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Sophisticated pedagogical practice included innovative pedagogy that was research-based, focused on student-centered learning, critical thinking, and diversity (Bhuttah et al., 2024). Moreover, as mentioned above, sophisticated pedagogy typically encourages the use of technology in the classroom, and in all three, we highlighted pedagogical practices that were research-based and increased student engagement and achievement.

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Brief explanation & relevant teaching practices

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Constructivism is characterized as a learning theory which captures students' engagement in the knowledge construction process that is more than a passive collection of information. Establishing that knowledge is formed through experience, reflection, and social interaction. The constructivist perspective has driven educational reform supporting student-centered learning where students engage in real dialogue, collaborative group work, and problem-based learning that reinforce independence and critical thought (Weimer, 2013). Inquiry-based learning, a related approach to constructivist models encourages students to ask questions, research topics, and solve problems through engagement rather than memorization. Bruner (1961) provided a definition of discovery learning, which strengthens advocates of the belief students understand concepts best when they are engaged. These instructional methods are important preparation for students in an "authentic" situation by developing adaptability, learning deeper understandings.

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Pragmatism developed as an answer to the Industrial Revolution's strict, rote-learning styles focused on memorization and passive learning. Dewey's Progressive Education Movement (late 19th to early 20th century) rejected this approach in favor of learning by doing. This shift led to discussion-oriented and experiential learning approaches being integrated into education as explicit practice that upheld constructivist principles. Constructivist classrooms today are a manifestation of Dewey's vision, as students engage in experiential, collaborative learning instead of simply soaking up lecture or textbook learning (Dewey, 1916).

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Current research continues to validate constructivist approaches to teaching and learning. Bruner’s research on discovery learning (1961) showed that students better recalled material when they provided their own, or actively sought, understanding as opposed to knowledge they had passively accepted through instruction. Weimer (2013) found that student-centered learning promoted critical thought, engagement, and transfer of learning for longer periods. Research that supports inquiry based learning continues to advance constructivism for the benefit of students by demonstrating they acquire problem-solving skills and greater levels of creativity when they are allowed to investigate issues without restraint. As education evolves, constructivist approaches will continue to lead the charge to make sure students acquire the skills and habits to learn for themselves and adapt to a rapidly changing world.

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Behaviourism is a learning theory that emphasises observable behaviours and the influence of external stimuli on learning. It claims that all learning happens through contact with the environment, with reinforcement and punishment determining behavioural outcomes (Skinner, 1953). Though modern pedagogy has shifted towards cognitive and social learning theories, behaviourist concepts remain relevant in reward-based learning, positive reinforcement, and structured teaching approaches. In education, behaviourist teaching approaches are largely concerned with explicit learning, in which knowledge is conveyed directly from instructor to student via planned lessons, exercises, and reinforcement mechanisms. Cognitive Load Theory is consistent with behaviourism in that it emphasises decreasing needless cognitive strain by breaking learning down into smaller, more manageable steps. This systematic method guarantees that pupils effectively receive and remember new material. Furthermore, behaviourism differs from discovery learning in that it promotes directed teaching over open-ended investigation, and it reinforces learning via repetition and reinforcement rather than self-guided inquiry (Skinner, 1953). This method is especially useful for core skill development, as repetition and reinforcement lead to mastery of fundamental concepts.

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The Industrial Revolution (18th-19th centuries) had a huge impact on the emergence of behaviourist education because it emphasised efficiency, standardisation, and control in learning environments. As factory-based economies expanded, educational systems developed organised, disciplined approaches modelled after industrial job situations (Tyack & Cuban, 1995). To prepare pupils for the workforce, schools used tight timetables, repetitious exercises, and behaviour management tactics. While this system promotes universal education and workforce preparedness, others argue that it stifles creativity, critical thinking, and customised learning. This systematic form of instruction was consistent with behaviourist ideas, reinforcing habits and behaviours via repetition and reinforcement. Later, behaviourism gained popularity with the work of B.F. Skinner, who created operant conditioning, a framework in which behaviours are modified by consequences (Skinner, 1953). His study on reinforcement schedules had a direct impact on classroom management tactics, instructional design, and training programs that emphasised repetition and reward-based learning.

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Behaviourist approaches have consistently been corroborated across multiple contexts and areas of research on learning. Skinner’s (1953) studies on operant conditioning showed that quick reinforcement results in more retention of what students learned, which in turn sparked the widespread use of reward programs in schools. Thorndike’s (1911) law of effect supports the notion that behaviours followed by a desirable outcome will repeat, which holds implications for systematic learning settings. Contemporary research on applied behaviour analysis (ABA) continues to use behaviourist principles within special education and behaviour management. While other theories of learning can be brought into modern education, behaviourist approaches remain relevant in systematic and structured skill development, behavioural interventions, and training programs that focus on precise and measurable objectives.

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The concept of Critical Pedagogy supports a learning theory which views education as a means to confront social injustice, empower marginalised communities, and promote critical consciousness. This approach to teaching is a challenge to the typical pedagogies employed in traditional education contexts and it views students as active learners, provoking critical thinking and inquiry about injustices in an effort to motivate individuals to act to change them. Furthermore, Critical Pedagogy argues students should not be passive recipients of information, but instead, should play agency in acting to challenge and redefine society. Critical Pedagogy encourages a student-centered learning approach in that it promotes student participation through discussion, engages them to reflect on their lived experiences, and gives them the opportunity to critically analyze the power systems which govern their society. Inquiry-based learning is another important approach in this paradigm of teaching since it promotes inquiry, discussion, and real world problem solving instead of rote memorisation of facts and information. Critical Pedagogy does this in comparison to more traditional models of explicit teaching by placing emphasis on discussion and reflection which allows students to think critically scheme encapsulating issues of injustice, oppression and democracy (Freire, 1970).

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The Socratic Method, which began in Ancient Greece (5th century BCE) with Socrates using questioning to challenge beliefs to help students to learn or advance their thinking, is not as directly relevant as Critical Pedagogy, which was most directly influenced by Freire's (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed that opposed a "banking model" of education in which professors just deposited knowledge into students without allowing for critical thinking. Rather than a banking model to use with students, Freire proposed a dialogic model of education as a dialogue between the teacher and students to create new knowledge together and address oppression. Freire's ideas influenced social justice education to the present and activist-type teaching.

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The impact of Critical Pedagogy on contemporary education is being substantiated through research. Freire (1970) established a framework for culturally relevant pedagogy through his work that demonstrated that students develop more advanced critical thinking and civic engagement skills when they interrogate their own contexts. Giroux (1988) built upon Freire's ideas and suggested that an education system should allow students to challenge dominant ideological positions, creating a curriculum that looks at alternative perspectives and examines issues of social justice. More recently, research has suggested inquiry-based learning promotes critical thinking and students who engage in open-ended inquiry-based discussions and questioning demonstrate more complex levels of analytical reasoning and problem solving (Hooks, 1994). Critical Pedagogy is often met with backlash in standardized schooling contexts, but the principles of Critical Pedagogy are nonetheless important for inquiries into independent thinking, equity, and social change.

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Connectivism is a new learning theory that stresses the value of "networks" - digital technologies and social relationships that help with the knowledge process. Connectivism differs from prior learning theories that dealt with learning as an individual's cognition process and states that learning occurs through the connections of diverse people and objects. There are similarities with Student-Centered Learning, because learning is defined as students actively looking for and processing information from various digital and social sources rather than being given the information directly. Inquiry-Based Learning is important in Connectivism, where students explore relevant real-world problems interacting with their classmate associates and digital objects in developing knowledge (Siemens, 2005)

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The Internet and digital technologies appeared in the late twentieth and early twenty-first century and therefore had a significant influence on Connectivism. The educational shift that took place from classroom-based learning to online courses, social networking, and digital collaboration created a new meaning for how human beings retrieve and receive knowledge. The Information Age transformed education by making knowledge more readily available and decentralised, and thus challenging traditional teacher-student hierarchies. George Siemens (2005), a pivotal figure of Connectivism, argued that learning is no longer an isolated and individual internal process but rather is a networked process, in which technology must be seen as an extension of human cognition. The emergence of open-access education, online courses, and digital collaboration platforms align with Connectivist principles and demonstrate how students explore vast networks of knowledge beyond just classroom environment textbooks, and teachers.

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The efficacy of Connectivist learning approaches in digital education is a topic of ongoing inquiry and research. Specifically, Korsgaard Sorensen (2007) argued that digital connections facilitate the collaborative construction of knowledge and independent learning. Additionally, research of online pedagogies highlights that learners who are engaged in the process of network learning, which includes online dialogue, shared digital resources, and peer collaboration, demonstrate enhanced problem solving and adaptability (Kop & Hill, 2008). Inquiry-Based Learning research supports the Connectivism framework by showing that when students take an active role in the learning process through investigating knowledge from multiple sources, they engage with and learn in the process of acquiring vital digital literacy skills. As digital learning grows, Connectivism provides a way to facilitate cost on-going development of student's skill aligned with an ever-changing knowledge environment where ongoing learning and future readiness is vital.

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The Montessori Philosophy is a child-centered educational method that emphasises freedom, hands-on learning, and a structured setting that fosters natural curiosity. Based on Student-Centered Learning, the Montessori approach encourages children to explore subjects at their own speed rather than following a regimented, teacher-led curriculum. It is also consistent with Inquiry-Based Learning, since students interact with carefully created resources that promote discovery and problem solving rather than passive knowledge absorption. Unlike traditional explicit instruction, Montessori education encourages self-directed learning, with the instructor serving as a guide rather than a lecturer, developing intrinsic motivation and cognitive growth via hands-on experiences (Montessori & Holmes, 1912).

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The Montessori Philosophy originated in the Progressive Education Movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, which emphasised experiential learning and individualised teaching. Dr. Maria Montessori created this method in the early 1900s while working with children in impoverished neighbourhoods in Italy. Influenced by scientific advances in child psychology, she abandoned traditional rote memorisation methods in favour of self-paced, exploratory learning. Her approach echoed the concepts of John Dewey, who pushed for active, experience-based education. Montessori's emphasis on sensory-based, hands-on learning was groundbreaking at the time, challenging the industrial-era paradigm of standardised education and laying the framework for contemporary alternative educational alternatives (Montessori, 1912).

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Montessori education's efficacy is still being validated via research. Denervaud et al. (2019) discovered that Montessori kids frequently outperform their traditional school counterparts in terms of creativity, problem-solving skills, and academic achievement. Research has also found that Inquiry-Based Learning, a crucial component of the Montessori approach, improves critical thinking and intrinsic motivation, supporting Montessori's original beliefs (Murray et al., 2021). Furthermore, Cognitive Load Theory complements the Montessori approach by arguing that removing needless instructional limitations helps students to better absorb difficult concepts (Sweller, 1988). As Montessori education spreads across the world, its influence on developing independence, curiosity, and profound learning is well recognised.

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