, with their identity closely tied to their home country. However, by 2002, a significant portion of these firms had become global enterprises, operating across multiple countries and becoming less connected to their original home countries.

Example of Stora Enso: Stora Enso, a Finnish-Swedish paper and lumber firm, exemplifies this shift. The merger of Stora and Enso blurred national identities, and the company dispersed its production facilities across three continents.

Globalization and "Race to the Bottom": The study argues that globalization doesn't necessarily lead to a "race to the bottom" scenario where developed countries deregulate and abandon welfare states to compete with low-wage nations. Instead, firms take advantage of wage differences among developed countries by distributing their production capacity across these countries.

Impact on Economic Sovereignty: To assess economic sovereignty, three criteria are established: the maintenance of corporatist institutions, continuation of social welfare programs, and high levels of political participation. The study finds that globalization negatively impacts social welfare outputs and political participation. While the effect on corporatist industrial relations is inconclusive, the evidence suggests that internationalization and globalization do not strengthen sovereignty as conventional wisdom might suggest.

In summary, the study presents evidence that globalization has transformed small European firms into global entities, affecting their connection to their home countries. While its impact on corporatist industrial relations is unclear, it has negatively impacted social welfare programs and political participation, challenging the idea that internationalization and globalization strengthen economic sovereignty in small European states.

Therefore, according to this, globalization and internationalization have negative effects on the local economy and society, as they weaken economic sovereignty, impact social welfare programs, and reduce political participation in small European states (Mitchell, 2010)

References

Mitchell, G. M., 2010. Globalization, internationalization, and economic sovereignty in the small European states. Doctoral dissertation, uga.

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Danushan Rajamoorththi 30110341 Article -02

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Danushan Rajamoorththi 30110341 Article -02

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Ruel, h (ed) 2017international business diplomacy: how can multinational corporations deal with global challenges?. Howard house. Wagon lane. Bingley bd16 1wa Uk, emerald publishing limited. Pp 129-148. Available at: Ex Libris Discovery - internationl business diplomacy (southwales.ac.uk) (accessed; 1 November 2023).

This article initially shows a brief about view in globalization from historical events that could be easier to understand contemporary issues in business management in the globalized world. However, my following paragraphs shall outline the strength and weakness of this book.

On the one hand, the book gives basic understandings of business diplomacy and international business co-operation companies although, consequence of globalization in business management the world market has been dived into four sectors that are global market, multinational market, international market, transnational market. According to this author, in these sectors, most portion of business is happening in multinational markets because momentum of the globalization.

Furthermore, business has been evolved from old services and stakeholders to new goods, services, stake holders by the sequence of globalization and internationalization. The meaning is nowadays most businesses are expelled from give services to one social agent to any social agent in the world by whole social structures such as market education medical transport and local authorities. After that consuls were created by the merchants following that, consuls provide standardized services for customer environment. In the globalisation sector consuls were created into two main paths first one by the government other one for private. Mostly government sector concerns about profits and developing the rural areas after the globalization.

Conclusion, in my opinion this book has some weakness, most of these pages represent how business diplomacy and management have changed in various years but there is no accuracy data for how people are changed by globalization what are the effects of these changes in globalization. If here author wrote about people work society, culture natures how were changed in business management and how people is negatively affected by the globalization and internationalization   that could be easier to understand for readers. Followingly, there is not enough records for what are the contemporary issues are rising by the government and local people. However, this book helps understand the odd form of business management in the globalized world.

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Charitha Senavirathna          Student ID - 30112073   Article- 01

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Charitha Senavirathna          Student ID - 30112073   Article- 01

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Article 1

Alsharari, N.M. (2018), "Internationalization of the higher education system: an interpretive analysis", International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 32 No. 3, pp. 359-381. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-04-2017-0082

This article investigates the internationalization of higher education (HE) in the UAE, highlighting its rapid growth and the UAE's ambition to be a Middle Eastern "education hub". The primary drivers are neoliberalism, quality assurance, and imported internationalization. However, concerns arise regarding governance and quality assurance across diverse institutions. The study concludes that regional integration might offer a better approach to internationalization for the UAE and other Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) member states.

The article adopts a qualitative research methodology, utilizing primary evidence from interviews with academics and secondary evidence from documents and archival research. The inclusion of a literature review also adds depth and context to the discussion. Given the contemporary issue of globalization and internationalization, the article is highly relevant. It addresses the recent surge in internationalized HE in the UAE, a topic that hasn't been extensively covered in existing literature. The research's implications for policy, governance, and even national identity solidify its importance and reliability. While the research is grounded in evidence and SWOT analysis, a lack of longitudinal data limits its scope in predicting long-term outcomes.

The article seeks to shed light on the internationalization process of HE in the UAE. It aims to provide theoretical insights with practical ramifications, especially for HE administrators and practitioners. Furthermore, by highlighting the challenges and opportunities of this process, the research underscores the delicate balance between globalization demands and preserving national values and identity.

The research stands out for its focus on the UAE's HE sector. It fills a gap in literature by highlighting the challenges and opportunities of this internationalization process.

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Charitha Senavirathna                                        Student ID  - 30112073      Article - 02                                               

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Charitha Senavirathna                                        Student ID  - 30112073      Article - 02                                               

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Article 2

Larbi, F.O. and Fu, W. (2017), "Practices and challenges of internationalization of higher education in China; international students’ perspective: A case study of Beijing Normal University", International Journal of Comparative Education and Development, Vol. 19 No. 2/3, pp. 78-96. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCED-12-2016-0025

The article explores international students' perspectives regarding the internationalization of higher education in China, focusing on their reasons for choosing to study in the country and the challenges they encounter. Push factors such as high education costs and lack of academic courses in their home countries, and pull factors like scholarships, university prestige, and technological advancements, play significant roles in their decisions. However, challenges like language barriers, student-professor relationships, and separation from local students, hinder their experiences.

The study's qualitative approach, relying on structured interviews with international students and Chinese professors at BNU, gives depth to the findings. The categorization of participants' responses aids in understanding the nuances of international students' experiences.

Considering the increasing trend of globalization and internationalization, the article is timely. It offers insights into the motivations and challenges faced by international students in China, making it relevant for educators and policymakers interested in enhancing the international student experience. Further, the research offers a comprehensive view of the topic, identifying both push and pull factors and challenges. However, the focus on a single institution (BNU) may limit the generalizability of the findings.

The paper seeks to understand international students' perceptions and the challenges faced by Chinese HEIs in their internationalization efforts. It emphasizes the importance of enhancing the international student experience and addresses areas for improvement. The article stands out by centering on the lived experiences of international students in China, a perspective not always prioritized. The researchers' clear explanation of their assumptions and theory further adds value, ensuring readers grasp the complexities of the subject.

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Charitha Senavirathna                                             Student ID - 30112073    Article 03

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Charitha Senavirathna                                             Student ID - 30112073    Article 03

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Article 3

Byram, M. (2018), "Internationalisation in higher education –an internationalist perspective", On the Horizon, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 148-156. https://doi.org/10.1108/OTH-11-2017-0090

The article underscores the significance of "internationalism" as an integral facet of the internationalisation of higher education. The author delves into various conceptualizations of internationalisation and subsequently introduces the notion of internationalism. The paper highlights that internationalism possesses a moral dimension that can offer a normative value foundation for internationalisation processes. The discussion culminates in a set of principles that might morally guide internationalisation.

The article's cross-disciplinary, conceptual approach offers a holistic view of the subject. While it doesn't rely on empirical data, its conceptual exploration provides depth and perspective to the discussion on internationalisation. In the context of the growing emphasis on globalization and internationalisation in higher education, the article's focus on the moral aspect of internationalism is both relevant and timely. It addresses a facet that might not always be at the forefront of discussions on internationalisation.

The article's approach is conceptual and does not depend on quantifiable data. While this may limit its direct applicability, the conceptual exploration offers valuable insights and a fresh perspective on internationalisation.

The paper seeks to re-introduce and emphasize the moral dimension of internationalism as a foundation for internationalisation in higher education. The author advocates for this perspective to guide the processes and methodologies of internationalisation. The article's unique value lies in its emphasis on the often-overlooked concept of internationalism. By suggesting that internationalism provides a moral compass for internationalisation, the author presents a fresh challenge and perspective to the existing discourse.

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Charitha Senavirathna                                         Student ID - 30112073      Article 04

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Charitha Senavirathna                                         Student ID - 30112073      Article 04

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Article 04

Garwe, E.C. and Thondhlana, J. (2022), "Making internationalization of higher education a national strategic focus", Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 521-538. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-09-2020-0323

The article offers insights into the internationalization of higher education (HE) by presenting a detailed case study of Zimbabwe. It underscores the strategic approach adopted by Zimbabwe in its internationalization efforts, emphasizing the significance of evidence-based policy development through baseline research and benchmarking. The paper highlights the pivotal role of higher education institutions (HEIs) in fostering sustainable national and international development by producing graduates equipped with "global competencies."

The article's methodological choice of a case study approach, focusing on Zimbabwe, lends it credibility. By incorporating the theory of change (ToC) in its analysis, it provides a structured framework to understand the internationalization policy development at a national level.

In the context of growing emphasis on globalization and internationalization, the article's focus on a strategic approach to internationalization at the national level is both relevant and timely. It not only addresses the specific case of Zimbabwe but offers insights that can be extrapolated to similar national contexts.

The paper's findings are grounded in the specific context, challenges, and priorities of Zimbabwe's internationalization efforts. The inclusion of baseline research and benchmarking ensures an evidence-based approach, adding to the article's validity.

The paper aims to contribute to the understanding of internationalization in higher education by presenting a strategic approach adopted by a specific nation, Zimbabwe. It emphasizes the importance of evidence-based policy development in optimizing internationalization outcomes. The article's unique value lies in its detailed exploration of Zimbabwe's efforts in internationalizing higher education. By focusing on a specific national experience, it adds depth to the broader discourse on strategic approaches to internationalization.

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Kajinthan Sampathkumar                                   Student ID - 30102698 Article - 02

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Kajinthan Sampathkumar                                   Student ID - 30102698 Article - 02

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Lorimer, R. and O’Donnell, E. (1992). Globalization and Internationalization in Publishing. Canadian Journal of Communication, 17(4). doi:https://doi.org/10.22230/cjc.1992v17n4a697.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states that "everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of borders," may be the primary source of the global exchange of information (Article 19; emphasis added). There are three verbs that are important: seek, receive, and impart. It is simple to understand the sequence's rationale. The freedom to look for information is necessary. After determining its location and existence, one needs to have the freedom to accept it. After gaining access, one needs to be at liberty to share it with others. Logically, and in a human context, the issue seems to be resolved clearly and completely. The situation is more complicated when considering the publishing industry as well as other organised, national media sectors that aim to expand their markets.Along with other industrial operations, the media industries, and publishing industries in particular, are going through significant changes. The communications sectors are primarily affected by globalisation. By globalisation, we imply that particular centres in developed countries are opening up their markets to markets in other developed and developing countries for media products that have already been produced, such as books, magazines, newspapers, sound recordings, films, and videos. Simultaneously, a long-standing subdominant kind of worldwide media operations that caters to global audiences is ongoing.We call this type of operation "internationalisation." Trade in media products intended for national or interest-community audiences between media producers situated in different countries is known as internationalisation. The free flow of information doctrine and several related legal and policy provisions, along with a translation of fundamental human rights, serve as the driving forces behind the worldwide production and distribution of media products. The way publishing activities have changed in Eastern Europe provides insight into these mechanisms at work. However, Eastern Europe is also home to a subdominant trend towards the international exchange of culturally distinctive work. There are consequences for Canadian publishers from both trends. The driving force behind the worldwide production and distribution of media products can be found in a translation of fundamental human rights into a theory of free information flow, as well as in a range of related legal and policy measures. It is possible to see how these mechanisms have affected the development of editing activities in Eastern Europe. Furthermore, one can identify and locate a subdominant trend towards the exchange of culturally distinct works throughout Europe. The two trends have ramifications for Canadian editors.

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Kajinthan Sampathkumar                                Student ID - 30102698 Article - 03

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Kajinthan Sampathkumar                                Student ID - 30102698 Article - 03

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Marlina, R. (2013). Globalisation, internationalisation, and language education: an academic program for global citizens. Multilingual Education, [online] 3(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/2191-5059-3-5.

Many educational institutions at all levels of study and across a wide range of disciplines have been forced to rethink the kinds of knowledge, mindsets, and skills they expect their students to acquire in light of the rapidly globalising and interconnected world they have created. In particular, a large number of tertiary institutions have begun to develop or have developed strategic plans to internationalise their education. They provide, or purport to provide, educational programmes and curricula that expose students to different cultures and give them the tools they need to communicate, think, and behave across boundaries. In actuality, some universities implement a policy requiring English language instruction for all students across all disciplines as providers of "internationalised education." Numerous universities worldwide have devised strategies for internationalising their curricula in response to the postmodern era of globalisation, which is marked by permeable borders that facilitate the swift movement of ideas, people, services, and goods across national boundaries. The main objectives of international education are open-mindedness, intercultural communication abilities, and international awareness; however, various strategies have been used to achieve these objectives. While some educational contexts emphasise that all students from non-English speaking backgrounds must learn English, others place more emphasis on integrating cultural diversity issues into every facet of the curriculum. Both of these practises, according to a number of studies, continue to appear to be somewhat problematic and monoculturally chauvinistic. This has raised the question of whether there is an academic programme that is internationalised and makes an effort to adequately address the intricate "landscape" that globalisation has created.

This essay provides a case study of how an Australian university's programme focused on international/intercultural communication adapts to this environment more suitably. Based on in-depth interviews with two Australian domestic students and two international students regarding their program-related learning experiences, the paper also highlights the role(s) that the students believe the programme has played in challenging self-deprecating and ethnocentric perceptions. The study is intended to give curriculum developers with an international focus a (not "the") model for creating an academic programme or curriculum that equips students for interacting with people from different cultures and countries today.

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Abstract

In response to the postmodern globalisation era characterised by porous geographical boundaries allowing ideas, people, services, and goods to move rapidly across borders, many universities in different parts of the world have developed strategies for internationalising their educational programs. While international awareness, intercultural communication skills, and open-mindedness lie at the heart of the goals of international education, different practices for these goals to be achieved have been implemented. Some educational contexts mandate the teaching of English to all non-English speaking background students, while others emphasise the incorporation of issues of cultural diversification into all aspects of the learning curriculum. However, numerous studies claim that both these practices still seem to be relatively problematic and monocultural-chauvinistic. This has led to a question whether an internationalised academic program that attempt to fully respond to the complex 'landscape' that globalisation has created exists.

This paper presents a case study of how an international/intercultural-communication-focussed program offered by a university in Australia responds to this landscape more adequately. Based on in-depth interviews with two domestic Australian students and two international students on their learning experiences in the program, the paper also showcases the contributory role(s) the students believe the program has played in challenging (for some) ethnocentric perceptions and (for others) self-deprecating perceptions. It is hoped that the study provides internationally-oriented curriculum developers with a (not 'the') model for developing an academic program/curriculum that prepares students for living in today's international and intercultural communicative encounters.

Introduction

The inextricably interconnected world created by the rapid forces of globalisation has prompted many educational institutions at all levels of study and within a wide range of disciplines to re-conceptualise the kind of knowledge, mindsets, and skills they expect their students to develop. Many tertiary institutions, in particular, have started to develop and/or have developed strategic plans to internationalise their education. They offer - or claim to offer - learning programs/curricula that provide their students with international exposure and equip them with intercultural knowledge, intercultural mindsets, and intercultural communication skills. In practice, as providers of 'internationalised education' , some universities establish a policy of compulsory English language instruction for all students from all disciplines. This is probably driven by the awareness of the international status and increasingly significant functions of English in today's world. Other universities emphasise the incorporation of issues related to cultural diversity, multiculturalism, or intercultural communication into all learning programs. However, there has often been a mismatch between the rhetoric and reality. In other words, though the institutions claim that their programs/curricula are internationally-oriented, in practice, they still have not been able to escape a monocultural-chauvinistic perspective. Therefore, Trevaskes, Eisenchelas, and Liddicoat ( 2003) question whether learning programs exist that truly provide 'internationally-flavoured' education which genuinely prepares its graduates for the landscape globalisation has created.

In this paper, I shall present a case study of how an international/intercultural-communication-focussed undergraduate program offered by a university in Australia has attempted to respond to this landscape without falling into the trap of an Anglo-centric mindset. On the basis of in-depth interviews from four former students of the program, I shall disclose the contributory role(s) they believe this program has played in prompting them to develop the knowledge and worldview/perceptions for living effectively in today's international and intercultural globalising environments. Prior to this, I shall discuss the conceptual frameworks upon which the premises of this paper's arguments are based.

Theoretical frameworks

Globalisation: its various interpretations

The concept of 'globalisation' is not an unfamiliar concept as it has been widely and 'hotly' discussed by scholars from a wide range of academic disciplines including history, political science, cultural studies, education, economics, and sociology. The meaning of this concept has become rather 'elastic' , leading the cultural critic Jameson ( 1998) to remark that globalisation has become "the modern or postmodern version of the proverbial elephant, described by its blind observers in so many diverse ways" (p. xi). In his critical analysis of the definitions of globalisation found in most academic, corporate, official and popular discussions of things global Scholte ( 2002), isolated four concepts/terms that are often regarded as equivalent to the concept of globalisation: internationalisation, liberalisation, universalisation, and westernisation (refer to Scholte's paper for the definition of each term). However, since these do not provide "important insights into historically relatively new key circumstances of our time" (Scholte 2002, p.13), he proposes instead to view globalisation as "the spread of transplanetary connections between people" ( ibid, p. 13). In other words, globalisation involves unprecedented growth in transworld contacts, meaning that the porosity of geographical borders increasingly allow global citizens to "physically, legally, culturally, and psychologically engage with each other" ( ibid, p.14). Specifically, the rise and expansion of transnational corporations, increased human mobility across the globe, and the advancement of information communication technology has increased the frequency of encounters between people from different parts of the world. Physical or virtual access to people from other backgrounds can result in exchanges of trades ideologies, worldviews, values, and cultural practices. As such a view of globalisation emphasises the significant roles of mass communication, observed by McKay and Bokhorst-Heng ( 2008), it will be used as a conceptual framework in this paper.

Internationalisation of education

Responding to the above 'landscape' that globalisation has created, many educational institutions, particularly universities have a policy and have developed strategies of internationalisation (Haigh 2002; Yang 2002) in which graduates are required to learn to develop important knowledge, awareness, and skills to communicate across cultures. As the concept of internationalisation of education is diversely conceived, different universities have their own understanding of the concept and, therefore, their own practices of internationalising its education. Observing how different universities implement their understanding of this concept, Trevaskes et al. ( 2003) divide internationalisation into weak and strong forms. Driven by a 'marketing and quality assurance paradigm', the weak form of internationalisation shows concern for maximising profit through the recruitment of fee-paying international students. Trevaskes et al. ( 2003) argue this is a superficial engagement with internationalisation. In line with Knight and de Wit's ( 1997) view of internationalisation as a meaningless term unless there is a conscious effort to integrate intercultural dimension into education, the strong form emphasises developing internationally/interculturally-focussed learning programs and curricula. In these issues of cultural diversification and the aim to equip students with the knowledge and skill base to engage successfully in intercultural communications and relations is central.

Even though universities claim to have adopted the strong form of internationalisation, it has been shown that this claim is still far from being realised (Briguglio 2007; Hayward 2000; Stier 2004; Stella & Liston 2008; Trevaskes et al. 2003). The question of whether programs/curricula that truly reflect the strong form of internationalisation exist has been raised. A world-wide survey of internationalisation by the International Association of Universities in 2003 found that "while two thirds of the institutions appear to have an internationalisation policy/strategy in place, only about half of these institutions have budgets and a monitoring framework to support the implementation" (Knight 2003, p.4). Australian universities, in particular, while claiming to have developed an internationalised curriculum as a means to inculcate cultural diversity, demonstrate no measures of success (Stella & Liston 2008). In other words, the strong form of internationalisation seems to remain only at a theoretical level, while at practical level, universities cannot escape the weak form and a monocultural chauvinistic approach to internationalisation. A typical example of this is universities' acknowledgment (often with pride) of the presence of large numbers of international students on local campuses, in the belief this is helpful for all students to gain international understanding. This is evidenced in a report on the nature of international education in Australian universities, which claims that "by seeing people from other backgrounds around on campus and in classes, Australian university students will gain international perspective and cultural understanding" (Universities Australia 2009, p.40). There seems to be minimal attempt made to educationally utilise this cultural and linguistic richness to develop a "culturally literate, interculturally capable society in Australia" (Trevaskes et al. 2003, p.10). Even if there is, the attempt seems to go as far as including international perspectives in a learning syllabus and maybe adding word 'international' to a title of a course(s).

Another strategy of internationalisation of education that has been implemented by some universities in the world is the teaching of English Language. In countries where English is the national and/or official language, some universities incorporate "isolated remedial [English language] classes within the normal degree structure" (Haigh 2002, p.57) for 'non-English' speaking background international students so that they are "up to speed with the dominant tradition" ( ibid, p.57). In countries where English is not the national and/or official language, some universities mandate the teaching of English to students from all disciplines and adopt English as the medium of instructions (Carrol-Boegh 2005; Manakul 2007). However, these practices are still problematic and have been criticised for not 'internationalised' enough for a number of reasons. Firstly, the isolated remedial language classes create a binary opposition of us-and-them and a view of 'non-English' speaking background international students as deficits. They also legitimise the view of the mainstream tradition as unquestionably normal, and restrict the incorporation of multicultural skills into the system at large (Haigh 2002). Secondly, internationalisation will remain monolingual and monocultural and supportive of the parochialism in scholarship if English is the only language that students are required to learn and use to gain knowledge. As Liddicoat ( 2003) argues:

"Internationalisation...through the teaching of English and teaching in English to international students...lacks the dimension of diversity...and therefore does not adequately reflect the rhetoric of plurality and interculturality which accompanies proposals for internationalisation". (p.23)

Sharing a similar view, Marginson ( 1999) argues that teaching English as a strategy of internationalisation is "a form of soft imperialism which imposes 'Western' ways of thinking, doing, and acting" (p.19). Therefore, an internationalised education needs to break out of an English-only mindset by mandating the learning of languages other than English. It is indeed undoubtedly true that learning languages other than English can guide students to develop international and intercultural communicative competence.

However, teaching and learning English also does not necessarily mean that (1) students are 'Westernised'; (2) monolingualism and monoculturalism are promoted; (3) and education fails to reflect the rhetoric of plurality and interculturality. The question is to what extent have the educators taken into account the changing sociolinguistic landscape of English in teaching the language?

English as an international language (EIL)

The above criticism of English language teaching as a means of internationalisation of education is based on a view of English as a unitary concept and the language of the 'West'; and thus has overlooked the current sociolinguistic reality of English. The global expansion of English, leading to the pluralisation of its users and forms, and the significant role of English in various international cultural and economic arenas have given English the status of an international language. Hence, the view of English as a homogeneous language of the 'West' is anachronistic for a number of reasons.

Firstly, one of the main factors that contributes to the status of English as an international language is the changing demographic background of its users. It has been widely agreed that the predominant users of English in the world today are bilingual and multilingual speakers of English from, what Kachru ( 1986) termed, 'Outer Circle' Countries - such as Singapore and Nigeria where English is used as an institutionalised language in conjunction with other official languages) - (hereafter OCC) and 'Expanding Circle' countries - such as South Korea and China where English is learned and taught as a foreign language - (hereafter ECC). Statistically, there are approximately 1 billion reasonably competent speakers of English from those circles (Jenkins 2009) who acquire English within their bi- and multilingual repertoires, use English and perhaps other languages in multilingual contexts, and use English to communicate predominantly with other bi-/multilingual speakers of English (Crystal 1997; Graddol 2006). Although it is difficult to determine the exact numbers of these speakers of English, it is clear that the numbers of individuals from these circles are growing and have exceeded the numbers of speakers from Inner Circle countries (hereafter ICC) where English is spoken as the national language (Bloch & Starks 1999; Graddol 1999; Jenkins 2009; McKay 2003).

Secondly, the global expansion of English and the increase in the numbers of bi-/multilingual speakers of English in the world have also led to emergence of different varieties of world Englishes (Graddol 2001; Kachru 1986) and have defined English as a pluricentric language with multiple grammars, vocabulary, accent, and pragmatic discourse conventions. When English enters a particular society, the language and its culture are not passively absorbed and internalised by members of that society. Rather they are 'nativised' (Kachru 1986), 'appropriated' (Canagarajah 1999), and 're-nationalised' (McKay 2002) to "suit the local tastebuds" (Marlina 2010) and to project their own cultural and linguistic identities. Therefore, with its pluralised forms, English is a vehicle for users of English to project their cultural identities and to express their cultural conceptualisations (Sharifian 2011) to those outside their local milieu. Users of English from OCCs and ECCs may not necessarily communicate in Inner-Circle varieties of English and therefore the worldviews, pragmatic norms, and cultural values of those countries. Rather, as bi-/multilingual speakers of English, these users of English are likely to speak their varieties of English in which their cultural values, pragmatic norms, and worldviews are embedded. As Smith ( 1976) describes, they are likely to display their emotions such as anger, joy, affection, surprise, hate etc., in the same way as they always have, but in English. With their bi-/multilingual repertoire, communication between these speakers is not likely to take place only in English, but also in other languages or in a code switching manner between English and other languages.

This rapid development of English has encouraged Applied Linguists and TESOL scholars to shift its notions of English education from the traditional ESL ('Inner-Circle-English-oriented') paradigm to the EIL (English as an International Language) paradigm (Matsuda 2012a; Sharifian, 2009) which emphasises the importance of teaching English as a pluricentric language for international/intercultural communication. Recent publications (Alsagoff, McKay, Hu & Renandya, 2012; Matsuda 2012a) provide English language educators with ways in which this paradigm can be incorporated into their curriculum and pedagogy. Thus, drawing from a number of researchers and scholars (Marlina & Ahn 2011; Marlina & Giri 2009; Matsuda 2002 2005 2012b; McKay 2012) who are proponents of the paradigm, the following are proposed key principles that need to inform the teaching and learning of English in today's era of globalisation:

The variety of English needs to be relevant to the local learning contexts.

Examples of different varieties of world Englishes should be present.

The cultures and users of English from Outer and Expanding Circle countries should be more prominently represented.

Interactions in English between bi-/multilingual speakers of English should be present.

The discourses of cultures and users of English from Outer and Expanding Circle countries should be presented in a non-ethnocentric manner.

Multilingualism should be promoted by recognising and including languages other than English spoken by the students.

The first principle may need to be re-visited in the light of the landscape that globalisation has created. Although it is important for students to learn a locally relevant variety of English, globalisation has blurred which variety(ies) of English is/are and will be locally relevant. Mass migration and advancement of communication technology have led world Englishes to travel from one circle to another (Clyne & Sharifian 2008). Thus, the linguistic and cultural backgrounds of potential interlocutors with whom learners will interact in English are often unknown as is the variety of English that will be used. Since global citizens cannot avoid "bathing in the sea of linguistic variety" (Crystal 1999, p.19) and encountering variation in cultural and linguistic behaviour, the variety(ies) of English to which learners need to be exposed should be glocal ly relevant.

Responding to globalisation and internationalisation: the undergraduate EIL program

Using the above theoretical discussions as frameworks, this section presents a case study of how an international/intercultural-communication-focussed undergraduate program, i.e. English as an International Language (EIL) program offered by an internationally-oriented Australian university (UniR - pseudonym) has responded to globalisation and attempted to accomplish the university's mission of the internationalisation of education. Specifically, it showcases how students are guided at both the program and classroom level to professionally develop the knowledge and skills base important for living in today's era of globalisation.

Program level

To respond to globalisation and the university's mission of internationalisation, the initial undergraduate EIL program (formerly known as EIU - English in Use) that taught the use of English in the Australian academic discourse community to 'non English' speaking background (NESB) international students was revised. The main reason was to reform a deficit, monocultural-chauvinistic, and assimilationistic approach to language education that underpinned the EIU program. This was reflected in the 'isolationist' nature (Haigh 2002) of the program in which only NESB international students were able to study EIU and how they were continuously required (throughout their study in the program) to identify and learn to overcome 'problems' they, as bi-/multilingual speakers of English, faced in operating 'successfully' within Australian society and the academic discourse community.

By contrast, this newly revised undergraduate EIL program is an academic content-driven program that adopts the EIL paradigm (McKay 2002; Sharifian 2009) to teach international/intercultural communication to students from all backgrounds. It provides them with knowledge of English language variation and its implications for communication in English, teaching and learning English, as well as researching English in a variety of intra/international contexts. As cultural and linguistic diversity is the core of the program's curriculum, its main general objectives are to:

guide students towards developing knowledge of English language variation,

foster the mindsets, attitudes, and skills to communicate effectively with speakers of Englishes from diverse lingua-cultural backgrounds in a variety of intra/international contexts, and

(for future English teachers) develop understanding of the complexity of today's English language pedagogy, and the skills to teach EIL.

To achieve these objectives, eight subjects are developed for EIL students at different levels of study. Two of the subjects studied by freshmen provide an introductory exploration of the notion of language variation (in what ways language varies and why) and, based on Kachru and Smith's ( 2008) notion of 'Interaction as Cooperation', an investigation of what communicative strategies that international communicators need to learn to develop in communicating across those language varieties. Two further subjects studied by sophomores take these ideas one step further by exploring the impact of globalisation on the use of English in face-to-face and online communication; and the use of English in media and popular culture. Sophomores are introduced to research practices and are required to conduct a small-scale project on any EIL topic of their choice. The last four subjects provide senior year students with opportunities to explore in greater depth and to do further research on the diversity of English and its implications in specific areas. The subjects range from the study of World Englishes (all aspects of English in ICC, OCC, and ECC) to the study of language and culture; and from writing in EIL to the pedagogy of EIL.

As an internationally-oriented program, the program welcomes students from diverse lingua-cultural backgrounds regardless of the Kachruvian circles from which they originally came. Therefore, having students from up to twelve different nationalities in one class is not rare. EIL students not only come from the disciplines of Languages and Humanities/Social Sciences, but there have also been a large number of students from Business and Economics, Information Technology, Education, Sciences, and Engineering taking EIL as part of their university degree.

Classroom level

Asserting the internationally-oriented objectives and subjects of the program is insufficient to justify the fact that the EIL program is an internationalised program that prepares its graduates to operate flexibly and successfully across cultures. What happens inside the classrooms needs to be discussed because the 'exterior' of any program sometimes does not mirror its 'interior'. Therefore, this section showcases what the EIL lecturers teach in the classroom in order to help the program accomplish internationalisation and also to guide their students towards developing the knowledge, mindsets, and skills necessary for living in today's era of globalisation.

Which language?

As this program teaches students about intercultural communication and the use of English for international communication, the language focussed upon is of course on English, but English with an emphasis on its plurality. In almost every lesson, the EIL lecturers incorporate examples of different varieties of world Englishes from various circles either as the main topic for a lesson (e.g. English in Singapore) or when presenting examples to illustrate particular linguistic concepts (e.g. basilect vs acrolect). Students are encouraged to, not just be aware of these differences, but also to study, analyse, and interpret these different varieties. As classroom learning activities, students are given communicative scenarios in which they encounter a variety(ies) of English with which they are not familiar, and learn to develop the attitudes and strategies for dealing with unfamiliar communicative encounters.

As multilingualism is a characteristic of today's international exchanges, the EIL lecturers are fully aware that it is impossible to teach EIL without incorporating other languages. Given the multilingual repertoires of the students, the lecturers often solicit examples from their students' other languages and invite them to explain those examples to their classmates (and the lecturers). For example, a lesson on politeness across cultures often includes in-depth discussions of honorifics from different languages and how they are being used by bilingual/multilingual speakers of English in their communication in English. Not only do the lecturers aim to promote multilingualism as the reality of today's communicative exchanges, but also to show that knowledge of other languages is important for ensuring the success in international exchanges.

Which and whose cultures?

As English has become a vehicle for users of English to communicate their worldviews and cultural values, lecturers of the program often use examples from different varieties of English (especially OCC and ECC Englishes) to teach and illuminate cultural practices, values, worldviews, and beliefs of the Outer and Expanding Circle countries. (Of course this is done with full awareness of the risks of generating and perpetuating stereotypes). This does not mean that the varieties of English and cultures from ICC are neglected. They are also included in the curriculum and discussed in classrooms. Though there are some students who demand ICC Englishes and cultures to dominate the curriculum of the program, the educators respond by referring to the multiculturality of Australia (and other ICCs) as well as to the variation of linguistic and cultural behaviour as the characteristic of communicative encounters in today's globalisation era.

A pedagogical strategy often used by the EIL lecturers to promote intercultural learning is using students' cultural knowledge, local stories, cultural practices, and worldviews as invaluable learning resources. The classroom learning activities are designed to diminish the role of lecturers as the knowledge-providers by prompting students to use their 'cultural' and 'linguistic' capital (Bourdieu 1991) to educate their lecturers as well as classmates about their cultures. For example, in a lesson on politeness in writing across cultures, students are given a scenario in which they are asked to write a professional letter responding to a customer's complaint. Monolingual English speakers respond in English, whereas bi-/multilinguals write initially in their own mother tongue and then translate their letter into English. When students are required to share their analyses of the macro- and micro-structure of their letters and explain the reasons behind those structures, they also share their own cultural values, worldviews, and pragmatic norms; and how these are embedded within their letters. Not only does this exercise allow everyone to gain an intercultural understanding, but it also provides students with opportunities to learn how to communicate their cultures in English to those who are unfamiliar with them.

What issues are being addressed?

To guide students towards becoming intercultural communicators, knowledge of the English language and cultural differences is not sufficient. For this reason, the lecturers often refer to the issue of the politicisation of cultural and linguistic differences. Specifically, the lecturers raise students' awareness of existing ideologies, practices, and policies in any societies that unjustly empower some people and marginalise others based on their racial background and the language and/or the variety of English they speak. In addition to using their own personal observations and experiences, lecturers use movies, newspaper articles, policy documents, teaching materials, and even Youtube clips to bring the above issues into the classroom. Concepts/issues such as the unproblematised dichotomy of 'native' and 'non-native' English speakers, native-speakerism (Holliday 2005); Standard Language ideology (Lippi-Green 1997), linguicism (Skutnabb-Kangas & Phillipson 1989), linguistic imperialism (Phillipson 1992), boutique multiculturalism (Kumaravadivelu 2008), and creative destruction (Rubdy 2001) are discussed.

Using these concepts as their analytical lenses, students are encouraged to critically reflect on their experiences and observations of using/teaching/learning English. They are urged to unpack any 'hidden politics' lying behind their experiences and observations of (the discourses of) the use of English as well as the pedagogy of English in a variety of intra/international contexts. More importantly, students are encouraged to investigate and propose strategies that can be employed to challenge this linguistically based social injustice. As these issues are sensitive, many students resist discussing them openly in classrooms due to fear of offending their classmates. In response to this, the lecturers have developed an online discussion forum where students can courageously present a critical viewpoint on these issues while remaining anonymous.

How are students assessed?

The EIL lecturers have developed a wide range of assessment tasks to guide students towards developing their knowledge of EIL and intercultural communication as well as the ability to communicate across cultures and Englishes:

Journal Entry - this task requires students to write in diary form their observations of and critical reflections on the theoretical concepts or debates/issues in their daily life. For example, students are asked to collect examples of different varieties of world Englishes they encounter in their daily life.

Reflective Oral Presentations - the focus of this task is similar to the journal entry, but the students are asked to deliver their discoveries in a form of an oral presentation. Students are also required to develop activities to engage their classmates in reflections or critical dialogues.

Position Paper - this task requires students to use the form of an academic essay to write about their stance, including a critical response, in relation to a particular issue. Their response/stance will need them to engage with the theoretical issues as well as to reflect critically on their experiences in using/learning/teaching English and (if applicable) other languages.

Critical Movie Analysis - as the name of the task suggests, students are asked to use the theoretical concepts/issues they have encountered as conceptual 'tools' to analyse movies such as The Other End of The Line, The Namesake, Kite Runner, Outsourced etc. which contain intercultural stories/issues and examples of the use of different varieties of world Englishes.

Research Report - this task requires students to conduct a small-scale research project on any EIL-related topic. It involves data collection for which the students are required to carry out survey and interviews.

Simulation/ Case Study Project - this is a problem-solving project in which students (who are assigned the role of an EIL adviser) are required to work in groups and solve a case or a scenario which consists of issues and problems that arise from cultural and linguistic differences. Not only do students write their responses, but they also have to present them orally either in a form of a role-play or a panel presentation.

Classroom- research Project - this project requires students to report on their critical analyses of a number of English language learning classrooms they are required to observe from the perspective of EIL. Their report must include their critical observations and analysis of the English teachers' teaching methodology, learning materials, classroom activities, the linguistic/cultural focus, and classroom interactions.

Although each assessment task has its own focus, they all assess students on the following skills: reflections, problem-solving, analytical, critical-thinking, application (the ability to link theory into practice), and communication (this includes their ability to employ communicative strategies to share their cultural values, practices, and worldviews in English). The tasks also assess students on their knowledge of the current sociolinguistic reality of English, their awareness of the impact of globalisation on using/learning/teaching English, and the effectiveness of the communicative strategies they propose to employ (in written tasks) or demonstrate (in oral tasks) in dealing with unfamiliar intercultural exchanges and/or linguistic and issues of social inequality.

The efficacy of the EIL curricula: from students' perspectives

However much the lecturers believe the program and curricula have successfully provided an internationalised education that graduates students well prepared for living in today's globalised world, the extent to which this confidence is warranted lies in the outcomes for the students. Thus, this section presents analyses of the learning experiences of four former EIL students - Cheolsoo (South Korea), Tomoko (Japan), Phil (Australia), and Ogilvy (Australia; all names are pseudonyms) - who volunteered to be interviewed for the author's doctoral project. It specifically addresses the students' attitudes/views towards English language variation prior to studying in the program and their experiences of how they were prompted to critically (re)examine those attitudes/views. At the time of the interviews, Cheolsoo and Ogilvy had completed two freshmen level EIL subjects whereas Tomoko and Phil had completed a major in EIL.

Difference = deficiency

As expected, all participants entered the program with minimal understanding and awareness of English language variation; and therefore with a belief in the supremacy of speakers of English from ICCs, and a deficit view of speakers of Englishes from OCCs and ECCs. Thus all participants seemed to be aware of 'differences' (being and sounding different), but these differences were regarded as deficiencies that needed to be remedied.

Both Cheolsoo and Tomoko enrolled in the program with a similar intention, which was consistent with the aim of the program, i.e. to " learn how to use English internationally". However, when prompted to further explain what they meant by this intention they both seemed to reveal a self-deprecating and deficit view of their English. Cheolsoo and Tomoko reported that they expected the program to 'remedy' their use of English and their Korean/Japanese accent and to " help" them speak like Australians or other English speakers from ICCs so that they would not feel " behind ". In other words, learning how to use English 'internationally' seemed to be viewed as learning how to speak like an Australian or American.

expect to learn how to talk like Australians or maybe Americans and improve my English because I have a Korean accent (Cheolsoo)

Since I came to Australia, I always felt that I am a bit lower grade, my self- esteem was damaged because I was told that I couldn' t speak English like the local people and I had some ' accent'. If I can' t speak English like Australians, I' d be behind them. So, I expect that the program correct our English and help us improve it (Tomoko)

As they shared their reason for wanting to sound like Australians or Americans they further showed their belief in the supremacy of those speakers and the exclusive effectiveness of their forms of English for international communication:

When you speak English like Americans, it sounds better and can help you talk with anyone in the world, but not with other Asian or Korean accent (Cheolsoo)

When I came to Australia, I see a lot of multicultural people and I feel I had a label, white people, American, British are superior, are the only English speakers in the world and a good communicator in English, and then maybe Asians (laughter) and the rest of them are you know....(laughter). If people have their accent or if they are not really fluent in speaking native- English or in communication, I would just like ok ok please don' t speak (Tomoko)

When asked to further explain what he meant by ' international people' , ' difficulties' , and ' foibles' , he referred to his classmates who were " Singaporeans and Malaysians who have much weaker grasp of English than [himself], were not familiar with Australian English, use phraseology incorrectly or expression incorrectly, and speak with staccato tone". Therefore, learning how to communicate across cultures seemed to be viewed as learning to understand and perhaps sympathise with the " difficulties", " foibles", and " speed- bumps " that speakers of English from OCCs and ECCs faced.

Phil, on the other hand, had a completely different intention from the other participants. His impression of his first EIL lesson revealed an even stronger deficit and native-speakerist view of speakers of English from OCCs and ECCs than the other participants:

When he was asked to further explain what he meant by ' can' t even speak English ', he referred to his experiences of interacting with speakers in his classrooms and at his workplace:

In response these 'differences' , all four participants believed that speakers of English from OCCs and ECCs needed to be 'assimilated' and taught to speak 'Standard Native English' in order for effective international communication to happen:

I mean, I don' t care if you sound differently, if you speak like non- native English, you have to be corrected and changed into speaking native Australian English so that you can communicate better with other people right? (Tomoko).

The instructional effects: "Definitely learnt a useful lesson already"

Reflecting on their experiences of studying in the program and interacting with the lecturers and other students in the class, all participants asserted that the EIL curricula had somewhat prompted them to develop knowledge, attitudes, and skills they needed for using English to communicate across cultures. The differences in the way English is used as a result of its global spread was one major element of the curricula which all of the participants believed had " broadened our horizons of the language " (Ogilvy). Knowledge of world Englishes was regarded as important and relevant to (for some) their daily life and (for others) their future.

Different varieties of English is very impressive to me. I was also so impressed to see Korean English. I was like Wow! I have never thought about English in that way... Now I want to recommend people to go to different countries like Korea and listen to the way people speak English to broaden their perspectives of English spoken in the world... It is important to learn about the diversity of English especially in today' s globalisation... It' s so true that I have lecturers who do not necessarily speak Australian English, but they are from China, India, Sri Lanka, and Italy who speak their variety of English (Cheolsoo)

I used to think that American, British or the Inner Circle people, are the only English speakers in the world. But that Kachru' s circles and the readings about Englishes changed my view a lot you know to actually learn the fact that there are also many Englishes spoken in Outer and Expanding Circle countries and they are more than Inner Circle people. I was very surprised and that I can also relate it to my own life interacting with customers where I work from different countries who don' t speak Australian English (Tomoko)

The spread of English like for instance with the three circles you showed us today, I think that added up to about 3 and a half billion being exposed to English in one form or another, that' s more than half the population of the world. I just found that really really interesting this idea that English could be that prevalent, and the different dialects, massive form of dialects. Definitely it would be useful for me to work in the department of foreign affairs and trade in the future because I will be interacting with people who speak English (Ogilvy)

As we further explore through the course, I learn about different varieties of English, lots and lots Englishes, that' s very interesting because now I can look at my own life and I can see that I' ve encountered different varieties of English in everyday life and what it means to me is that whole thing of how to interact using English and it' s probably not even just ' English', but Englishes (Phil)

However, what needs to be highlighted is that the way the lecturers raised their awareness of world Englishes was believed by these students to have largely prompted them to critically re-examine their previous attitudes and to develop ones that would be important for communication in today's globalised world.

The recurring emphasis on reflections on/observations of their (or other speakers of English) experiences using English were reported by Cheolsoo and Tomoko to have encouraged them to re-examine their initial views of their own use of English. Not only had both Cheolsoo and Tomoko become aware of the influence of their own cultures and multilingual repertoires on their use of English, but they had become more confident in explaining and justifying why they used English the way they did.

Actually knowing about this helped me feel a lot better and helped me accept myself better. I have learnt to appreciate the language like the accent I have and the culture I bring in with myself. I had to come to understand why I speak the way I do. Because I have multilingual background with myself, when I speak English I will have a lot of my cultural expressions brought in to English conversation. For example, even though I sometimes use ambiguous expressions in putting forward my arguments in writing essay, it doesn' t mean I don' t think critically. (Tomoko)

This practice of " sharing and talking about [students'] own experiences of using language " was reported to have also allowed participants to learn to understand and appreciate differences (Ogilvy), to gain knowledge about people from other cultures (Tomoko & Phil), to learn to become open-minded and understanding (Tomoko & Phil), and to critically revisit one's initial deficit views of others (Phil):

In addition to his understanding and appreciation of differences, Ogilvy added that he had also become aware of the fact that even though he was a so-called native speaker of Australian English, that did not necessarily mean that his use of English was universally comprehensible and interpretable. Something as simple as " G' day or how you' re going, the weather is bloody awful outside", he argued, would not translate across to " anyone from any country regardless of their proficiency in English if that person has not studied [his] dialect of English and is not familiar with such a culturally- loaded expression ".

Moreover, Phil further claimed that not only had these stories, experiences, and thoughts shared by his classmates from other countries had driven him to " question [his] mentality of putting people into certain ' frameworks', but also to become more open and willing to learn further because " there' s a lot of information out there in the world which you' ll lose out if you stay close- minded ".

I still have a lot to learn, I am still a learner, and English keeps changing and expanding and there are still so many people I have not met, so I cannot say that my English is complete... if there is ever such thing as complete! So, I' m still learning and will keep learning (Phil)

Similarly, with his awareness of world Englishes, Ogilvy reported that he had been prompted to view how being a so-called 'native-speaker' of English does not mean that "[he] speaks correct and intelligible English, knows everything about English, and can converse with anyone in English ". Rather, one still has to learn, especially in today's globalisation era, which, he anticipated, will influence the development of his idiolect:

As there are so many different varieties of English out there especially as Globalisation continues, I' ll be forced to be a learner just because we are all exposed to so many different varieties of English, my vocab will continually be expanding as I' m exposed to Indonesian English or Singaporean English or Indian English. I will keep learning as I go and will keep enriching my idiolect (Ogilvy)

In addition to the sharing of experiences and observations of linguistic and cultural differences, the interviews also revealed the effects of discussing issues about the politicisation of difference and the way these were brought to the students' attention on their attitudes towards differences. In teaching those topics, one activity that the participants believed had a long-lasting impact on them was the classroom activity called " linguistic- identity- switching activity " in which they were required to speak in only one particular unfamiliar variety of English selected by the lecturer and were penalised for any slight deviation. It was claimed that this activity and subsequent discussions of their struggle to participate in it prompted the participants to feel the importance of maintaining and taking pride in one's linguistic uniqueness (Tomoko & Cheolsoo); to view the importance of developing effective intercultural communicative strategies (Cheolsoo) and learning from each other (Phil) as opposed to who should be emulated; and to become aware of the imperialistic nature and undesirable consequences of enforcing a particular group's standard language upon all (Ogilvy):

some Americans or Australians would want us to be like Australians or to become Australian or American speakers of English, but after those lectures and that activity in particular and of course knowing different accent and different varieties... I' m so impressed... If we speak like Australians, it' s like being colonised by Australian culture and English rather than keeping our identity cos we have other cultural and racial and other backgrounds. I have started to think that the most important thing is how you can express their thoughts and to understand others' thoughts in today' s international communicative settings (Cheolsoo's emphasis).

All in all, it can be seen that the curricula seem to have effectively prompted students to develop knowledge, mindsets, and skills for communicating effectively in English in today's multicultural social and professional environments.

EIL program is very useful because it' s more than just teaching us language awareness, and being open, and also teaching us to change our perceptions, not just about English and yourself, but also perceptions on life, and the way you will work and how you will handle work, university work and working outside (Phil)

Although the teaching outcomes have mostly been positive, it does necessarily mean that the participants have completely been 'EIL-converted' or that people do not encounter any challenges in adopting these new views. However, what the data shows is that through learning about EIL, the participants seem to have, in Ogilvy's words, " definitely learnt a useful lesson already ".

Discussion and food-for-thought

Thanks to globalisation, the inextricably interconnected world has prompted many universities to internationalise their education by developing efficacious programs that guide students to "live between cultures" (Besemeres & Wierzbicka 2007, p.xiv). Though many universities, especially in Australia, claim that they have done so, many scholars (Briguglio 2007; Marginson 1999; Liddicoat 2003; Stella & Liston 2008; Trevaskes et al. 2003) argue that the internationalisation of education is still far from a reality. Even if it has been implemented, it will often be monocultural-chauvinistic, parochial, imperialistic, and profit-driven. Challenging their claims, this paper has shown that there is an attempt by an international-oriented program offered in a university in Australia to truly execute the strong form of internationalisation by teaching international/intercultural communication from an international perspective mandated by that university's policy. Specifically, this case study on the EIL program demonstrates that the lecturers have designed their curricula based on their awareness of the unprecedented growth of transworld contacts, and therefore, seem to have been able to inspire their students to learn how to engage successfully with those contacts.

Firstly, since the forces of globalisation have increased the frequency of contacts and exchanges between people from diverse lingua-cultural backgrounds (McKay & Bokhorst-Heng 2008; Scholte 2002), learning about and appreciating cultural differences is one of the core teaching elements of the program. The teaching of cultural differences goes beyond giving a superficial list of the behavioural traits of people from different countries. The students are continuously encouraged to use their knowledge of their own cultures to share with and, thus, educate their classmates (and lecturers) about their cultural values, worldviews, ideologies, and norms. They engage in educational dialogues in which they negotiate and interact with each other to make sense of practices, thoughts, and mindsets that are culturally unfamiliar to them. This dialoguing about each other's cultural differences in fact reflects rejections of the view of seeing international students on campus or in classrooms as an effective way to develop international/intercultural understanding (Stella & Liston 2008). The teaching has shown that in order to achieve intercultural understanding, students need to study and engage in dialogue about each other's values, beliefs, worldviews, and cultural practices. As evidenced in the interviews, this practice of sharing and dialoguing has prompted them to critically question their ethnocentric views towards people from other cultures (Tomoko, Phil, Ogilvy), and to emphasise the importance of being open-minded because " there is a lot of information out there in the world " (Phil).

Secondly, the internationalisation of education that aims to equip students with the ability to communicate effectively in transworld encounters also goes beyond simply teaching English and/or using English as the medium of instruction as suggested by Carrol-Boegh ( 2005) and Manakul ( 2007). Informed by the EIL paradigm (McKay 2002; Sharifian 2009), the teaching of the pluricentricity of English is another core pedagogical focus of the EIL program. In addition to learning about each other's cultural uniqueness, students also explore, study, and dialogue about why (and in what way) do they, as monolingual or bi/multilingual speakers of English, communicate in English differently from each other; and how their use of English is a reflection of their sociocultural realities and cultural identities (and for some students, their multicultural and multilingual identities). The use of students' reflections on their own or observations of others' experiences of using/learning/teaching English as well as other languages is continuously encouraged in all assessment tasks and in classroom discussions. In light of this, the curricula of the EIL program have shown that the teaching of English that is based on the EIL paradigm is not necessarily, as Marginson ( 1999) has claimed, an imperialistic means to impose the 'Western' way of thinking and doing. Students have become aware of the fact that English, as an international language, is no longer the language of the 'West' but it has " organically processed" (Ogilvy) to reflect all its users' ways of thinking and doing (Canagarajah 1999; Jenkins 2009; Kachru 1986; McKay 2002; Smith 1976). Moreover, other languages have been incorporated, used, and discussed in the curricula. The hegemonic spread and its negative effects of English in the world, and the importance of preserving the multilinguality of a nation/society are issues that are also extensively discussed. Thus, the curricula of the program show that students have neither been taught to 'Westernise' nor 'Easternise' themselves, but to learn about and learn to negotiate each other's linguistic and cultural uniqueness, to be critically mindful of imperialistic acts and practices, and to confidently project their complex linguistic and cultural identities. The latter can be seen in the confidence Cheolsoo and Tomoko came to confidence in explaining and justifying their 'multilingually-flavoured' use of English. Therefore, unlike what Liddicoat claims ( 2003), a program that takes into account the pluralistic nature of English in teaching English as a language for international/intercultural communication can still reflect the rhetoric of plurality and interculturality and to accomplish internationalisation.

Lastly, although the teaching of cultural and linguistic difference lies at the heart of the internationalisation of education, it would not be internationalised enough if it did not address issues related to the politicisation of cultural and linguistic differences (Rizvi & Walsh, 1998). Students may come to a class with an awareness of differences from encounters in their daily life. However, these differences are likely to be perceived and constructed from a deficit point of view, which they believe need to be 'remedied' unless this view is challenged. Such attitudes can be found in the participants' pre-EIL-learning attitudes towards speakers of Englishes from OCC and ECC and their use of English (such as fobs who can' t speak English, foibles, speed- bumps, people who don' t speak native- English... please don' t speak), and their full support for " doing the Romans do [and] speaking standard native English". Therefore, the EIL program's activities and assessment tasks are not only designed to prompt students to appreciate linguistic and cultural differences, but also to critically examine and develop/propose strategies to deal with any practices and ideologies (including their own) that implicitly marginalise one group and unjustly empower the other. These activities and tasks seem to have successfully prompted the participants to question their initial deficit/ethnocentric/native-speakerist views of the different varieties of English and its speakers, and to value learning about linguistic and cultural diversity as a never-ending journey (" I am still learning "). These are the essential attributes with which students should leave an internationalised program.

In the light of all this, this paper has showcased how one program has approached internationalisation to prepare its graduates for operating effectively today's international and intercultural globalised environments. Based on the curricula described and students' responses, the EIL program seems to have successfully accomplished its university's mission of internationalisation of education. This is, however, not to claim that this particular EIL program should be the only successful model of an academic program that teaches intercultural communication based on the EIL paradigm. It may, however, serve as one example for educators who are interested in developing or teaching a similar EIL program. Therefore, this paper would like to offer some modest suggestions for developing a program that teaches intercultural communication based on the EIL paradigm:

Students need to learn about, appreciate, and negotiate cultural differences. Voices of students from diverse lingua-cultural backgrounds need to be made audible in order to promote intercultural dialogues and learning. Awareness of multilingualism as the reality of today's communicative exchanges and therefore the importance of knowledge of/competence in other languages needs to be raised.

Students need to be made aware of the existence of world Englishes, and to learn to understand their roles in contributing to the pluralisation of English. One way to begin is to allow students to reflect on, observe, explore, and dialogue with others about the way they use English as a natural mirror of their cultural worldviews, norms, and cultural/linguistic identities).

Students also need to be made aware of the political constructions of difference (difference as deficiency or diversity) and its undesirable impacts on identity constructions these have. In order to do this, opportunities need to be given to students to observe existing ideologies and practices that implicitly promote and perpetuate social and linguistic inequality and/or to reflect on their past experiences of encountering such ideologies and practices in a variety of contexts. In response to this, students will need to investigate ways in which they can learn to respectfully and professionally deal with such ideologies and practices in their future encounters.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Monash University, Melbourne, Australia

Roby Marlina

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Roby Marlina.

Additional information

Competing interests

The author declares that he has no competing interests.

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Globalisation, internationalisation, and language education: an academic program for global citizens - Multilingual Education

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In response to the postmodern globalisation era characterised by porous geographical boundaries allowing ideas, people, services, and goods to move rapidly across borders, many universities in different parts of the world have developed strategies for internationalising their educational programs. While international awareness, intercultural communication skills, and open-mindedness lie at the heart of the goals of international education, different practices for these goals to be achieved have been implemented.

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Katarina borisavljevic,2022, contemporary issues in economics, business and management, the journal of economic horizons, volume 24, number 3, 313 – 315, .available at: https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?Hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=contemporary+issues+in+business+management+by+globalization+&btng= ( accessed; 1 November 2023).

The article shows how business Management play a role in worldwide and this article mainly focus contemporary issues in economics, business and business management. hence, we are into this going to explore what are the issues in globalization when business management enter the world. How ever this article partially has strength and weakness. So that, my following paragraphs shall outline the main points of this article.

according to this author view, business management has their variety of challenges and also the problems require more and theoretical and methodological reply and reactions. That means businesses management should build model techniques and develop the new concepts. after that business management has massive issues when the crisis times are coming just because that times business management could be expelled to lack of energy sources. followingly, to out come from this business management must focus on strategic management, corporate management and sustainability, corporate social responsibility, management and marketing aspects. Not only that but also, the main issues are being addressed in here according to the globalization. that are human resources lacks, internal satisfaction and loyalty, lifelong learning issues. Also, making a example view on Serbia business management can help to us understand the issues. so that. in Serbia, via economic development macroeconomic stability, the financial system stability, financial market development and the sustainable tourism we can use those globalized sector for business opportunities. Eventually, artificial intelligence is going to play main role in business management just because result of the globalization and internationalization .so that. which must business managers know and take a massive look about AI.

In conclusion, this article mainly cover most valid stand points and examples of issues that are climbing in this field however, it has some weakness like making the examples of developing countries they could write a comparison of other countries because that helps understand the various views.

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Ragildan Sahayaseelan.     Student ID - 30111005.        Article 1                                    

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Ragildan Sahayaseelan.     Student ID - 30111005.        Article 1                                    

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This article is the research on internationalization and globalization in higher education reflections on historical paths, current perspectives and future possibilities.

The main author is Jenny J.Lee and the corresponding author is Bjorn Stensaker.

Internationalization and globalization are interwined and complex phenomena that have attracted the interest of higher education scholars for several decades. This article offers some reflections on how research on internationalization and globalization has developed over the years and the perspectives that appear to have dominated these studies. Many publications still tend to be quite descriptive with shallow observations, mostly on reporting national trends and political agendas.

The article discusses potential future advancements enabling a more integrated, interpreting internationalization and globalization in the years to come. The many empirical phenomena and developments that are unfolding in the sector is yet another factor driving diversity in this field of research. Political perspectives on internationalization seem separated in to two basic camps. On the one hand, we find contributions addressing the diminishing importance of the nation- state, and the rise of other actors in shaping how the sector is developing, with recent attention on the rise of a common global society and developing a global citizenry.

Other emerging political perspectives involve institutional adaptions in response to global norms. Additionally, a growing body of internationalization and globalization research has examined. Issues of power and privilege among groups across the world from political frames. A common starting point for contributions using an economic perspective is that universities have become the most important engines in contributing to the knowledge economy. The idea of world- class universities emphasizes human capital and economic investment in STEM subjects to equip universities to survive in an increasingly competitive climate.

Author - Jenny J.Lee

Corresponding author - Bjorn stensaker

First published: 04 may 2021

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Ragildan Sahayaseelan.    Student ID - 30111005.       Article 2                          

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Ragildan Sahayaseelan.    Student ID - 30111005.       Article 2                          

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This paper examines the relationship and differences between the internationalization and globalization in contemporary development of higher education. internationalization and globalization work together to transform the self- image and organizational activities of research universities and adult education centers. Some even go as far as to claim that the globalization process has produced a new grand model of global universities.

The paper discuss the current and future developments of the globalization and internationalization of higher education and make predictions on their impacts on the universities in the united states and other countries. Technology and social networks will provide new opportunities for brain sharing and mitigate the overall effects of winners and losers as the current obsession with global rankings and economic competitiveness agendas suggests. International mobility in higher education has led to a new form of competition in higher education research: economic competition plays a key role in this sector while competition between academic and research institutions is hampered by their concentration, diversification and modernization.

Today universities are gaining the ability to change self- image and organizational activity through research at university and adult education centers. The differences between the concept of the relationship between nations are striking and deep. In broader terms, internationalization is a both a response to globalization and a factor contributing to facilitating it. National excellence programs increase differentiation in higher education by paying more attention to a small number of international and world- class universities, while national, regional and flagship institutions compete with other institutions for talent, ranking in global rankings. Access to influential journals and funding cost.

Authors- Wadim strielkowski

Veronica Gebennikova

Elena Razinkina

Ekaterina Rudenko

Published : 2021 E3s  web of conferences 301(3):03006

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Danushan Rajamoorththi 30110341 Article -04

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Danushan Rajamoorththi 30110341 Article -04

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R. Morkertaite, j. Sekliuckiene,2014, impact of globalization on contemporary business, the journal of preconditions for born global internationalization: vol 86 : pp 7-13: available at; : https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5&q=contemporary+issues+in+business+management+by+globalization+&btng= ( accessed; 1 november 2023).

The article carryout main of how globalization makes pressure on business management and conflicts in contemporary business author says more valuable points like how working nature has been changed with globalization how challenges climbing in business management  in their view however the article has strength and weakness also my upcoming paragraphs shall outline the main strength and weakness of this article .

Initially, they mention the massive issue of business management is changing the environment creates more issues to make profit and expand their company in other countries un globalization world. Also, rapid growth of internationalization companies should have a quick solution manager for take actions immediately. Followingly, they are providing three stage of internationalization they identifying opportunities acting upon the opportunity realizing the opportunity. Post this, minimize the risk of globalization business managers should identify the opportunities themselves with that it is compulsory point for business management. After that. They should focus on technological growth because in this modern globalized world technology play main role in business management. However, which is not enough for develop the business hence they should build network in global that help to make opportunities for the company.

Secondly, article mainly focus on networking because they are believing making the network in whole world help to decrease the portion of risk by the globalization not only that but also network can be built by the relationships. Also, they refer relationship can be formal and informal. After that, networking is not an additional source for a company which is the key to carry the business more effectively hence making the network strategic able to make profits in business management.

In conclusion, this article has some weakness also they just give a brief of the networking they did not mention what are the issues can climb when we make networking and solutions for them. Also, they are focusing make the network plan only and there are no possible examples for technological impact in business management in the globalization and internationalization.

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Ragildan Sahayaseelan.        Student ID - 30111005.          Article 3                        

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Ragildan Sahayaseelan.        Student ID - 30111005.          Article 3                        

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The Globalization of markets

This is a magazine article (may 1983) by Theodore Levitt .

In this powerful essay, the author asserts that well- managed companies have moved from emphasis on customizing items to offering globally standardized products that are advanced, functional, reliable and low priced. The multinational and the global corporation are not the same thing. In business, and corporations sell standardized products- autos, steel, chemicals, petroleum, cement, agricultural commodities and equipment, industrial and commercial instruction banking and insurance services, computers, semiconductors, transport, electronic instruments, pharmaceuticals and telecommunications to mention some of trade and commerce.

The most effective world competitors incorporate superior quality and reliability into their cost structures. If a company forces costs and prices down and pushes quality and reliability up- while maintaining reasonable concern for suitability. Customers will prefer its world standardized products. The global competitor will seek constantly to standardize its offering everywhere. Many companies have tried to standardize world practice by exporting domestic products and processes without accommodation or change – and have failed miserably.

The modern global corporation contrasts powerfully with the aging, multinational corporation. Two vectors shape the world- technology and globalization. Technology helps to determine human preferences and the globalization determine economic realities. A company must be wedded to the ideal of innovation offering better or more preferred products in such combination of ways, means, places and at such prices that prospects prefer doing business with the company rather than with others.

Author- Theodore Levitt(professor of marketing at harvard business school)

Published: May 1983

From the magazine

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Many companies have become disillusioned with sales in the international marketplace as old markets become saturated and new ones must be found. How can they customize products for the demands of new markets? Which items will consumers want? With wily international competitors breathing down their necks, many organizations think that the game just isn't worth [...]

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Many companies have become disillusioned with sales in the international marketplace as old markets become saturated and new ones must be found. How can they customize products for the demands of new markets? Which items will consumers want? With wily international competitors breathing down their necks, many organizations think that the game just isn't worth [...]

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Ragildan Sahayaseelan.        Student ID - 30111005.          Article 4                         

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Ragildan Sahayaseelan.        Student ID - 30111005.          Article 4                         

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The impact of the internationalization of services on developing countries

The internationalization of service is at the very core of economic globalization for developing countries, the growing internationalization of services and rapid technological change in IT present both opportunities and challenges. One challenge facing the developing countries is the design of appropriate regulatory environments for service industries. Advances in technology, especially information technology, are revolutionizing the Image of services. Progress in IT is making it possible to unbundle the production and consumption of information- intensive service activities. Service activities that involve the manipulation of symbols are the archetypal information intensive activities.

Trade in commercial services has been growing much faster than global output over the last decade. The internationalization of services is not limited to the modes of supply associated with international trade.

“There are important niches in the market for long- distance services that can be successfully exploited by developing economies with a literate workforce and a modern telecommunication system”. “ Back office” service activities are also for developing countries as importers of services to capture the opportunities offered by the internationalization of services, developing countries will need to adopt their regulatory environments and develop supportive physical and human infrastructure.

Author: Carols A.Primo Braga

Publication date : 01 Jan 1996

esIBN:9781451953190

Language: English

This article based on a world bank report,global economic prospects and the developing countries 1995 ( washington)

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The Impact of the Internationalization of Services on Developing Countries

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Advances in information technology have vastly expanded the range of services that can be traded internationally. Developing countries stand to benefit on two fronts-they will be able to increase their exports of services and they will gain access to services not available domestically-provided they reform the regulatory environment and develop the necessary human and physical capital.

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The Transformation and Evolution of Japan’s Manufacturing Industries: A Case Study about Toyota and Toshiba after the Global Financial Crisis

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jae-Hoon-Kim-18/publication/361084250_The_Transformation_and_Evolution_of_Japan's_Manufacturing_Industries_A_Case_Study_about_Toyota_and_Toshiba_after_the_Global_Financial_Crisis/links/62a7ce0c55273755ebeb23e5/The-Transformation-and-Evolution-of-Japans-Manufacturing-Industries-A-Case-Study-about-Toyota-and-Toshiba-after-the-Global-Financial-Crisis.pdf

The article is about how globalization is influencing internationalization within the car industry like Toyota. The author, Dae-Hee and Kim, J. (2021) has analyzed the development of Japan's industrial sectors after the global financial crisis, with Toyota serving as a prominent case study, is an interesting subject that demonstrates how one of the country's most recognizable businesses persevered in the faceof financial hardship.

The research paper presents data such as the change in the value-added proportions of different industries and this data-driven approach enhances the credibility of the analysis(Kormakova et al., 2023). With all the challenges that are faced by the company about globalization and internationalization, the author has clearly outlined the challenges through which it became easier for the readers to understand a specific issue that manufacturing companies are facing. However, there are certain weaknesses such as the discussion about how the industrial changes have affected the Japanese community such as employment or income distribution.

In terms of the credibility of the article, it provides relevant sources of data such as the official statistics relatable to the economy, trade, and the automotive industry in Japan. The essay covers significant subjects on the evolution of Japan's manufacturing industries within the framework of globalization and industrial evolution, making it credible and relevant. It discusses how various sectors have reacted to major externalities such as the Fourth Industrial Revolution and economic downturns. Because of this, the article is relevant to understanding the potential and problems that internationalization and globalization bring to Japan's manufacturing industry.

Reference:-

Jae-Hoon, K.I.M. and Dae-Hee, C.H.O., 2021. The Transformation and Evolution of Japan's Manufacturing Industries: A Case Study about Toyota and Toshiba after the Global Financial Crisis. Drishtikon: A Management Journal, 12(2), pp. 77-89.

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Kajinthan Sampathkumar        Student ID - 30102698              Article - 04

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Kajinthan Sampathkumar        Student ID - 30102698              Article - 04

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Levitt, T. (1983). The Globalization of Markets. [online] Harvard Business Review. Available at: https://hbr.org/1983/05/the-globalization-of-markets.

In this review they told about process by which companies and consumers in various parts of the world become more integrated and interconnected is known as the "globalisation of markets" phenomenon. It entails the removal of obstacles and the globalisation of investment, trade, and cross-cultural interaction. Since new markets must be found and old ones become saturated, many companies have lost faith in sales in the global marketplace. How can they alter their products to meet the needs of untapped markets? Which products will buyers desire? Many organisations believe the game isn't worth the effort because of the cunning international competitors who are breathing down their necks.Technology is the driving force behind the world's convergence towards commonality. Travel, transportation, and communication have all become more accessible. It has made remote locations and underprivileged populations eager to succumb to the lures of modernity. Nearly everyone on the planet desires everything they have learned, witnessed, or encountered thanks to modern technologies. Which strategy is better is not a matter of opinion but of necessity. Worldwide communications carry everywhere the constant drumbeat of modern possibilities to lighten and enhance work, raise living standards, divert, and entertain. The same countries that ask the world to recognize and respect the individuality of their cultures insist on the wholesale transfer to them of modern goods, services, and technologies. Modernity is not just a wish but also a widespread practice among those who cling, with unyielding passion or religious fervor, to ancient attitudes and heritages. In summary, the globalization of markets represents a trend where the world's markets and consumers are becoming more similar and interconnected, enabling companies to pursue global strategies and enjoy the benefits of standardization and economies of scale. However, successful globalization requires companies to strike a balance between offering standardized products and adapting to local conditions and cultural differences.

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Many companies have become disillusioned with sales in the international marketplace as old markets become saturated and new ones must be found. How can they customize products for the demands of new markets? Which items will consumers want? With wily international competitors breathing down their necks, many organizations think that the game just isn't worth [...]

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Many companies have become disillusioned with sales in the international marketplace as old markets become saturated and new ones must be found. How can they customize products for the demands of new markets? Which items will consumers want? With wily international competitors breathing down their necks, many organizations think that the game just isn't worth [...]

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A Case Study of Toyota's Globalization Strategy while Entering the Chinese Market

https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/asshm-13/10727

According to Gao, G (2013), the case study of Toyota's globalization strategy during its entry into the Chinese market provides an engaging look at the entry of one of the top automakers in the world into one of the biggest and most vibrant marketplaces in the planet. Toyota, a well-known Japanese carmaker with a reputation for excellence and innovation around the world, realized the Chinese market had enormous potential due to the country's expanding middle class and rising automobile demand (Brennan and Vecchi, 2021).

There are certain strengths aligned with the article. A wide range of readers can easily understand the paper because it is written understandably and clearly. Particular instances of Toyota's joint ventures, geographic approaches, and product line-up in China are provided in the article. Additionally, it offers information that extends the analysis, like market share and production capacity. The essay provides an insightful analysis of Toyota's strategy for international growth, especially when considering the Chinese market.

Although the essay talks about Toyota's tactics in China, it doesn't specifically examine how these tactics relate to the idea of globalization as a whole. A more thorough examination of the difficulties and dangers Toyota experienced in the global setting, particularly about the internationalization of the car industry, would be beneficial.

There is effective credibility in the article because well-research content is provided about Toyota's plans in the Chinese vehicle industry. It clarifies how Toyota's activities in China are consistent with its larger internationalization goals, making it extremely pertinent to the topic of globalization. Its usefulness is increased by its accuracy, which is supported by particular cases and statistics and provides insights into how multinational firms handle foreign markets.

Reference:-

Gao, G., 2013. A Case Study of Toyota's Globalization Strategy while Entering Chinese Market. In 2013 International Conference on Advances in Social Science, Humanities, and Management (ASSHM-13), 8(3), pp. 1-10.

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Newcomers from the periphery: The international expansion of polish automotive companies

https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/14/9/2617

According to G, Micek et al., (2021), the article has highlighted the international expansion of the Polish automotive industry. The current research article demonstratesresilience and regional economic development that generated curiosity about the reasons behind some regions' success in the face of globalization and others' struggles. This essay investigates the idea of "evolutionary resilience" as a tool for examining business behaviour, especially in the cutthroat automotive sector. In this particular context, it looks into the globalization of Polish-owned car companies, with particular attention to their development strategies and the interaction between company-specific competencies and shifting regional features.

The study provides a thorough understanding of the growth and international expansion of Polish-owned automakers by combining quantitative and qualitative research approaches. The study uses a variety of data sources, such as press releases, company annual reports, Eurostat databases, and stakeholder interviews (Mitrega et al., 2021). The interpretation of interview replies and qualitative data is liableto the opinions and potential biases of the researchers, as is the case with any qualitative research.

The thorough research methods used in the study, which combine qualitative views from industry stakeholders with quantitative data from reliable sources like Eurostat, provide acceptability to the work. It is pertinent because it tackles the little-studied subject of recent multinational corporations in a fast-paced sector. The study's extensive longitudinal design and variety of data sources lend credence to its validity and correctness. The research is an important contribution to the area because it aims to lean on the mechanisms and variables influencing the development and international expansion of Polish-owned automotive companies.

Reference:-

Micek, G., Guzik, R., Gwosdz, K. and Domański, B., 2021. Newcomers from the periphery: the international expansion of Polish automotive companies. Energies, 14(9), pp. 26-37.

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The role of multinational company strategies in structuring global supply chains in the automotive industry

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tommaso-Pardi-2/publication/335927594_The_role_of_multinational_company_strategies_in_structuring_global_supply_chains_in_the_automotive_industry/links/5d847c9a92851ceb791b1860/The-role-of-multinational-company-strategies-in-structuring-global-supply-chains-in-the-automotive-industry.pdf

The research article is about the role and responsibility of the internationalization strategies of global automobile manufacturers within the governance of the supply chain. The author, T. Pardi (2019) stated that there is an increased proportion of international trade over the production of goods and multinational companies are facilitating a globalized production procedure.

The strength of this research paper is it provides detailed data about the internationalization of automotive industries and also practical information such as market share percentages and production numbers. Moreover, it also provides insights related to the role of emerging markets in reshaping the automotive industry which is valuable information (Anand et al., 2021). However, the research paper includes more technical information which makes it challenging for some of the readers to understand the technical terms associated with the automotive industry.

The article relies on quantitative data. Its discussion of the impact of emerging markets and the dramatic change in the global automotive industry is relevant given the present dynamics of the sector. Its convincing argument depends on the data's accuracy and correctness. The goal of the text is to analyze how the global automobile industry is changing and the techniques used by multinational corporations. It accomplishes this goal by providing well-supported observations and comparisons.

Reference:-

Pardi, T., 2019. The role of multinational company strategies in structuring global supply chains in the automotive industry. ILO Research Department Working Paper, 44(3), pp. 12-24.