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August 17, 1946: In Calcutta violent fighting broke out between Muslims and Hindus.

Quickly the trouble spread across India.

The cash-strapped Britain announced to withdraw from India by June 1948.

As Independence approached, sectarian violence flared again.

June 1947: Representatives of Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs agreed to divide India along sectarian lines.

Muslim areas predominantly became the nation of Pakistan.

Hindus and Sikhs areas remained part of India.

This division of territories is called the Partition.

Up to 2 million refugees trying to cross the border were killed by sectarian violence.

August 14, 1947: Pakistan became Independent.

The next day India followed.

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The INC and Gandhi demanded immediate independence in return for their cooperation because they did not trust the British envoy.

The INC launched the “Quit India“ movement when the talk broke down. They called for the immediate withdrawal of Britain from India.

The British arrested Gandhi, his wife and the INCs leadership in response.

Across the country mass Demonstrations were carried out.

The Demonstrations were crushed by the British Army.

Early 1946: The soldiers who had joined Germany and Japan in fighting the British were put on trail at Delhi’s Red Fort.

For 45 prisoners charged with murder, treason and torture a series of court-material trails were held.

The men were convicted, but the commutation of their sentences were forced by huge public protests.

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Britain sent an envoy led by Stafford Cripps the British Labour political to India.

In return for help recruiting more soldiers they offered future dominion status.

Cripps may have made a secret agreement with the Muslim League, allowing them to opt out of a future Indian state.

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Gandhi and other members of the INC (Indian National Congress) even demonstrated against British rule as world war two raged on.

For the establishment of provincial legislatures across the colony the 1935 Government of India Act was provided.

The Act granted the right to vote to about 10% of Indians male population.

It also created a federal government for the princely states and provinces.

These moves toward limited self-governance only made India more impatient for true
self-rule.

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Once again India contributed hugely to the British war effort when world war two broke out.

The princely states donated substantial amounts of cash in addition to the troops.

About 87000 Indian soldiers died in combat.

By this time the Indian independence movement was very strong and British rule was widely resented.

Indian fought in North Africa, Burma, Italy and elsewhere

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- Britain declared on Indian’s behalf war on Germany, without consulting Indian leaders.

- The political newcomer and Indian lawyer Mohandas Gandhi led the Indians in their struggle

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At a festival in Amritsar the local authorities banned all public meetings and still people gathered together and were making protest speeches on the festival.

The Army commanded by a men called General Dyer killed an 357 unarmed and peaceful crowed of people.

The massacre not just shocked all India it also shocked the people back in Britain.

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1947-1948: The princely ruler of Kashmir cannot decide whether to join India or Pakistan. After the invasion of his state by Pakistani partisans he joins India in spite of the Muslim majority of the population. The first Indo-Pakistani war over Kashmir results in divide of  Kashmir into an Indian and a Pakistani part. Murder of Mahatma Gandhi by a Hindu fanatic.

1950: Indian constitution signed: India becomes a democratic federal republic, but remains within the Commonwealth (loose bound of predominant states) of Nations.

1962-1966: Indo-Chinese war due to continued Chinese occupation of pans (parts?) of Kashmir. - Indian troops are defeated. Official Language Act: English remains the second official language of India, (Hindi being the first). This is a compromise reached after 'language riots' about me status of Hindi: in Southern Indian states many people protested violently against the planned introduction of Hindi as the only national language. Jawaharlal Nehru dies. Second Indo-Pakistani war over Kashmir.Indira Gandhi, daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, becomes Prime Minister.

1971-1977: Third lndo-Pakistani war; with Indias military support, East Pakistan becomes independent as Bangladesh. First Indian nuclear test explosion. lndira Gandhi orders a State of Emergency, suspending many civilians.-  response to growing political unrest across India due to economic problems - accusations that Indira Gandhi had been misusing her power. lndira Gandhi loses general elections- for the first time, the Congress Party finds itself in opposition.

1980-1984: lndira Gandhi, after having won general elections, becomes Prime Minister again. Indira Gandhi is murdered by two of her Sikh bodyguards (belong to a group of Sikh fanatics fighting for an independent state for all Sikhs) ('Khalistan'). Her son Rajiv Gandhi becomes leader of the Congress Party and Prime Minister.

1991-1999: Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi by members of the terrorist organization 'Tamil Tigers'.

The Hindu nationalist party BJP, responsible for the destruction of the Muslim shrine 'Babri Masjid' in Ayodhya 1992 - severe riots between Hindus and Muslims - edges its way into office: the BJP leader A.B. Vajpayee becomes Prime Minister. India and Pakistan initiate a series of nuclear test explosions; both countries declare themselves nuclear powers. Fourth Indo-Pakistani war over Kashmir

2004: The Congress Party, now led by Sonia Gandhi (Rajiv Gandhi's widow) wins general elections and forms the new government. Manmohan Singh, a Sikh by faith, becomes new Prime Minister.

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1885: The Indian National Congress is founded- in the beginning the organization is not opposed to British rule but demands Indian autonomy (as a 'Dominion') within the British Commonwealth.

1918: After First World War,  political demands become much more radical - constant opposition from the British government towards any kind of Indian autonomy. Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru form freedom movement, strictly based on a policy of non-violence.

1947: After Second Wold War, the new British labour Government grants independence to India, but at the same time paves the way for an independent Muslim homeland in those regions where Muslims form the majority of the population.- On 15 August 1947 two Dominions become independent: secular India and Muslim Pakistan. Splitting causes millions of people to leave their homes - around 15 million become refugees, nearly half a million Indians die in massacres. Jawaharlal Nehru becomes the first Prime Minister of independent India.

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1877
- Queen Victoria was proclaimed empress of all India.
- Many British people have come to run the country and live in India.
- Many protests and uprising were there over the years against the British rule.
- Leaders were sometimes arrested without trial.

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- Transformation of the native peoples, plants, animals and landscapes
->Impact of accumulation of riches and other activities
->New Explorer (touries)
->Seeking a rich colonial history and an imagined paradise

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-> Came upon the islands accidentally (Intended destination was the Orient)
-> Goals of Catholic monarchy of Spain (sponsored the adventure)
-> Expansion of Christianity
-> Accumulation of riches
-> Spices, gold and silver couldn't be found -> Plantagen systhem
-> To grow riches and export to Europe
-> Dependent on forced labor of west Africans
-> Produced Tobacco and sugar (Couldn't be grown back home)
->Weren't local plants, but grew well after its introduction
-> Cleared rainforests in planted sugar cane
->Thrived in the warm an rainy climate

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- some enslaved people rose up against the planters
-> Only in the French colony of St Domingue did they manage to end slavery

- Others ran away from the plantations
-> many were recaptured

-> others managed to form communities of ‘Maroons’ who continued to resist European rule
->

-tended to occupy land far from plantations, in places that were difficult for the colonial forces to reach

-In some places, such as Jamaica, the British were unable to defeat the Maroons and had to reach an agreement with them

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(after Colonisation and Migration)

Mixture of the various races and cultures
>>People and traditions from Europe, Africa, India and Asia
>> British influence (Also extended to the South American landmass in the colony of British Guiana (now Guyana))
> Caribbean culture has spread abroad (most notably to Britain)

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2.2.Timeline: The British India

British Colonization (c. 1860 - 1880):

1600-1700: first Englishman, Thomas Stephens, sails to Indi->  Britain's colonial involvement in India begins - - The British East India Company is founded (grants trade privileges in India)

1701-1800: Treaty (contract) of Paris-> end to Anglo-French wars and French attempts at supremacy (showing who is most powerful) in India. India placed under direct British rule by East India Company. ->Gradually, all the Mughal ['mug~l] states (i.e. states governed by Muslim leaders) become British protectorates (a state that is controlled and protected by another).

1801-1900: Thomas Macaulay writes his famous Minute on Indian Education -> he demands that English becomes only language of higher education (suggestions are accepted by the British colonial government) The Indian civil service is established, all universities and many secondary schools for middleclass Indian families become English-medium institutions. The Great Uprising: a year-long insurrection (violent uprising against government) against the British, showing the growing Indian anger against British social and political policies. The British troops dominate. India is put under British power. Queen Victoria becomes 'Empress of India', and a 'Viceroy' (second ruler) acts as the British force in India

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2.1. Introduction: Colonisation of India year by year

- late 15th Century - - Portugal arrived in India, beginning a new era of interaction between Europeans and Indians.

-For next century, the Portuguese presence would go entirely unchallenged - allowing them to create a vast trade monopoly spanning the entire subcontinent.

-The arrival of the Danish, Dutch and English in the early 1600s lead to the decline of Portuguese control and ultimately Dutch superiority for the rest of the century.

-The arrival of France in the 1670s lead to a new form of conflict, that over land.  - This would ultimately result in British control by 1800 - - expansion by Britain would only continue through the 19th Century and early 20th Century, sidelining the other powers. —> full control/power over India

-All the British possessions would gain independence  in 1947 and 1948, with France following in 1954 peacefully, and Portugal in 1961 via an Indian military annexation, ending European control in India.

-Today, many former British colonies are still part of the Commonwealth.

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- Spoken by: masters and slaves
- simplified, functional form of English
- mixture between the two or three languages of contact English and Yoruba (the language of the Yoruba ethnic group in West Africa)

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2.Colonialism in India

-Indias territory consists of 3.3 million square kilometers (km2)—> often referredto as “subcontinent”

-population above 1 billion —> will catch up with China (greatest population in the world so far) soon

-Indian civilisation goes back in history -> 3000 to 1700 BC valley civilisation had already developed farming, trading and rich civic life

-400 out of 5000 years under English influence may not seem like a lot - but it could not be exaggerated too much, how much India was influenced by the English.

-400 years divided in 3 periods:

1. British colonization (c. 1600-1880)

2. freedom movement (c. 1880-1947)

3. independent India (since 1947).

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- Spoken by: Masters and their families
-grammatically 'correct'

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- Spoken by: Slave communities and Native speakers in particular places (such as 'Jamaican English Creole')
- two distinct usages
- dialects or types of language
- refer to the descendants of the first white settlers born in the region ('white Creole society')
- development of pidgin for more extensive and intimate use, becoming eventually the dominant language of a community
- generally regarded by the educated as bad English speakers
- development of oral cultural traditions of the black slave society of the Caribbean

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The British imposed rapid culture changes wich made Indians worried that India would be Christianized.

1857

- The Soldiers of the British Indian Army were given new types of rifle cartridge.

- Rumors spread that the cartridges had been greased with cow and pig fat.

May 10, 1857 - The Indian Revolt began

- Bengali Muslim troops were marching to Delhi pledging their support to the Mughal emperor.

June 20, 1858 - The Rebels surrendered after a year-long struggle

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No Indian rulers remains independent because the British took control over more and more of India.

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Notes:

Ethiopia is usually considered to have never been colonized, but following the invasion by Italy in 1935-36 Italian settlers arrived. Emperor Haile Selassie was deposed and went into exile in the UK. - regained his throne on 5 May 1941 when he re-entered Addis Ababa with his troops. Italian resistance was not completely overcome until 27th November 1941.

Guinea-Bissau made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence on Sept. 24, 1973, now considered as Independence Day. However, independence was only recognized by Portugal on 10 September 1974 as a result of the Algiers Accord of Aug. 26, 1974.

Western Sahara was immediately occupied by Morocco, a move contested by Polisario (Popular Front for the Liberation of the Saguia el Hamra and Rio del Oro).

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- in the 1960s African countries started to become more independent
-most countries were mainly invaded by Britain and France

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Most nations in Africa were colonized by European states in the early modern era, including a burst of colonization in the Scramble for Africa (1880 to 1900).This was reversed over the course of the next century by independence movements. Here are the dates of independence for African nations.

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-destruction of human lives --> not talked about enough - slavery, what Belgium is doing in Congo
- newspapers claim, that people in Africa kill each other (are violent) “that’s just how they are” --> nothing can be done about it --> people are agitated against each other
- e.g. Nigeria - certain members of society have been “elevated”, society has been parted - often forgotten about - argument now: many countries have been “independent” since 1960 and have not put things together
- what is independence if there are 2 powers to choose from in an area, if these powers are supporting people against the will of the people - blamed that Africa is not democratic - outside influences support people who don’t allow them to have a voice
- frustrated African people - are told they are not working hard enough even though they want things to change - kept under covers (not reported about)-no understanding (needs to be understood in order to not happen again)- does not have to be that way

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-impact interaction with Europe and others had on Africa and different populations of people in Africa
- extracting everything possible, destroying social fabrics that existed before --> taking and getting everything possible

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About 10 million people died of famine in Bengal.

The Indish were barred at that time from holding high office in their own land.

The Indish were barred at that time from holding high office in their own land.

The Indish were barred at that time from holding high office in their own land.

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Millions of Bengalis were left impoverished because of heavy Company taxation and other policies.

While the Indians starved British traders and soldiers made their fortunes.

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The Company came to rule India in the 19th century.

They were primarily interested in the trade of silk, cotton, opium and tea.

During the Battle of Passey it functioned as the military autorithy in Indias growing sections.

December 31, 1600

The original company comprised a group of London merchants

February 1601

Ships of the companies first voyage sailed from England.

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They fought against the 50000-strong army of Siraj ud Daulah, Nawab of Bengal and his French allies.

They were defeated, because in contrast to the British they didn't cover their canons and it was raining heavy.

The battle pitted 3000 soldiers of the British East India Company.

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Over the next 100 years British traders had made a lot money for the British government and their selfs.

The British wanted more so they went to war and forced the local rulers to cooperate as they refused to let them trade freely in their area.

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- India was divided in dozens of territories each ruled by some king or prince.
- The great Mogo emperor Akbar ruled.

- Magnificent palaces were built.

- They reaped enormes profits from the sale of spice, fine china, silk of course and precious metals.

- Some cloth were exported and became very fashionable in Europe.

- To buy these things european merchants started sailing into Indian ports.

- Soon some permission to set a permanent trading agreement was given the Indian rule.

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- Major empires involved in the Indian ocean trade.

- They traded silk from China and religious thought.

- Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism were spread from India to Southeast Asia.

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The Trade Rouds of the Indian Ocean connected India, Southern Asia and East Africa.

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- Decline of trade with western societies.

- The Harappan endet, resulting from a combination of environmental factors.

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2700 - 1900 BC The Mature Harappan sites

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2700 - 1900 BC The Mature Harappan sites

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- They were located along the Sarasvati and Indus rivers and their tributaries

- Trade with Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Persian gulf.

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Indias written history stretches back almost 4000 years to the civilization centers of the Indus Valley Culture at Harappa and Mohenjo Daro.

The Indus Valley civilization
- one of the oldest known societies.
- They relied along the important rivers Sarasvati and Indus.
- There are 2600 known archaeological sites.
- They are on an area of some 1.6 million square kilometers.
- Ganweriwala: largest known Harappan site.

3500 - 2700 BC The early Harrapan sites
The earliest settlements were located in Pakistan and Baluchistan.

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People have an image in their head about Africa
-> bad continent to live (hell on earth )
-> positive things are so pressed
-> innovative, putting things together
(eg. 19/19 Year old books about how to build a windturbine to bring electricity into his home-> used scrap metal and old bicycle parts-> have desired to live and improve)

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Lack of acknowledgement that certain countries are responsible for the situation in Africa

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In Newspapers of western society there is phenomenon: Africans are labeled as backwards, incompetent, corrupt, and violent

-Now and also in 1800
- Not much variation and not much has changed on how people see African Africans -> Legacy of colonialism (how people and country are spoken about

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English in the Caribbean:  standard and Creole varieties

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English in the Caribbean:  standard and Creole varieties

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-Importance of the Language when approaching postcolonial Caribbean

-> Language can reflect what kind of community s/he is from, what kind of community s/he wants to identify with, even what kind of audience s/he wants to speak to or write for

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-The 1930s and 1940s: asserting a Caribbean identity

->Political unrest and the development of nationalist politics

->Haile Selassie, the Rastafari movement and Marcus Garvey

->Independence and post-independence: the political and cultural background

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- Growing sugarcane

- The rise of slavery
-> harsh and brutal treatment
-> Plantagen systhem created a great need for workers
-> buying enslaved men, women and children (brought from Africa)
-> 5 million enslaved Africans were taken to the Caribbean
-> populations of the Caribbean colonies changed
-> people born in Africa, or their descendants, came to form the majority (part of an inferior ‘race’)
-> excuse the brutality of slavery
-> ‘white’ people at the top, ‘black’ people at the bottom and different ‘mixed’ groups in between

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- End of 15th century  (age of exploration)
-> Sailing fleets to conquer the Caribbean islands (Europeans referred to as the new world
-> Spain (first to rech the area), Portugal, England, France and Denmark

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- Reflects a sophisticated variety of experiences (transnationally)
> Diaspora underpins much Caribbean writing

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- Archipelago (Stretch of islands)
> Between the north eastern coast of South America and the North Atlantic Ocean
> Ranges from Trinidad off the Venezuelan coast to the Bahamas, west of Miami

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- Original inhabitants no longer inhabit the area
> like the Amerindian Arawaks and Caribs
> were wiped out by disease and direct military oppression (Occupied by Europeans in 16th century)

- Traces of Carib culture and language still exist

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- It extends from the Coromandel Coast in the south to the mountains of the Himalayas in the north.

- India has flat plains, cities and towns.

- One billion people live in India.

- Some people are living great comfort because their well of.
- Some of them are very poor and have very little possession.

- In India 18 major Languages are used.

- Indias people follow many different religions.

- Today one central government in the capital New Delhi is elected by all these millions of people.

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There was a split in African society and at the same time the Europeans gained more power 

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They did it in the religious as well as in the political
The converts were asked to pay their taxes, believe in God and be humble and obedient

The aim was to create a Christian, African elite

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Individual groups believed they were doing something good and important for African culture  ("Saving" the Africans)

They thought they were better than the people living there and wanted to "convert" them

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the missions in Africa have been powerful and have radically changed everything there.

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English indirect rule: used the existing structures in the colony

French direct rule: use own people

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Slave trade had largely ended by this point but the Europeans used the local population to work for them in extracting resources, work on plantations

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There were problems between the different  (European) governments due to cultural differences

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In the course of the 19th century, European interest in African materials expanded

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The agreement, Berlin Conference, has established an economic system, new trade routes and networks, giving Europe a greater presence (they could also demonstrate their power)

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 There were conflicts between the European countries which were finally followed by the conference 

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The original idea was to find natural resources and to develop a potential market in Africa 

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Economic triggers such as the discovery of special raw materials such as diamonds or cotton led to greater British investment in British Africa, as well as the availability of cheap, local workers 

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in spite of resistance the African countries were not able to defend themselves thanks to European progress (techniques/weapons/medicine against malaria)
->  Europeans were able to go in much further

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The European powers (14 different Countries) divided the continent among themselves and ensured free trade through Africa

It was the climax of the colonization of the European powers in Africa (the trial is known as "Scramble for Africa" )

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Between the rival European countries, colonisation was like a  battle for power or a competition.
Investment in Africa was boosted by the construction of the Suez Canal

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around 1900 there were only 2 countries not taken over (Ethiopia because they where able to defend and Liberia)

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Nowadays, hardly anything of Africa is colonized, only the adjacent islands like Madeira or the Canary Islands

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It was not until 1950 that the conquest began to dissolve 

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Until 1915 Together with Belgium, Italy, Spain and Portugal, most of Africa was colonized by the UK and France.

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The actual colonization and conquest of Africa began in 1850 and became stronger around 1870
There were no significant  European incursions into the continent until the 19th century

- at that time europe started to colonize Africa

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Colonisation began as early as 1415, when European countries began with trade relationships at the costal settlements in Africa.
There was a slave trade (mainly in West Africa) conducted through African middlemen