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The Inca social structure was highly organized and based on a clear hierarchy. At the top was the Sapa Inca who was believed to be a descendent of the sun god. He had the most power and was rich with treasures and food. Below him were the nobles, including royal family members, priests, and military leaders, who helped govern the empire. Skilled administrators and officials managed daily affairs, kept records, and organized labor. Most people were commoners who worked as farmers, herders, and craftsmen, supporting the empire through a labor tax system called mit’a. At the bottom were servants and some conquered people who performed labor for the state. Each group had specific duties that helped keep the large and complex empire running smoothly.

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The Incas created one of the largest and most advanced road systems in the ancient world, stretching over 24,000 miles across the Andes Mountains. These roads connected the capital city of Cusco with faraway regions of the empire, allowing for easier travel, communication, and the movement of troops. The roads were built with great skill, often using stone paving and featuring stairways, tunnels, and bridges to cross rivers and steep cliffs. Even though the Incas didn’t use wheeled vehicles or horses, the road system was incredibly effective and helped the government keep control over the large and diverse empire. These roads are still admired today for their engineering and durability.

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How did the Aztecs/Incas hold their expansive empires together before the Spanish conquest?

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How did the Aztecs/Incas hold their expansive empires together before the Spanish conquest?

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By constructing strong governments and using military might to govern people, the Aztecs and Incas maintained their empires intact. By forcing people to pay tributes or taxes that helped them get food, gold, and other goods. Both empires constructed high-quality highways for rapid communication of products, troops, and information. The Incas also had chasquis, messengers who traveled great distances to deliver messages. They also forced the people they overcame to adhere their religion and rules, so maintaining power.

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What were the weaknesses of each empire prior to Spanish conquest?

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What were the weaknesses of each empire prior to Spanish conquest?

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One flaw of the Aztecs was that several of the people they controlled despised them and wanted to rebel. By requiring excessive tribute and carrying out human rites, the Aztecs also irritated people who were frightened and revolted. The Incas found it difficult to manage everyone when their empire grew too big. Right before the Spanish arrived, they also experienced a civil conflict that further weakened them. Given their lack of strong arms like guns or cavalry, neither empire was prepared for the Spanish.

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How were the Aztecs and Incas similar and different in how they expanded and conquered?

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How were the Aztecs and Incas similar and different in how they expanded and conquered?

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Both the Aztecs and Incas were similar in that they employed powerful military forces to take over others and expand their domains. Their conquered subjects were also made to pay tribute or taxes. While the Incas tried to be calmer and provide assistance such food and shelter, the Aztecs used violence, fear, and human sacrifices to keep people under control. The Incas also practiced diplomacy and let regional leaders remain in charge provided they were under the emperor. Although both were strong, they had different ways of expanding their empires

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The Incas governed an empire with over 10 million people, with groups of people that spoke over 30 different languages. The empire revolved around the emperor, who was chosen through rigorous challenges and spiritual rituals. The centralized government had a vast network, which relied heavily on ritual exchange, law enforcement and military might. With the arrival of the first-great Inca leader Pachacuti, "Reverser of the World", the Incas began to expand by gathering resources, building an empire stretching across the Andres Mountains. The empire of the Incas imposed their religion over the conquered people, along with redistributing the food, building roads, and assisting in the military.

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At the the top of the Incan pyramid was the King and his high priest, who were joined with ten groups of noble called panaqa. These nobles could advise the king on policies as well as influence the king on choosing his successor. Below the panaqa were ten more groups that were distantly related to the king, that were divided into two halves: the Upper and Lower Cuzco. Then came the third group of nobles that were not Incan by blood, but became by privilege. This structure of nobility insured that the Incan government was close knit, but was also built by different families, which could result in open warfare.

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The Inca Empire used a unique form of taxation that didn’t rely on money. Instead, they required citizens to pay taxes through labor in a system called mit’a. Under this system, individuals worked for the government on projects like building roads, farming state lands, or serving in the military. In exchange for their labor, the government provided essentials such as food, clothing, and shelter. This helped the empire stay organized and meet the needs of its people. Local officials kept track of each person’s work using a record-keeping system called quipus, which used knotted strings. The mit’a system allowed the Incas to run a strong government without needing a currency-based economy. It was an effective way to support the empire’s infrastructure and expansion.

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The Aztec Empire originally was made of a large number of tribes, which was a democracy, until they merged to form an imperial monarchy. The leader of the Aztecs was the emperor, or the Tlatoani, and the high ranking officials called Tecuhtli, which included generals, chiefs, judges. Each district of the Tenochtitlan had its own chief called the Capullec, who was elected for life and chosen by the emperor. The church was an equally important part of the government, with high up priests holding the title of Tlenamacac, where the emperor commonly went to them for guidance.

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The Incas efficiently managed their labor, with everybody contributing. Collective labor was the base for economic productivity. All the labor was divided according to regions, with agriculture in the most productive regions and other skills (ceramic production, road building, textiles, ect.) being assigned accordingly. The government system collected all the excess supplies not needed by the people, and in return they got free food, clothing, health care, and education. They didn't use any money since it wasn't necessary. Their economy was so efficient since their needs were all met, they used a bartering system.

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The Ayllu was the most successful centrally planned economy, and was the center of the Inca's economic success. It was composed of families that live near each other in the same settlements. The Ayllus provided social cohesion, as people from one Ayllu would marry another from a different Ayllu. Each Ayllu produces different products depending on location. If your Ayllu was next to fertile land, then you would be assigned to agriculture, and other Ayllus would export different things (pottery, clothing, jewelry, ect.) The government would come take the output and spread them to every Ayllu, and as a result everyone had everything they needed to survive. These Ayllus produced basically everything needed that would later be distributed to other Ayllus. This system made the people loyal to the government.

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The use of land was a right only of the individuals in the Ayllu. The Curaca were representatives of the Ayllu who divided up the land to people depending on the size of their families. The size of the land was measured in tupus. (the local measurement unit) For example, A married couple would get one and a half tupus, for each male child the couple received one tupu and for each female half a tupu. When the son or daughter started their own family each additional tupu was taken away and given to the new family. These families would not own this land, just working on it, the Inca estate would own it instead. This land would provide for their family.

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The Aztecs had a form of money, and in fact had a few different types of money. Cacao beans are one of them, for example a small rabbit might be thirty cacao beans. One's own child is around 600 cacao beans if that puts it into perspective. Another form of money is the quachtli (KWAH-ch-tee); a type of cloth that the Aztecs really treasured. The quachtli was valued more than the cacao beans. These forms of money were used in the Tenochtitlan (teh-NOHCH-tee-TLAH-n) but the one called Tlatelco (Tlah-teh-LOLE-coh) (which is the main marketplace for the Aztec people) was where almost everyone went because of the large selection.

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Most of the Incas' beliefs involved the supernatural. The inca religious life involved the idea that objects and places were attached to supernatural powers. The supernatural features were called Huacas. No one knows for sure whether the objects and places where spirits themselves or if it was just the locations. Most Hucass were local features of an agreement significant to only the residents. When they weren't near Huaca they had amulets that they believed held supernatural powers.

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In the emipre of the Inca, the ceque system was a complex network of invisible lines radiating outward from the Coricancha meaning “golden enclosure”,the most sacred temple in the Inca religion, located at the heart of Cuzco. These lines extended toward the horizon, possibly even beyond it, forming a divine geographical framework. Along these ceques were 385 huacas, which were spiritual sites that included natural features like springs and stones, as well as man-made structures such as palaces, temples, caves, and tombs. The ceque system served two main purposes: it organized the geography surrounding Cuzco and arranged the huacas in alignment with the calendar, connecting them to specific days of the year. Deeply rooted in Inca religion, this system reflected their belief in the sacred nature of the landscape and their desire to align human activity with cosmic and spiritual cycles.

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In the empire of the Inca there was three main gods that they believed in. The first god was called Viracocha or the creator. It was believed that he made the people and animals out of clay and painted their clothes in different colors. Then gave them distinct cultures and sent them off into the world. The second god was named Inti, the sun who was the son of the Creator. He was the god of agriculture, he was represented as a golden disk and rays with a human face. The final god was known as Illapa, the weather or thunder god. He was the second most powerful and was associated with rain. He was displayed as a man in the sky wearing vibrant clothing holding a war cup in one hand and a sling in the other.

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The Aztec religion was polytheistic which refers to a religious belief system that includes multiple gods each with distinct powers, roles, and domains. For example Huitzilopochtli who was the god of war and the sun and Tlaloc who was the god of Rain and Fertility. The Aztecs believed that their gods required nourishment in the form of blood offerings to sustain the world, which led to human sacrifice being a central part of their religious practices. Those sacrificed were often seen as honored figures who helped maintain global order.

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During the time of the Inca Empire, geography consisted of mountains, forests, and deserts. The Andes mountains ran through the empire, making travel difficult but offering good land for farming with terraces. In addition, these mountains providing security and protection against foreign tribes. The Pacific coast was dry, so the Incas built irrigation systems to grow crops. To the east, the Amazon Rainforest had useful plants and animals for trade. There were also high plains, like the area around Lake Titicaca, which was important for religion and culture. Despite the tough landscape, the Incas built roads and farms to connect and support their empire. One of their main road systems was called the Qhapaq Ñan, which helped with communication, trade, and the movement of the military.

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With the challenges of the Andes Mountains, travel was difficult for many. With deep gorges and fast-flowing rivers cutting through the landscape, the Incas had to come up with a certain solution to make travel easier for all. That is where the invention of the Suspension Bridges come to play. This process of creating this bridge starts with collection of strands of long grass, which are twisted together to form thin ropes. Each side of the bridge is anchored securely to rocks or wooden posts. Local communities work together to build and maintain the bridges, often replacing them every year to keep them safe and strong. These types of bridges have been around for more than 500 years and continue to strive to this day. Ultimately, the Incas worked together to solve an issue in their geographical region and laid a base foundation for modern day bridges.

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The Inca Empire made the most of the natural resources found in their diverse geography. From the mountains to the forests, these resources provided food, building materials, and tools that helped their civilization grow strong and connected. The valleys and mountains allowed farming and the growth of crops like potatoes, maize, and quinoa. In addition, the many rivers and melted snow from the mountains provided fresh water for drinking, farming, and irrigation. Animals like llamas and alpacas were native to the Andes mountains so they were used for carrying goods, making clothes, and even providing meat. Lastly, gold and silver were found all over the mountains, and were used by the Incas to create beautiful art, jewelry, and religious items.

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The Aztec civilization grew in the Valley of Mexico, located between tall mountains and surrounded by lakes that offered fish, water birds, fresh water, and reeds for building and weaving. They had one of their biggest lakes, called Lake Texcoco, where they built their capital city, Tenochtitlán, on an island. Land around the lakes was very fertile which allowed for the growth of many crops and plants. If they needed to farm near swampy areas, the Aztecs built chinampas, or floating gardens, and used canals for transportation. The mountains like many others were great barriers from invaders however they made it harder for people to travel across.

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In Inca society, women had important roles, but their opportunities depended mainly on their social class. Common women worked alongside men and their husbands in farming, weaving, and taking care of the home and family. Some noble women had more power and could own land or manage estates. There were also special groups of women called the "Chosen Women" who were selected for their beauty, skills, noble background, or even special talents. They lived in special houses, learned religion, weaving, and cooking, and sometimes became priestesses, servants to the nobles, or wives of important men. Overall, women’s work was essential to daily life, and some had the chance to rise to important positions.

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Something the Incas did that other civilizations didn't do was the Ayllu. The Ayllu was the basic unit of society in the Inca Empire. It was like a large family group or community made up of people who were related by blood or by shared work. Members of an ayllu lived and farmed together, shared their resources, and helped each other when needed. Each ayllu had a leader who organized farming, collected taxes (in the form of labor or goods), and made sure everyone contributed to the community. The ayllu system helped the Inca Empire stay organized and made sure that even in such a large empire, local communities stayed strong and supported one another.

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The Aztec social structure was organized as a pyramid with the emperor, or Huey Tlatoani, at the very top. He ruled over the empire and made important political and religious decisions. Below him were the nobles, called pipiltin, who served as government leaders, priests, military commanders, and judges. Most people were commoners, known as macehualtin, who worked as farmers, builders, artisans, and traders. Beneath them were serfs and slaves, who worked on the land or served households but could sometimes earn their freedom. People lived and worked within groups called calpulli, which were like local communities or clans that helped organize daily life. While society was mostly strict, talented warriors from the common class could rise in status by achieving military success.

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To send messages quickly across their vast territory, the Incas used a system of runners known as chasquis. These messengers would run long distances, passing messages and small items from one station to the next. Along the Inca roads, there were special relay stations where a fresh runner would be waiting to continue the journey. This system allowed information to travel faster than one person could run the whole way. Since the Incas didn’t have a written language, chasquis often carried quipus, which were sets of knotted strings used to record numbers and important details. This method helped the Inca leaders stay informed and make decisions quickly, even across great distances.

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The Incas were expert farmers who found smart ways to grow food in the challenging landscape of the Andes Mountains. One of their greatest farming innovations was terrace farming, where they carved flat steps into steep hillsides to create more land for crops. These terraces helped keep the soil from washing away in the rain and allowed water to be used more efficiently. The Incas also built irrigation systems to bring water to dry areas. Thanks to these techniques, they were able to grow important crops like potatoes, corn, and quinoa. Their success in farming supported millions of people and helped the empire stay strong and stable for many years.

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The Aztecs built their capital city, Tenochtitlán, on a lake and used an impressive system of artificial islands called chinampas to grow food. These “floating gardens” were created by piling layers of mud, vegetation, and sticks on rafts anchored to the lakebed, forming fertile plots of land. Chinampas allowed the Aztecs to grow crops like corn, beans, squash, and tomatoes in large quantities, helping support a growing population. This farming technique was both efficient and environmentally sustainable, showing the Aztecs' deep understanding of agriculture. The layout of Tenochtitlán also included canals, bridges, and massive temples, making it one of the most advanced cities of its time.

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