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ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE

Mankind is now entering the antibiotic resistance phase where most, if not all, of the antibiotics now used are becoming useless against the rise of antibiotic-resistant pathogens.

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THE CHALLENGE

Microbiology is still a young science, so there are many frontiers yet to explore. For instance, it appears that scientists have described only the tip of the iceberg for the variety of microbial life on earth. In particular, the variety of viruses that infect humans are not all known. Plus, the many varieties of viruses on earth are hard to even estimate.

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Overview of the timeline

Link for a high quality picture
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1n1xNR63QwWR2uXp2nNDzsqvJK_vngwun/view?usp=sharing

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Rudolf Carl Virchow claimed that all cells arise from cells.

Facts:
Virchow, a physician, is known as the “Father of Modern Pathology” and to his colleagues, the “Pope of Medicine”. His claim became a fundamental concept for cell theory. He explained the effects of disease in the organs, tissues but more focused in individual cells (cellular pathology).

Other Events:
Publication of Darwin’s On the Origin of the species. This book made a breakthrough especially in the field of biology that provides explanations and evidences supporting the possible origin of life.

Importance:
The concept of Virchow’s contribution had made his claim turned into one of the fundamental principles of cell theory especially in cellular pathology. His concept is helpful and made it clearer that diseases arise at cellular level. This led to a great contribution in the field of medicine especially scientists improved their diagnosis and identifying diseases accurately.

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Battle with COVID-19 continues.

Facts:
At present, still, many countries are developing preventive strategies to contain the virus. Each nation provides necessary adjustments and preparation for the New Normal to revive their economy. Specific vaccines under different manufacturers are brought to different countries for clinical trials and lessen the severity of the infection.

Extensive lockdowns are implemented in different areas to prevent the spread of the virus. Mandatory use of Personal Protective Equipment (for workers), facemask and face shields as well as physical distancing are strictly monitored especially in public areas.

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There was an outbreak of Escherichia coli.

Facts:
Escherichia coli is a gram-negative bacillus that can be found singly or in pairs. Most people and animals have them in their surroundings, meals, and intestines. Although the majority of E. coli strains are harmless, some can cause illness. E. coli can cause diarrhea in some people, while others can cause UTIs, respiratory disease, and pneumonia.

When the beef products of Jack in the Box restaurants were contaminated with Escherichia coli O157:H7, an E. coli outbreak occurred in 1993. In California, Idaho, Washington, and Nevada, the outbreak affected 73 of the restaurant's locations. It spread to 732 people in four states. The majority of the casualties were children under the age of ten.

Similarly, in 1982, the bacterium E. coli O156:H7 was discovered in a food poisoning outbreak. McDonald's supermarkets in Oregon and Michigan were selling undercooked burger patties.

Furthermore, there had been reports of 22 recorded outbreaks in the United States prior to the Jack in the Box incident, with 35 deaths.

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The 2014-2016 Ebola outbreak in West Africa began in a rural setting of southeastern Guinea, spread to urban areas and across borders within weeks, and became a global epidemic within months.

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Vaccination against COVID-19 officially started.

Facts:
The first mass vaccination programme started in the Early December 2020 and as of 15th of February 2021, WHO 175.3 million vaccine doses have been administered. There are at least 7 different vaccines from different developers have been used.

World Health Organization issued an Emergency Use Listing (EULs) for the Pfizer COVID-19 vaccine on new year's eve of 2020. Another EUL was issued for two versions of AstraZeneca/Oxford COVID-19 vaccine in February 15, 2021. WHO is still on track to EUL other vaccines products through June, 2021.

Estimated effectiveness of different vaccines based on interim data from late stage-clinical trials was led by Pfizer and BioNTech which has a rate of 95% in November 18, 2020 followed by Moderna with a rate of 94% in November 30, 2020. The lowest percentage of effectiveness is the Sinovac vaccine that has only 50% rate in January 12, 2021 (Statista, 2020).

Importance:
Successful vaccines may serve as a hope to completely eliminate and end the pandemic. Mortality rates maybe lowered and a start a new beginning to recover the nation's economy. Most of all, many lives will be saved from the threat of the deadly COVID-19.

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First reported case of the COVID-19.

Facts:
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by novel coronavirus called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2; formerly called 2019-nCoV) which originated from respiratory illness cases in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China. During the New Year's eve of 2019, it was initially reported to World Health Organization and declared the COVID-19 outbreak a global health emergency. SARS-CoV-2 is a beta coronavirus (an enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus) shares 79% of its genetic sequence with SARS-CoV and has 96% homology with RATG13 coronavirus strain in bats.

These viruses circulate among animals including camels, bats, and cats and the evolution to become transmissible to humans in unknown. Two theories have suggested that it can either natural selection in animal host before zoonotic transfer to humans, or natural selection in human host after zoonotic transfer. Direct contact to infected individuals or through droplets from sneezing, talking or coughing can be possible modes of transmission. Different series of tests are used to diagnose a COVID-19 patient such as Antibody Test, and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The treatment of patients with COVID-19  is similar with other viral pneumonias. At present, continues rising number of cases can be observed from different countries. Worldwide, there is a total of 122 Million individuals got infected, 69 Million recovered, and deaths of 2.69 Million people and still counting.

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First report of the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS).

Facts:
It is a viral respiratory disease caused by a novel coronavirus (MERS‐CoV). This type of virus is zoonotic meaning, the mode of transmission can be done between animals and humans. The manifestation of this disease ranges from common cold to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). Its origins are not fully understood however it might be acquired through direct or indirect contact with infected dromedary camels.

Approximately the mortality rate of infected patients reach up to 35% while 80% of this cases came from Saudi Arabia. Still no vaccine or specific treatment for this virus. Best preventive measures includes the practice of proper hygiene, regular washing of hands, and avoid contact with sick animals or humans.

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WHO said drug-resistant TB had reached its highest levels.

Facts:
Extensively drug resistant TB (XDR-TB) and Multidrug resistant Tuberculosis (MDR-TB) had fully developed resistance to the two most potent TB drugs, Isoniazid and Rifampin. In 2008, it reached 28% of all the people newly diagnosed with TB in one region of north western Russia consisting of this MDR-TB which is the highest recorded level ever reported by WHO compared from its previous year in 2007 that has has 22% in Baku, City, Azerbaijan.

It was then estimated a total number of 440 000 individuals posses MDR-TB and stated that a third of them died. Fifty percent of MDR-TB cases worldwide are said to be concentrated in China and India while in Africa, 69,000 cases emerged with majority went undiagnosed.

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An epidemic of valley fever, clinically known as coccidioidomycosis.

Valley fever is a fungal infection that shows signs and symptoms of fever, cough, and tiredness.

Valley fever is caused by two coccidioides fungi species: Coccidioides immitis and Coccidioides posadasii. In some areas, these fungi are commonly found in soil. Anything that disturbs the soil, such as farming, building, or wind, will stir up the fungi's spores into the air. The fungus can then be breathed into the lungs, resulting in acute coccidioidomycosis.

Facts:
Coccidioidomycosis, also known as valley fever, is an infection caused by the fungus Coccidioides. Valley fever is contracted by inhaling microscopic fungal spores in the air.

This disease is not severely threatening. People who get sick with valley fever will get better on their own within weeks or months months, but some people will need antifungal medication and treatment.

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Researchers in CFS had discovered a new virus, dubbed XMRV, inside tumors of some men with prostate cancer.

XMRV nucleic acid was found in the blood of 68 out of 101 CFS patients (67 percent) by polymerase chain reaction. The virus is 99 percent identical to the virus found in prostate cancers, according to nucleotide sequence analysis of two XMRV genomes cloned from patient samples.

Facts:
The disease chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is characterized by fatigue and chronic inflammation. The retrovirus XMRV (xenotropic Moloney murine leukemia virus-related virus) was recently discovered in prostate cancer tumor tissue.

These viruses can infect many cells, including human cells hence it is hypothesize that XMRV is a xenotropic MLV that crossed from mice to humans. Because XMRV is found in the blood, it can be spread through transfusion, intravenous drug use, or any other blood-borne pathway.

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Many research team of different countries reported that the horseshoe bat is the source of the SARS virus.

Evidence of interspecies transmission in the genesis of the SARS epidemic has been found in SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) from live animal markets in China.

Facts:
Coronaviruses (CoV) are found in a wide range of animals and can cause varying degrees of respiratory, enteric, hepatic, and neurological disease. Recombination is also very common in CoV. As a result, their high mutation rates and proclivity for recombination could help them adapt to new hosts and ecological niches.

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SARS-COV virus outbreak.

After first appearing in Southern China in November 2002, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) was identified as a global threat in March 2003. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a total of 8,098 people globally were diagnosed with severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) that was followed by pneumonia or respiratory distress syndrome from November 2002 to July 2003.

Facts:
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) was a contagious and potentially fatal respiratory illness. When viewed under a microscope, coronaviruses appear to have a halo or crown-like (corona) appearance. These viruses are linked to respiratory, gastrointestinal, liver, and neurologic disease in humans and animals. SARS appears to spread primarily through close person-to-person contact.

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Scientists at NIH had developed the 1st vaccine effective against staph bacteria.

Facts:
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a gram-positive, non-motile, sphere-shaped bacterium . The name Staphylococcus comes from the fact that it grows in grape-like (staphylo-) clusters. It is the most toxic of the many staphylococcal bacteria found in the environment. Skin infections, pneumonia, heart valve infections, and bone infections are all common.

In 2002, Nabi  Biopharmaceuticals developed StaphVAX, the first S. aureus vaccine, which consisted of CP5 and CP8 conjugated to recombinant Pseudomonas aeruginosa exoprotein A and was used as a vaccine candidate in patients undergoing hemodialysis in phase III clinical trials. However, in a follow-up period of 3-54 weeks after vaccination, the study failed to show a significant result when compared to placebo.

StaphVAX was used in a similar study by Fattom et al in the same patient population undergoing hemodialysis. After 60 weeks of receiving one or two vaccine doses, their assessment of protective effectiveness of vaccinated patients compared to placebo revealed no protection against S. aureus.

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The large-scale use of first polio vaccine, known as inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) or Salk vaccine.

Facts: On February 23, 1954, a group of children from Arsenal Elementary School in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, receive the first injections of the new polio vaccine developed by Dr. Jonas Salk.

Other events:
U.S Supreme Court rules segregated schools (1954)

Importance:
To prevent transmission of polio virus and lessen the number of infections.

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There was an outbreak of the deadly Ebola virus.

Facts:
Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) is a deadly disease that affects humans and nonhuman primates. It is caused by Ebolavirus and Filoviridae viruses, which are mostly found in Sub-Saharan Africa. Ebola is a zoonotic disease. It is found in animals and can be transmitted or obtained by humans by coming into direct contact with an infected animal or a sick or deceased Ebola virus-infected person.

When two outbreaks of deadly hemorrhagic fever occurred in different parts of Central Africa in 1976, Ebola was found. The first was in Zaire (now Democratic Republic of Congo), in a village near the Ebola River, from which the virus got its name. The second happened about 500 miles away from the river, in what is now South Sudan. As a result, the virus has two strains: Zaire ebolavirus and Sudan ebolavirus.

In 1989, Reston ebolavirus was discovered in research monkeys imported from the Philippines to the United States at the primate quarantine unit of Hazelton Research Products in Reston, Virginia. Scientists later confirmed that the virus spread throughout the monkey population through droplets in the facility's air. However, airborne transmission has not been proved to play a major role in human Ebola outbreaks.

The discovery of the Reston virus in monkeys from the Philippines demonstrated that Ebola had spread beyond Africa and had reached Asia as well.

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Swine flu broke out.

Facts:
Swine influenza (swine flu) is a pig respiratory disease caused by the type A influenza virus, which causes influenza outbreaks in pigs on a regular basis. The influenza A variant subtype H1N1, which shares genetic characteristics with the H1N1 subtype of influenza virus in pigs, is the most common cause of swine flu in humans.

In 1976, Fort Dix, New Jersey, experienced a swine flu outbreak caused by a strain of the influenza A virus subtype H1N1. Thirteen people were hospitalized, with only one death reported. This outbreak was contained on a single military base and did not spread throughout the state or around the globe.

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John Enders (1897-1985) crafted a vaccine for measles.

Facts:
Measles vaccines became available in 1963. If you got the standard two doses of the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine after 1967, you should be protected against the measles for life.

Other events:
Nuclear test ban treaty (1963)

Importance:
The vaccine prevented the complications caused by these diseases.

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A flu pandemic "H2N2 influenza virus" began in China and killed 1-4 million people.

Facts: First influenza identified in February 1957 in East Asia and that subsequently spread to countries worldwide.

Other Events: Sputnik launched by Soviet Union (1957)

Importance: The rapid development of a vaccine against the H2N2 virus and the availability of antibiotics to treat secondary infections limited the spread and mortality of the pandemic.

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Carlos Chagas (1879-1934),  described how a fatal infection, known as Chagas disease, was transmitted as a single cell parasite.

Facts:
New cases of vector-borne T cruzi infection usually occur in persons who live in primitive houses in areas where the sylvatic cycle is active.

Other events:
Perry and Hensen reach North Pole (1909)

Importance:

Prevention of the consequences of the ignorance, stigma and/or discrimination associated with the disease; and enhanced access to diagnosis and treatment for millions of infected people.

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Flu pandemic, better known as the   "Russian flu",  killed about 1 million people worldwide  and was cited as the first modern flu pandemic.

Facts:
Russian flu  believed to be variants  A virus subtype H2N2; however, recently it is thought that the subtype was actually H3N8 same as the Asian flu which was transmitted through birds.

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A third pandemic of bubonic plague broke out in China in 1855.

Facts:
Plague hit China and spread throughout South Asia. bubonic plague spread to all inhabited continents, and ultimately led to more than 12 million (perhaps 15 million) deaths in India and China, with about 10 million killed in India alone, making it one of the deadliest pandemics in history

French physician Alexandre Yersin identified the bacterium by isolating  buboes the causative bacillus that later was named Yersinia pestis in his honor in 1894

It was said that the eventual disappearance of plague due to increased hygiene and a lack of a long-term rodent reservoir.

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first quarantine law - the Congress of USA adopted the first federal quarantine law in response to a series of deadly yellow fever epidemics signed by George Washington.

Facts:
Quarantine was implemented in port cities threatened by yellow fever from the West Indies.

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There was a yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia.

Facts:
During the hot, humid summer of 1793, thousands of Philadelphians got horribly sick, suffering from fevers and chills, jaundiced skin, stomach pains and vomit tinged black with blood.

“It is called a yellow fever, but is like nothing known or read of by the Physicians,” wrote Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson in September 1793.

Among the mass exodus of some 20,000 Philadelphians—nearly half the city’s total population at the time—during the yellow fever epidemic were many of the city’s doctors, who were terrified of getting ill themselves.

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A great plague began in London.

Facts:
After the Black Death, a plague epidemic occurred in 1563 in which probably caused the greatest proportional mortality of all the London outbreaks, accounting for one-quarter to one-third of the city's population: probably as many as 18,000 people died.

By mid-August the death-rate was more than 1,000 per week and Queen Elizabeth, then aged thirty, left London for Windsor with all her court. At Windsor she ordered a gallows to be erected, to execute anyone arriving there from London in case they brought the plague with them.

Although the Queen had nearly died of smallpox the previous year, plague alone among diseases seems to have been the one that frightened her.

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England suffered outbreaks of dysentery, typhus and Influenza all over the country.

Facts:
The 1510 wave of influenza was suspected to be only an incident in the decline of some great previous pandemic, perhaps that of 1173 (regarded by Hirsch as the first authentic epidemic). This is the reason for suspecting the sequence would be the apparent consistency of the course of events in the subsequent history of the disease.

After the opening of sixteenth century, the first giant wave of influenza arose in 1557, rapidly spreading over the then known world.

This outbreak persisted in Britain during 1558, taking a heavy toll of lives.

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The Black Plague struck the Mediterranean Basin.

Facts:
The Black Death was a plague pandemic which devastated Europe from 1347 to 1352 CE, killing an estimated 25-30 million people.

The disease, caused by a bacillus bacteria and carried by fleas on rodents, originated in central Asia and was taken from there to the Crimea by Mongol warriors and traders. The plague entered Europe via Italy, carried by rats on Genoese trading ships sailing from the Black Sea.

It was known as the Black Death because it could turn the skin and sores black while other symptoms included fever and joint pains.

With up to two-thirds of sufferers dying from the disease, it is estimated that between 30% and 50% of the population of those places affected died from the Black Death.

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Marshall Nirenberg (1927-2010), Har Gobind Khorana (1922-2011), and Robert Holley (1922-1993) elucidated the genetic code.

Facts:
Nirenberg won the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on deciphering the genetic code, together with Khorana who mastered the synthesis of nucleic acid and Holley who discovered the chemical structure of transfer-RNA.

Other Events:
First human in space (1961)
Cuban missile crisis (1962)

Nuclear test ban treaty (1963)

Civil Rights March on Washington (1963)
Assassination of President John F. Kennedy (1963)

Importance:
Genetic code determines the amino acid sequence of proteins. It is the sequence of nucleotides in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). These sequence carry the necessary information to be able to produce proteins for different tissues, which are called genes.

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Alfred Hershey (1908-1997) and Martha Chase (1927-2003) showed that bacteriophages
inject DNA into host cells.

Facts:
They used two sets of T2 bacteriophages in the experiment, radioactive phosphorus-32 (32P) and radioactive sulfur-35 (35S). 32P is used because phosphorus is found in DNA, not in protein while 35S was used to only label proteins because DNA does not contain sulfur.

Other Events:
Explosion of first hyrdogen bomb (1952)
Stalin died (1952)
First commercial transistorized product (1952)

Importance:
Their discovery became a stepping stone to prove that the genetic and hereditary material is DNA not protein.

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Joshua Lederberg (1925-2008) and Edward Lawrie Tatum (1909-1975) described bacterial conjugation.

Facts:
In 1958, he and Tatum won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovering that bacteria can mate and exchange genes. They used the bacterium Escherichia coli, which went through a sexual phase in which it could share genetic information, in their experiment.

Other Events:
Nagasaki and Hiroshima atomic bombing (1945)
Formation of United Nations (1945)
First electronic computer (1946)

Importance:
Bacterial conjugation has been identified as a separate branch of the bacterial type IV secretion system family, and has played a key role in the genetic analysis of bacteria.

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Selman Waksman (1888-1973) discovered streptomycin.

Facts:
Streptomycin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic. It is used to treat certain kinds of bacterial infections. It was the first antimicrobial agent developed after penicillin and first antibiotic that is effective in treating tuberculosis.

Other Events:
DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) was introduced (1944)

Importance:
It is used together with other medications to treat active tuberculosis (TB) infection if a person cannot take other drugs for TB or if a person has a type of Tb that is drug-resistant.

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George Wells Beadle (1903-1989) and Edward Lawrie Tatum (1909-1975) proposed one-gene-one-enzyme hypothesis.

Facts:
Using genetic and biochemical analyses of the bread mold Neurospora, Beadle and Tatum confirmed Garrod's hypothesis. In 1958, he shared one-half of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Edward Tatum for their discovery of the role of genes in controlling biochemical events within cells.

One-gene-one-enzyme hypothesis: Each gene makes only one enzyme, which then affects a single step in a metabolic pathway.

Importance:
Their worked revolutionized the study of genetics.

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Edouard Chatton (1883-1947) divided living organisms into prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Facts:
Eukaryotes have true nucleus which houses the DNA while prokaryotes do not have a true nucleus.

Other Events:
Hans Krebs discovered the Citric Acid Cycle (1937)
Start of World War II (1939)

Importance:
Eukaryotes is provides energy in the form of ATP used in various processes in the body. Prokaryotes plays an important role in the Carbon cycle.

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Gerhard Domagk (1895-1964) discovered "sulfa drugs".

Facts:
Sulfonamides (sulfa drugs) are drugs made from the sulfur-containing compound sulfanilamide. In 1939, he won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of Sulfonamidochrysoidine with a brand name of Prontosil, which was considered as the first commercially available antibiotic.

Importance: Sulfonamides, also known as "sulfa drugs," are a class of antibiotics that treat bacterial infections.

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Edward Jenner developed the first vaccine against a deadly and contagious disease (smallpox).

Facts:
He inoculated a 8-year old with a relatively mild cowpox virus conferred immunity against the deadly smallpox virus. Despite having a successful result, the Royal Society rejected his claim.

Importance:
His discovery was a major breakthrough for science, medicine and above all, the survival of our species. Not only did he help prevent deaths and transmissions, but he also gave the concept of concept of vaccination that would eventually benefit on the development  of different vaccines.

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Scientists discovers that Vibrio Cholerae has two separate chromosomes

Facts:
Vibrio cholerae O1 has a long history as a cause of worldwide epidemics in the history of infectious diseases. Asiatic cholera is a disease caused by Vibrio cholerae that is a purging diarrheal disease that can kill an adult in as little as 24 hours. The large and small chromosomes of Vibrio cholerae O1 have a distribution of known function genes.

Other events:
In June 2013, 2000, Presidents of North Korea and South Korea signed a peace accord ending a half-century of antagonism.

Importance:
The etiological agent of cholera is Vibrio cholerae, a major public health concern because of its rapid spread in areas with poor sanitation and hygiene, as well as its serious effects when access to health care is limited. Understanding more about the etiological agent that causes a dreadful disease is always a good step towards health security.

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Discovery of Thiomargarita namibiensis, the larget known bacterium.

Facts:
The Gram-negative coccoid proteobacterium Thiomargarita namibiensis is massive enough to be seen with the naked eye. Heide N. Schulz discovered the largest bacterium in 1997.

Thiomargarita namibiensis has an ecological niche in the oxygen-depleted but nutrient-rich sediment, where it can thrive despite the high levels of hydrogen sulfide, which are toxic to most animal life.

Other events:
In August 31, 1997, Princess Diana was killed in a car crash. Diana was a princess of Wales and among the members of the royal family.

Importance:
Thiomargarita namibiensis lives in sulfur-rich sediments on the ocean floor, where it represents an essential ecological role. They act as detoxifiers by oxidizing sulfur, removing the toxic gas from the water and making it more livable for fish and other marine organisms.

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Chicken pox vaccine, or Varicella Vaccine,  was made available for clinical use in the United States

Facts:
Chickenpox is a highly contagious disease caused by the varicella-zoster virus (VZV). It can cause an itchy, blister-like rash.

Michiaki Takahashi developed the varicella vaccine by isolating the virus from vesicular fluid of a child with varicella disease.

In Japan and Korea, the varicella vaccine was approved for use in people aged 12 months and older in 1988, and in the United States in 1995.

Other events:
The American space shuttle Atlantis docks with Russia's Mir space station to form the world's largest man-made satellite.

Importance:
The vaccine strengthens the immune system causing it to produce antibodies that helps the body fend off the chickenpox virus. If a child is not vaccinated, they may develop serious complications such as bacterial infections and pneumonia if they get chickenpox.

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First human trials of antisense therapy

Facts:
Antisense therapy is an approach to fighting diseases using short DNA-like molecules called antisense oligonucleotides. Since the first human trials, antisense therapy has been a promising way of treating neurological disorders or diseases. Antisense molecules are synthetic replica of specific mRNA sequence to block the function of the specific target gene of interest in the human genome.

Other events:
IBM-based Lenovo ThinkPad 700C laptop was created (1992).

Importance:
Antisense therapy can correct abnormal expression of cellular genes and mutations in tumor cells by decreasing specific gene expression, inducing the degradation of target mRNA, and initiating the premature termination of transcription.

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A team lead by William French Anderson in 1990 conducted the first gene therapy trial on a four-year-old girl who possesses a rare genetic disease known as severe combined immunodeficiency.

Facts:
The four-year-old girl named Asanthi DeSilva suffers from a severe combined immunodeficiency where she lacks a key enzyme called adenosine deaminase (ADA) which left her immune system crippled and vulnerable to all kinds of infections.

Thanks to gene therapy, a viral vector was used to introduce a functional copy of the gene encoding the ADA enzyme into DeSilva’s immune cells that improved her immune system’s function. The purpose of gene therapy are to use genes to treat or prevent infections and diseases.

Other events:
Persian Gulf War with Iraq begun wherein a combined forces of the United States and Great Britain invaded Iraq. Iraq was no match for the combined forces of the coalition and was utterly defeated. The coalition forces formally withdraw from the battlefield in 2011.

Importance:
Gene therapy replaces a faulty gene or adds a new gene in an attempt to cure disease or improve your body's ability to fight disease. To put it simply, it is a treatment of genetic disorders in humans by replacing a faulty gene or an absent gene by a working gene.

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The culmination of research by William Rutter, Pablo Valenzuela and their colleagues in 1979 on the cloning of hepatitis B virus antigens paved the way for the creation of hepatitis B vaccine that was made available for human use in 1986.

Facts:
The hepatitis B vaccine was the first vaccine to be produced by the means of recombinant DNA technology. In addition, it was the third product created by recombinant DNA technology to be approved for clinical use or human use.

Hepatitis B vaccine's purpose is to prevent liver infection caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). Hepatitis B infection is a chronic infection that causes liver inflammation and damage.

Other events:
The Polar Beacon and Research Satellite was launched from the Vandenberg Air Force Base in California during November of 1986. Its objective was to study the communication interference caused by solar flares and activity caused by the aurora borealis.

Importance:
The importance of the hepatitis B vaccine prevents a person to get infected by the hepatitis B virus that poses a potentially serious disease if left unchecked or treated.

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Luc Montagnier (1983) and Robert Gallo (1984) co-discovers that the cause of AIDS is the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

Facts:
The founders of HIV isolated and identified the virus as the cause of the prevailing disease during that time, which is AIDS.

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a virus that attacks the immune system that if left untreated, can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). HIV interferes with the body's ability to fight infection and diseases.

HIV can be transmitted through contact with infected blood, mother to child, breastfeeding, and sexual contact.

Other events:
Methyl Isocyanate, which was used as an insecticide in a factory, killed 2,000 people in Bhopal, India whereas 200,000 people suffered long term harm.

Importance:
The discovery of human immunodeficiency virus  (HIV) as the cause of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) paved the way for a more concentrated effort of scientists towards human retroviruses.

HIV is a preventable disease, and by preventing the spread of this disease, by means of awareness and education, more lives will be saved from contracting the virus.

Upon the discovery of the virus, effective treatments and improving quality health care are gradually observed.

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Thomas Cech (1947) and Sidney Altman (1939) discovered catalyctic RNA.

Facts:
Ribozymes have the advantage of possessing features of “RNA” molecules.

Other events:
In 1983, Meter redefined in terms of distance light travels.

Importance:
Ribozymes are highly applicable for manipulating various biological systems.

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Girolamo Fracastoro formulated the germ theory of disease.

Facts:
Girolamo Fracastoro's theory was the early version of the germ theory of diseases that can be found in De Contagione et Contagiosis Morbis (The three books on contagion, contagious diseases and their cure)

Importance:
His discovery laid foundation for  future skeptic scientist to disapprove  Miasma theory and establish the fact that most diseases were caused by microorganisms.

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Recombinant Hepatitis B vaccine was developed.

Facts:
The blood-derived hepatitis B vaccine was withdrawn from the marketplace in 1986.

Other events:
First artificial heart implemented (1982).

Importance:
The hepatitis B vaccine is highly effective. It protects against hepatitis B infection and its complications such as permanent liver damage, which can lead to liver cancer and death.

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Zacharias Janssen (n.d. - 1638) invented the first compound microscope around  late 16th century.

Facts:
The first compound microscope provided more magnification (3x-9x)  than the single lens microscopes but produced a more distorted/blurred resolution.

Other events:
Tycho Brahe proves that comets are astronomical (and not atmospheric) phenomena.

Importance:
The first compound microscope laid a significant role for future scientific breakthroughs.

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Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first person that have observed unicellular microorganisms and called them animalcules.

Facts:
He was a merchant with no University education but created his own handmade microscopes that could maginify 253 times. He did not published any book, instead, he delivered his discoveries to the Royal society through letters.

Importance:
his observations helped lay the foundations for the science of bacteriology and introduced the concept of Microbiology.
https://youtu.be/c_BiLl2v6OE

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AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) was first recognized as a new disease in 1981 when increasing numbers of infections.

Facts:
The first five cases known cases in the U.S. were reported in 1981.

Other events: Iran hostage crisis ends (1981).

Importance:
Recognizing AIDS symptoms increased awareness of safe practices to prevent HIV infection results in people being more careful and ultimately decreases infection rates.

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Walter Gilbert (1932) and Frederick Sanger (1918-2013) developed techniques for DNA sequencing.

Facts:
The DNA sequence tells scientists the kind of genetic information that is carried in a particular DNA segment.

Other events:
Three mile island disaster (1979)

Importance:
DNA sequence information is important to scientists investigating the functions of genes.

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Carl Woese (1928-2012) and George Fox (1945) recognition of archaea as a distinct microbial group.

Facts:
Archaea constitute one of three great domains of living creatures.

Other events:
Panama Canal Treaty (1977)

Importance:
Archaea are microorganisms that define the limits of life on Earth.

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Ames develops a bacterial assay for the detection of mutagens.

Facts:
Ames test can detects suitable mutants in large population of bacteria with high sensitivity.

Other events:
Vietnam war ends (1973).

Importance:
Ames test enables the screening of many chemicals, rapidly and inexpensively. Those few chemicals that appear to be mutagenic.

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Rodney R. Porter (1917-1985) proposed the basic structure for immunoglobulin G.

Facts:
Immunoglobulin G is prominent as the repository for an important class of antibodies that can function as opsonins or agglutinins or can interact with the complement cascades.

Other events:
Cuban missile crisis (1962)

Importance:
Immunoglobulin G is a component of the host defence system of the respiratory tract.

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Lazzaro Spallanzani attacked one of the main evidences of Spontaneous Generation created by John Needham.

Facts:
He recreated John Needham's controlled experiment and produced a conflicting result with the original experiment. To which exposed significant errors in the experiments.

Importance:
Despite Spallanzani's criticisms, Needham and Buffon continued to champion the doctrine of spontaneous generation. But because of his works it gave reason why  Louis Pasteur and John Tydall declared war against Spontaneous generation.

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Francesco Redi was the first scientist that challenged the theory of spontaneous generation.

Facts:
He documented over 100 parasites species that were proven to come from hatched eggs instead of the spontaneous generation. He did not completely discredited the theory instead the spontaneous-generation debate was essentially limited to microscopic forms of life.

Importance:
His controlled experiment that disapproved the theory of spontaneous generation paved way to a different approach simple organism which was recognized later on by multiple scientist, such as, Theodor Schwann, Louis Pasteur, etc.

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Ernst Ruska (1906-1988)
developed first transmission electron microscope.

Facts:
In 1933, Ernst Ruska discovered that a magnetic coil could be used as a lens for electron beams and developed the first electron microscope. It captures images of extremely small objects by means of electron beams.

Other events:
Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany (1933)

Importance:
The discovery that beams of electrons behave as waves with wavelengths shorter than visible light opened up new opportunities.

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Cornelis Bernardus Van Niel (1897-1985) showed that photosynthetic bacteria use reduced compounds as electron donors without producing oxygen.

Facts:
In 1931, while studying bacteria, Van Niel became the first person to understand the chemistry of photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light from the sun into energy.

Importance:
The discovery of this revolutionary concept of the chemistry of photosynthesis influenced research on the topic for many years.

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Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) discovered penicillin.

Facts:
Fleming started to research common staphylococcal bacteria. An uncovered Petri dish near an open window became contaminated with mold. Fleming realized that the bacteria near the mold were dying. He isolated the mold and identified it as Penicillium genus, which he found to be effective against all Gram-positive pathogens—cause diseases, such as diphtheria, gonorrhea, meningitis, pneumonia, and scarlet fever.

Fleming discovered that it was not the mold itself but a “juice” it had produced that had destroyed the bacteria. He named this “mold juice” penicillin.

Other events:
Stock market crash (1929)

Importance:
The discovery of penicillin has saved millions of lives.

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Frederick Griffith (1877-1941) discovered bacterial transformation.

Facts:
Griffith reported the first demonstration of bacterial transformation—a process in which external DNA is taken up by a cell, thereby changing its morphology and physiology. Griffith conducted his experiments with Streptococcus pneumoniae, a bacterium that causes pneumonia.

In Griffith's conclusion he called it the transforming principle.

Importance:
Frederick Griffith’s experiments with strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae provided the first hint that DNA may be the transforming principle.

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Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) discovered lysozyme.

Facts:
Lysozyme is an enzyme with weak antibacterial properties that inhibited bacterial growth. Fleming found lysozyme in fingernails, hair, saliva, skin and tears. He then found in his research that lysozyme was effective against only a small number of non-harmful bacteria.

Importance:
The discovery has a significant role in the development of antibiotics, or bacteria killer that helped save lives and continue to do so.

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Félix d’Herelle (1873-1949) & Frederick William Twort (1877-1950) discovered bacterial viruses.

Facts:
Bacteriophage research had its start with a short note in Comptes rendus in 1917, but the brevity of d'Herelle's first account belies its rich content. Not only did he recognize the nature of the agent he discovered, he appreciated its ecological role in the microbial world, and saw both therapeutic and theoretical roles for these amazing little microbes.

Other events:
World War I begins (1914)
Einstein's general theory of relativity (1916)
Russian Revolution (1917)

Importance:
Bacteriophage research took a new and important direction on the biological nature of these “ultraviruses.” D'Herelle's view that phage were particulate microbes, analogous to other filterable viruses slowly gained a following. The phenomenon of plaque formation was central to this point of view.

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Almroth Edward Wright (1861-1947) discovered antibodies in the blood of immunized animals.

Facts:
A “neutralizing substance” in blood is said to counteract infection by Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Diptheria is a highly contagious bacterial infection of the upper respiratory tract that is spread in the air or by direct contract from affected individuals to healthy ones. In their work with diphtheria, the pair discovered that when they transferred blood serum from immunized animals to animals that were suffering from diphtheria, the sick animals were cured.

Other events:
It was in 1903 that the Wright brothers: Wilbur Wright (1867-1912) & Orville Wright (1871-1948) achieved the first powered, sustained and controlled airplane flight.

Importance:
These findings of his three propositions gradually built themselves up in Almroth Wright's mind into a generalization of fundamental importance to our understanding of infectious diseases.

Three Propositions:

A microbe's capacity to initiate human disease is determined in part, an important part, by its capacity to multiply freely in human body fluids.

The capacity to multiply freely in human body fluids varies widely among the many microbic species which man encounters.

The capacity to multiply freely in body fluids is largely dependent upon reduction of the antiproteolytic power of the blood.

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Theodor Escherich (1859-1911)
discovered the Escherichia coli, a cause of diarrhea.

Facts:
Escherichia coli is the first evidence that microorganisms are part of the normal human system after Theodor Escherich isolated this type of bacteria from the intestinal part of healthy children and children suffering from diarrheal disease. Escherichia coli has arguably became the best understood cellular life form.

Importance:
This discovery has a significant role in the development of modern molecular biology. Escherichia coli is a highly versatile pathogen and currently considered as the molecular biological 'workhorse' of countless laboratories.

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Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943) distinguished the main blood groups.

Facts:
It established the modern system of classification of blood groups. A blood group is determined by presence or absence of certain molecules, called antigens.

Importance:
Blood groups play a direct role in infection by serving as receptors and/or coreceptors for microorganisms, parasites, and viruses.

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Walter Reed (1851-1902)
proved that yellow fever is transmitted by the mosquito.

Facts:
Reed’s discovery proved the theory of insect transmission. Yellow fever was the major concern in 1900 so Reed and his team performed controlled experiments using human subjects resulting into a lot of fatalities but at the end proved that the disease was caused by the bite of an infected mosquito.

Importance:
Upon this discovery, the cause for the yellow fever was classified, therefore, preventive measures were carried out to minimize the number of infected people. It established the fact that insects can transmit diseases and raised an awareness to the whole world.

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Eduard Buchner (1860-1917)
discovered an extract of yeast that ferments.

Facts:
This discovery demonstrated the enzymes contained in yeast caused the fermentation of carbohydrates fermentation. He showed that an enzyme called zymase can be extracted from yeast cells and it is the catalyst for sugar to break up into carbon dioxide and alcohol.

Importance:
The discovery led to a conclusion that biochemical processes do not necessarily require living cells, but are driven by special substances called enzymes which are formed in cells.

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Albert Fraenkel (1864-1938)
discovered Streptococcus pneumoniae, a cause of pneumonia.

Facts:
Fraenkel was a bacteriologist and a specialist in lung diseases. He did many bacteriological investigations that led to the discovery of the pneumococcus, which causes pneumonia. It is a human pathogen that causes pneumonia, sinusitis, otitis media, and meningitis.

Importance:
Discovery of the cause became a way for preventions and cures to be formulated. It became the foundation or references in combatting this infection.

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Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
developed the rabies vaccine.

Facts:
Pasteur was studying rabies when he conducted his experiment using rabbits with an intention of creating an attenuated form of the live microorganisms. He then realized his treatment neutralized it, and, unknowingly, he instead produced a neutralized agent against it.

Importance:
Pasteur’s invention became the foundation of inactivated vaccines which is being considered as the second class of vaccines. It paved way for preventive medicine which saves a lot of bite victims.

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Hans Christian Gram (1853–1938) invented the gram stain.

Facts:
A gram stain is a method used to classify the bacteria into two main groups namely gram-positive bacteria and gram-negative bacteria. It is through applying a stain followed by the addition of mordant then rapid decolorization with alcohol or acetone and lastly, counterstaining with safranin.

Importance:
In the present, it is a widely used technique in determining bacteria at the site of a suspected infection. This can help a doctor know the type of bacterial infection in order to devise an effective treatment plan for a patient.

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Élie Metchnikoff (1845-1916)
discovered phagocytosis.

Facts:
Metchnikoff discovered phagocytosis through conducting experiments on starfish larvae wherein he observed that immune cells have the capability of ingesting foreign microorganisms or particles to protect an organism. This process explains that inflammation is actually a part of an organism’s defense or immune system.

Importance:
This discovery is a significant step in understanding how does an immune system works. Many types of cells perform this mechanism representing a critical response of the immune system against pathogens.

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Koch’s Postulate first published.

Facts:
After the discovery of Bacillus anthracis that causes anthrax to many cattles and sheeps, he made a criteria that shows the causal relationship between microorganism and a specific disease which is called Koch’s Postulate. Koch’s  application of his postulates to demonstrate that  Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the causative agent of tuberculosis.

Postulate:
1. The microorganism must be present in every case of the disease but absent from healthy organisms.
2. The suspected microorganisms must be isolated and grown in a pure culture.
3. The same disease must result when the isolated microorganism is inoculated into a healthy host.
4. The same microorganism must be isolated again from the diseased host.

Other Events:
Another novel written by Mark Twain entitled “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” was published which is among the first major American literature written throughout in vernacular English and characterized by local color regionalism.

Importance:
This successful contribution of Koch led to the development of more modern microbiology experiment such as culturing and producing large stocks of specific microorganisms essential for economic and health related concerns. Example of this is the production of insulin by a E. coli and yeast for diabetic patients.

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Robert Koch proved that anthrax (infection) is caused by Bacillus anthracis.

Facts:
Koch is a German physician that used to be the rival of Pasteur in the race to discover the causative agent of anthrax. His experiment ended up to be the first proof that bacteria are responsible that cause the disease affecting the cattles and sheeps in Europe. After he discovered the rod-shaped bacteria found in the blood of the cattle died, he cultured it and began injecting it to other healthy cattles. The experimented cattles died and he examined their blood. The same bacteria were found in a separate animals therefore he concluded that this rod-shaped bacteria (now called Bacillus anthracis) are the one responsible for the disease

Other Events:
Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone (1876).

Importance:
The bacterial infection proved by Koch made other scientists to study and be aware of other pathogenic microorganisms. This discovery led to an immediate response to counter the threat of these microorganisms by formulating necessary treatments and prevention such as vaccination.

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Friedrich Miescher discovered nucleic acid.

Facts:
Miescher isolated “nuclein”, DNA with associated proteins, from cell nuclei. He was the first to identify DNA as a distinct molecule however initially he believed that proteins were the molecules responsible for heredity and it takes years to uncover the real function of nucleic acids in hereditary mechanisms.

Other Events:
Franco-German War (1870-1871)

Importance:
The discovery of DNA and its major role for heredity is essential especially in tracking hereditary information in a cell. It gives a sight to understand the basics of the cell maintenance, growth, and create offsprings. It also gives an identification of an individual especially in the case if DNA testing and today’s Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) test for tracking Covid-19 infected individuals.

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Joseph Lister published his work on antiseptic surgery.

Facts:
Lister found a useful and effective antiseptic in carbolic acid (carbolic treatment) that is used in cleansing foul smelling sewers and in wound dressing.

After a successful technique applied by the surgeons, between 1865-1869, surgical mortality fell from 45-15% in his Male Accident Ward.

Other Events:
A great novel written by Dostoevsky considered as one of the supremes achievements in literature entitled “Crime and Punishment” was published.

Importance:
The use of antiseptic techniques is helpful in the field of medicine. It prevents and controls infections that would cause severe conditions. Lister’s principles made the surgery safe and continue to save countless of lives.

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Louis Pasteur disproved the concept of spontaneous generation.

Facts:
Since the proposed experiment of Lazzaro Spallanzani against spontaneous generation was not accepted by the vitalist due to the absence of oxygen (a requirement for life), Pasteur devised a way that would allow oxygen to enter. He used a swan flask model that allows oxygen to enter but prevented dust upon entering and mixing with the broth. The result finally ended the conflict between spontaneous generation displaying no signs of life until he broke off the neck that permits the dust (microbes) to enter.

Other Events:
American Civil War (1861-1865)

Importance:
The breakthrough of Pasteur’s principle made a clear understanding on how life came to be. These principles show how life was developed in terms of the reproduction of other organisms and the origin of its existence. It develops a better interpretation and concepts to the existence of the living individuals.

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Louis Pasteur discovered fermentation of lactic acid; a result of microorganisms.

Facts:
Pasteur concluded that the reason behind the souring of milk were done primarily by certain fungi called yeasts. Yeasts have a capability to form alcohol from sugar and contaminating microorganisms found in the surrounding induced the sour taste of fermentation. Another observation, Pasteur found that heating wine, beer, and milk could kill certain microorganisms. Thereby, the process is called sterilizing or pasteurization coined from him.

Importance:
Aside from medical benefits of fermentation, it can also make other essential products such us wine, beer, vinegar, yogurt, etc. These products can be sold and help the economic development of the country.

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Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis proposed that the causative agent for the transmission of childbed fever are the physicians hence he  introduced the use of antiseptics to prevent transfer of the disease.

Facts:
Semmelweis observed and examined the correlation of the correlation between unsanitized materials and the puerperal fever, he made a notice requiring the all medical staffs and doctors to wash properly their hands using chloride solutions, bleaching agent, and bleaching disinfectant before having a contact treatment with the patient which eventually resulted to a positive outcome of continuous dropping of the death rate.

Other Events:
In the field of Physics, velocity of light was first measured by Fizeau (1849).

Importance:
Antiseptics is essential to minimize the severity of the infection and the transfer of diseases between person to person. Through the help of this technique, medical treatment was improved which helps the patient to recover successfully and reduces the mortality rate.

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Matthias Jacob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann proposed the Cell Theory.

Facts:
The two scientist proposed
spontaneous generation as the method for cell origination but was disproven. Later on Rudolf Virchow added the 3rd part of the theory which is "All cells only arise from pre-existing cells"

Importance:
It affected nearly every aspect of biology, from our understanding of life and death, to how we manage diseases, and more.