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Hannah and Savi both contributed equally to all components of this timeline, so you will not find our names written on the events.

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From the moment East Asians stepped into the U.S, they faced times of discrimination and violence. The two East Asian groups most significantly affected were the Chinese and Japanese, although they struggled at different times and sometimes in different ways. The immigration exclusion acts targeting East Asians in the late 19th century and early 20th century were precipitated by a culture of hatred for Asians in society as they were seen as foreigners threatening white labor and purity. Propaganda, anti-Asian legislation, violence, scapegoating, and even the removal from their homes and communities became acceptable. Though East Asian Americans finally gained citizenship in the 1950s, stereotypes against them only worsened. The Model Minority Myth glossed over the diversity and struggles of the Asian community such as little political representation and workplace discrimination. Recently, U.S politicians and media have fueled increasing hate and violence towards Asian Americans due to COVID-19, or what the Trump administration called the "China virus." This global pandemic has exposed the deep-rooted and structural racism towards Asian Americans in the U.S. There is a long way to go before discrimination against Asian Americans is eliminated. By incorporating Asian American history in K-12 curriculums, allocating more funds to Asian American research, social services, and federal safety net programs, misinformation can be combatted and victims of discrimination can be protected from further injustice. In addition, if this Congress remains dedicated to the success of the COVID-19 Hate Crimes Act's many provisions, we can begin to brighten the future for Asian Americans currently living in fear of violence.

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Asian Immigrants During the California Gold Rush

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During the 1850s, Chinese immigrants began arriving in larger numbers. Around 25,000 Chinese entered the U.S during this decade, seeking opportunities during the California Gold Rush. Asians were seen as job stealers and racially inferior to whites. This anti-Asian sentiment became dominant in law and court. When a white man, George Hall, shot Ling Sing, a Chinese immigrant, the racist and white-dominated California Supreme Court ruled that Chinese witnesses could not testify against white witnesses. Thus, Hall got away with his murder as the testimonies incriminating him were rejected. This lack of protection in court rulings marked the beginning of East Asian racism, violence, and lack of civil rights in the U.S.

Gillian Brockell, "The Long, Ugly History of Anti-Asian Racism and Violence in the U.S.," The Washington Post, last modified March 18, 2021, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2021/03/18/history-anti-asian-violence-racism/.

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"Y. C. Hong: Advocate for Chinese-American Inclusion." The Huntington, November 21, 2015. https://www.huntington.org/yc-hong.

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Not all Asian people were stereotyped in the same ways. For example, specific sets of stereotypes were applied exclusively to women. While white Americans believed that Chinese men endangered the US labor market, they painted Asian women as promiscuous spreaders of STIs. This stereotype connects to the "Yellow Peril" caricature in that they both depicted Asians as a pestilence that would "infect" the country. Although it is less recognized than the later Chinese Exclusion Act, the Page Act also played a notable role in initiating the process of banning Asian immigration and used this sexualized portrayal as a justification for that. In particular, it focused on barring the entry of prostitutes. At Angel Island, the port through which a large number if Asian immigrants would pass, women were forced to endure invasive searches of their persons to "prove" that they were not in that line of work. However, there was little regard for whether or not one actually engaged in prostitution and the clauses ended up excluding most Asian women.
While the Page Act did not explicitly state that its goal was to limit the formation of Asian American communities, it definitely and intentionally sought that end. Without many women (the ratio of Chinese women to men became 48 to 1000 for a time), there would also be fewer Asian children, meaning that the "racial purity" of the US would be preserved a while longer.

"Page Law of 1875." In Encyclopedia of the American West, edited by Charles Phillips and Alan Axelrod. New York, NY: Macmillan Reference USA, 1996. Gale In Context: U.S. History (accessed February 17, 2022). https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/BT2330501150/UHIC?u=pitt94721&sid=bookmark-UHIC&xid=7ff4f989.

Rotondi, Jessica Pearce. "Before the Chinese Exclusion Act, This Anti-Immigrant Law Targeted Asian Women." History.com. Last modified March 19, 2021. Accessed February 17, 2022. https://www.history.com/news/chinese-immigration-page-act-women.

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Before the Chinese Exclusion Act, This Anti-Immigrant Law Targeted Asian Women | HISTORY

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Enacted seven years before the Chinese Exclusion Act, the 1875 Page Act was one of the earliest pieces of federal legislation to restrict immigration to the United States.

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1878 - "Why They Can Live on 40 Cents a Day, and They Can't" 

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1878 - "Why They Can Live on 40 Cents a Day, and They Can't" 

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Cartoons such as this one were used to reinforce the pre-existing belief that people of Asian descent, particularly men, were threatening the jobs of white Americans. On the left, a group of Chinese workers are shown living in a small space together. They are shown to be family-less and caricatured in an unattractive way that paints them as inferior. In contrast, the white man and his family on the right are depicted as morally upstanding and righteous. They are devout Christians, as the sign reading "God Bless Our Home" indicates, and have supposedly worked hard to earn their more spacious house. The message of the cartoon is that while Chinese men can survive on meager wages, "superior" white workers cannot afford to. Rhetoric like this was used to generate support for future exclusionary legislation.

Richard White, "When the Idea of Home Was Key to American Identity," Smithsonian Magazine, last modified September 18, 2017, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/when-idea-home-was-key-american-identity-180964892/.

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Why they can live on 40 cents a day cartoon 1a

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Following the Hall v. People case, anti-Asian racism only continued to rise as more waves of Chinese immigrants arrived on the West Coast. After the Civil War in 1865, the U.S's economy collapsed, resulting in low employment rates and reduced wages. Chinese were more likely to get jobs because of their willingness to do dangerous work in the mines and on the railroad for low wages. Angry whites denounced the Chinese as a dual threat to both the purity and economic security of the white race. "Coolies" became a dominant racial slur used against them, as Chinese workers were seen as unskilled contract laborers — like slaves. President Chester A. Arthur and Congress responded by passing the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882, which prevented Chinese from entering the U.S for 10 years. However, the ban was extended for another 10 years through the Geary Act of 1892. Chinese who were already in the U.S faced times of violence and were banned from obtaining citizenship. This exclusion act solidified a distinction between white citizens and Chinese "aliens" in society, encouraging further discrimination and xenophobia. In addition to normalizing Asian racism and white supremacy, this immigration law targeting Chinese would also set a precedent for more racist immigration laws targeting other Asian races in the decades following.

Natalie Morais, "Discrimination, Prejudication, and Invalidation of East Asians," ArcGIS Story Maps, last modified November 22, 2020, accessed February 15, 2022, https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/2f91ea97c2e2431b8fa07cab15ece1f7.

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Nguyen, Hanh. "'Chinese Exclusion Act' Review: PBS Doc Is a Damning Look at How the American Government Fostered Racism." Indie Wire, May 29, 2018. Accessed February 17, 2022. https://www.indiewire.com/2018/05/chinese-exclusion-act-review-pbs-documentary-racist-immigration-1201969153/.

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While Chinese immigrants were banned, Japanese immigrants were initially welcomed in due to the Treaty of 1894, which assured Japan free immigration and equal rights. However, as the Japanese population in the U.S. grew, so did prejudice and hate towards them. The press, particularly the San Francisco Chronicle, adopted an anti-Japanese view. The same notion of racial inferiority and image of job-stealing aliens that plagued Chinese immigrants also harmed Japanese immigrants. In 1905, the Japanese and Korean Exclusion League formed, and the organization convinced the San Francisco school board to send all Japanese students into a segregated Asian school: The Oriental Public School for Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans. President Roosevelt came to an agreement with Japan that in exchange for allowing Japanese students to attend integrated public schools, Japanese immigration must stop. Yet again, immigration laws targeting an Asian race arose, which were manifestations of the anti-Asian prejudice in the U.S.

"Gentlemen's Agreement," HISTORY, last modified August 21, 2018, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.history.com/topics/immigration/gentlemens-agreement.

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"Immigration Restriction." OSU E-history. Accessed February 17, 2022. https://ehistory.osu.edu/sites/ehistory.osu.edu/files/mmh/clash/Imm_KKK/Immigration%20Pages/Immigration-page1.htm.

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Headline of the passing of the Alien Land Bill in the Evening Tribune newspaper

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Targeting towards Japanese immigrants only continued to worsen as they found success in the agricultural industry through tenant farming, taking over land from expelled Chinese immigrants. In order to limit the wealth and power of Japanese immigrants, California (and other states) passed alien land laws, which denied "aliens without citizenship" the rights to own land or long-term leases. Evidently, denying Asians citizenship was not enough for whites: whenever and wherever Asians found success, whites responded with even more violently racist tactics to ensure Asians would never have a permanent presence in society. This anti-Japanese sentiment would continue to heighten and reach a peak during World War II.

"Alien Land Laws," Densho Encyclopedia, accessed February 15, 2022, https://encyclopedia.densho.org/Alien_land_laws/.

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"California Alien Land Law of 1913..." Rare Newspapers. Accessed February 17, 2022. https://www.rarenewspapers.com/view/678627.

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Chinese immigration interview on Angel Island, 1923. 

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1943 - Chinese Exclusion Act is Repealed

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1943 - Chinese Exclusion Act is Repealed

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During World War II, Chinese immigrants in the U.S put in great efforts to separate themselves from Japanese. President Roosevelt recognized China could be a powerful ally against Japan, so efforts were made to reduce anti-Chinese sentiments. A new image was placed on Chinese Americans: they were nonviolent, unassuming, and lawful citizens. Thus, with this new characterization, the Chinese Exclusion Act was successfully repealed in 1943. Chinese immigrants were now able to pursue and gain citizenship.

"Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)," Our Documents, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=47.

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NBC News. "The Chinese Exclusion Act Ended Seventy-One Years Ago, Today." December 17, 2014. Accessed February 17, 2022. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/chinese-exclusion-act-ended-seventy-one-years-ago-today-n270276.

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1941-1945: Japanese Internment during WWII 

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1941-1945: Japanese Internment during WWII 

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After the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor in 1941, the U.S imprisoned around 110,000 Japanese Americans and immigrants — without proof — due to suspicions of espionage. This decision was upheld by a landmark Supreme Court case, Korematsu v United States, the subject of which was Japanese American Fred Korematsu. He had refused to be sent to an internment camp, putting him in violation of an order legalizing forced exclusion. Unfortunately, his side lost the suit, and the camps remained in use. When in custody, the Japanese lost their freedom, privacy, and were subjected to poor living conditions. Furthermore, they lost their property without compensation. This magnitude of injustice was horrifically rationalized by the anti-Japanese discrimination that was normalized in society since the early 1900s, as well as by the portrayal of all Japanese people as "the enemy." No spies ended up being found.

Natalie Morais, "Discrimination, Prejudication, and Invalidation of East Asians," ArcGIS Story Maps, last modified November 22, 2020, accessed February 15, 2022, https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/2f91ea97c2e2431b8fa07cab15ece1f7.

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"Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)." Our Documents. Accessed February 17, 2022. https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=47.

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1959 - First Asian American Elected to U.S Senate, Congress, and Candidate for Presidency 

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1959 - First Asian American Elected to U.S Senate, Congress, and Candidate for Presidency 

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Hiram L. Fong, a native of Hawaii, was the first Chinese-American to be elected to U.S Senate, Congress, and even a Republican candidate for presidency. This accomplishment was a major step forward for Asian participation in politics, as politics was a field that was established to be white-dominated and exclusive.

"Hiram L. Fong," University of Hawaii at Manoa Library, Archives and Manuscripts Department, Hawaii Congressional Papers Collection, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CDOC-108hdoc226/pdf/GPO-CDOC-108hdoc226-2-4-2.pdf.

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iBid.

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The model minority myth first arose during the 1960s in order to challenge the disruption caused by the Black civil rights movement. This myth portrays Asian Americans as the most successful minority group who has reached the "American Dream," full of genius kids, "tiger moms," and nerdy dads who rarely get leadership positions in the workplace. This narrative suggests that U.S has always been welcoming to Asians, burying the racism, exclusion, and violence towards Asians since the 19th century. That's why the discrimination and deportation issues Asians face today are largely overlooked, forgotten, or ignored.

Sarah-Soonling Blackburn, "What Is the Model Minority Myth?," Learning for Justice, last modified March 21, 2019, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.learningforjustice.org/magazine/what-is-the-model-minority-myth.

Schmidt, Peter. "A positive stereotype both helps and harms Asian-American students." The Chronicle of Higher Education 61, no. 37 (2015): A15. Gale In Context: U.S. History (accessed February 13, 2022). https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A421321049/UHIC?u=pitt94721&sid=bookmark-UHIC&xid=b1572839.

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Chow, Kat. "'Model Minority' Myth Again Used as a Racial Wedge between Asians and Blacks." NPR. Accessed February 17, 2022. https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2017/04/19/524571669/model-minority-myth-again-used-as-a-racial-wedge-between-asians-and-blacks.

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Just as it impacted African American citizens, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 marked a key development for Asian American rights. This did not, however, come without opposition, and pushback continued well into the future. A primary argument that was used against the idea that Asian Americans should be allowed to vote centered around language barriers. It was argued that if a person's English was not fluent, then they were not American enough to merit suffrage. In 1975 and again in 1992, the Voting Rights Act was amended to include guarantees of suffrage for citizens who did not speak English. Yet even as recently as 2005, officials and candidates perpetuated the notion that people of Asian descent should not be allowed to vote in the U.S.

Terry Ao Minnis and Mee Moua, "50 Years of the Voting Rights Act: An Asian American Perspective," Advancing Justice AAJC, last modified August 4, 2015, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.advancingjustice-aajc.org/report/50-years-voting-rights-act-asian-american-perspective.

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"Voting Rights Act of 1965." National Park Service. Accessed February 17, 2022. https://www.nps.gov/articles/votingrightsact.htm.

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US History American Identity Padlet Voting Rights Act Signed 1a

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Protests during the Civil Rights Act of 1964 

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The Civil Rights of 1964 ushered in a demand for the reevaluation of immigrant laws discriminating/banning certain races, namely Asians. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 instead selected immigrants based on the concept of skill and talent. In addition, family members, spouses, and children were encourage to immigrate. This way, the U.S could not only satisfy civil rights movements, but also advance the wealth, development, and image of the U.S. President Kennedy used immigration as the U.S's tool against communism, as U.S was now seen as a superior country in terms of freedom, opportunity, and prosperity in comparison to the totalitarian oppression of communist countries. Within the first five years of this legislation, the number of Asian immigrants nearly quadrupled.

"U.S. Immigration since 1965," HISTORY, last modified June 17, 2019, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.history.com/topics/immigration/us-immigration-since-1965.

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iBid.

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On June 19, 1982, Vincent Chin, a Chinese American, was murdered by two white men in a bar after being mistaken as a Japanese. The two white men blamed Japanese for taking all the auto-industry jobs. Instead of being sentenced for manslaughter and 15 years in prison, the judge let the men off with a $3,000 fine and a probation. At the time, Asian Americans were still not a race protected in federal civil rights prosecution. This case sparked nationwide outcry from the Asian American community and for the first time, Chinese, Japanese, and people of other nationalities united together to fight for Asian civil rights. Their movement, American Citizens for Justice, led protests and drew petitions, eventually gaining protection in prosecution and jail time for Vincent Chin's murderers.

Becky Little, "How the 1982 Murder of Vincent Chin Ignited a Push for Asian American Rights," HISTORY, last modified May 5, 2020, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.history.com/news/vincent-chin-murder-asian-american-rights.

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Wang, Frances Kai-Hwa. "Who Is Vincent Chin? The History and Relevance of a 1982 Killing." NBC News, June 15, 2017. Accessed February 17, 2022. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/who-vincent-chin-history-relevance-1982-killing-n771291.

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Photo taken after the Atlanta shootings that took place on March 16, 2021. 3 asian spas/massages were targeted, killing 6 Asian women.

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Recently, U.S politicians and media have fueled increasing hate and violence towards Asian Americans due to COVID-19, or what the Trump administration referred to as the "China virus" and the "Kung Flu." A number of white Americans blamed (and some continue to blame) the Chinese for the pandemic, leading to attempts at retaliation. One notable example took place in Atlanta, where eight victims, several of them being Asian women, were shot while at local spas. The attack is highly suspected to have been a hate crime. Since then there has been a wave of activists calling for this racially-motivated violence to be recognized as such. However, it is clear that, even after 150 years, Asian Americans are still not protected from prejudice.

Foster-Frau, Silvia, Marian Liu, Hannah Knowles, and Meryl Kornfield. "Asian Americans see shooting as a culmination of a year of racism." Washington Post, March 17, 2021. Gale In Context: U.S. History (accessed February 13, 2022). https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A655338315/UHIC?u=pitt94721&sid=bookmark-UHIC&xid=78b985d6.

"Atlanta Shootings: Asian Women among Eight Killed at Three Spas," BBC, last modified March 18, 2021, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-56424616.

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iBid.

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US History American Identity Padlet Spa Violence Picture 1a

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Due to COVID-19, East Asians are facing more discrimination and hate than ever before. In addition to the global pandemic, hurtful stereotypes such as the model minority myth continue to prevail in countless areas of life, hindering East Asians in their stride towards fulfilling the American Dream. East Asians continue to be regarded as foreigners and an invisible minority. Many of the struggles, discrimination, and violence East Asians face today in the U.S are largely unknown or ignored by the general public and government. There are numerous steps that still can and need to be taken to build a more equal and just country for Asian Americans.

Firstly, education programs need to be reformed to include Asian American history throughout grades K-12. Our country is so racially-diverse, and this incredible phenomenon is fundamental to our values as a nation. However, this can also be very dangerous as implicit bias and prejudice can easily form with the lack of or wrong information. Due to the lack of education and awareness about the history of East Asians, the inaccurate stereotype that Asians are wealthy and have no struggles continues to prevail. The only way to possibly reverse this long-rooted prejudice is to educate our future generations on the experiences, contributions, and important moments in Asian American history from an early age. Embedded this history is a recurring cycle of racism, discrimination, and violence. Also, by educating our youth, we can recover the disappearance of diversity in Asian American communities. The umbrella term "Asians" often brings to mind Chinese, Japanese, or Koreans. However, there are more than 20 ethnic groups and nationalities grouped under the umbrella term. A reevaluation and discussion for the expansion of racial inclusion in school curriculums are essential on the federal and state level.

Our next proposal responds to the influx of hate crimes towards Asian Americans. Because violence towards people of Asian descent on account of their race was lower before the beginning of the global pandemic, protections against it were also reduced. This is partly connected to the lack of action by local police departments; only 15,000 nationwide submitted their data on hate crimes to the broader FBI program tallying the incidents, and of these, only approximately 1800 noted non-zero numbers. Hence, statistics on the true number of such crimes are incomplete, meaning that the issue is underemphasized yet still continues to affect thousands. The way forward must begin with recognizing the magnitude of the hate crime problem, which a recent piece of legislation has started to do. In May of 2021, Congress approved the COVID-19 Hate Crimes Act, a motion which, although we know it will not prevent all cases of violence, is an essential step toward that end. The bill's arrangements include assigning a Department of Justice official to review instances of suspected anti-Asian hate crimes and stressing the federal bodies' responsibility to refer to the pandemic in a non-discriminatory way. While these changes may appear minor on the surface, they may realistically have a more extensive effect. The appointment of the DOJ official, for example, can help with the proper prosecution of hate crime perpetrators, thereby protecting future victims and providing justice for those harmed. Where language is concerned, expressing information in a truthful way can set the tone for the discussion of the pandemic by others. Although it certainly cannot instantaneously erase centuries of racism and its devastating impact, endorsing the Hate Crimes Act is still a worthwhile investment.

Lastly, allocating more money towards Asians in research, social services, and federal safety net programs. Again, the model minority myth has created an assumption that all Asians are wealthy, successful, and worry-free. In reality, Asian American teens and women have the highest proportion of deaths related to suicide (27.8%) compared to any other racial group. Yet, for the last 26 years, the National Institutes of Health only spent less than 0.2% of its entire budget on Asian Americans — the most underfunded racial group. Federal-funded programs such as Medicaid are not reaching the masses of low-income Asian Americans. In 2017, only 1.4% of total spending for social service contracts was allocated to Asian American organizations in New York City, even though Asian Americans made up 13.5% of the total population there. Such a shocking and unjustifiable lack of support for Asian Americans is a big contributor to the extent of unawareness, stigma, and violence tolerated towards Asian Americans today.

Although Asian American struggles and challenges have become increasingly prevalent as of late, the demand and fight for Asian American equality must also rise to counter them. Together, let's cultivate a safer, healthier, and more informed nation, one step at a time.

Farrow, Cassidy. "Examining the Impacts of CA Assembly Bill 1726." The Public Health Advocate, November 20, 2016. Accessed February 18, 2022. https://pha.berkeley.edu/2016/11/20/the-dataless-fight-back/#:~:text=New%20groups%20include%20Bangladeshi%2C%20Hmong%2C%20Indonesian%2C%20Malaysian%2C%20Pakistani%2C,bill%20will%20allow%20them%20to%20be%20finally%20visible.

Zhou, Li. "Hate Crime Laws Won't Actually Prevent Anti-Asian Hate Crimes." Vox. Accessed February 17, 2022. https://www.vox.com/2021/6/15/22480152/hate-crime-law-congress-prevent-anti-asian-hate-crimes.

Zhou, Li. "The House Passes Bill to Combat Anti-Asian Hate Crimes." Vox, May 18, 2021. Accessed February 17, 2022. https://www.vox.com/2021/4/22/22385461/senate-anti-asian-hate-crimes-bill.

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"Alien Land Laws." Densho Encyclopedia. Accessed February 15, 2022. https://encyclopedia.densho.org/Alien_land_laws/.

"Atlanta Shootings: Asian Women among Eight Killed at Three Spas." BBC. Last modified March 18, 2021. Accessed February 15, 2022. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-56424616.

Blackburn, Sarah-Soonling. "What Is the Model Minority Myth?" Learning for Justice. Last modified March 21, 2019. Accessed February 15, 2022. https://www.learningforjustice.org/magazine/what-is-the-model-minority-myth.

Brockell, Gillian. "The Long, Ugly History of Anti-Asian Racism and Violence in the U.S." The Washington Post. Last modified March 18, 2021. Accessed February 15, 2022. https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2021/03/18/history-anti-asian-violence-racism/.

"Chinese Americans after World War II." In Encyclopedia of Race and Racism, edited by John Hartwell Moore, 300-04. Vol. 1. Detroit, MI: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX2831200098/UHIC?u=pitt94721&sid=bookmark-UHIC&xid=3e932e3c.

"Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)." Our Documents. Accessed February 15, 2022. https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=47.

Chris Hahm, "VOICES AND OPINION POV: What We Need to Do to End Anti-Asian Racism," Boston University, last modified May 25, 2021, accessed February 15, 2022, https://www.bu.edu/articles/2021/pov-what-we-need-to-do-to-end-anti-asian-racism/.

"Gentlemen's Agreement." HISTORY. Last modified August 21, 2018. Accessed February 15, 2022. https://www.history.com/topics/immigration/gentlemens-agreement.

"Hiram L. Fong." University of Hawaii at Manoa Library, Archives and Manuscripts Department, Hawaii Congressional Papers Collection. Accessed February 15, 2022. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CDOC-108hdoc226/pdf/GPO-CDOC-108hdoc226-2-4-2.pdf.

Little, Becky. "How the 1982 Murder of Vincent Chin Ignited a Push for Asian American Rights." HISTORY. Last modified May 5, 2020. Accessed February 15, 2022. https://www.history.com/news/vincent-chin-murder-asian-american-rights.

"The Long History of Racism against Asian Americans in the U.S." PBS. Last modified April 9, 2020. Accessed February 15, 2022. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/the-long-history-of-racism-against-asian-americans-in-the-u-s.

Minnis, Terry Ao, and Mee Moua. "50 Years of the Voting Rights Act: An Asian American Perspective." Advancing Justice AAJC. Last modified August 4, 2015. Accessed February 15, 2022. https://www.advancingjustice-aajc.org/report/50-years-voting-rights-act-asian-american-perspective.

Morais, Natalie. "Discrimination, Prejudication, and Invalidation of East Asians." ArcGIS Story Maps. Last modified November 22, 2020. Accessed February 15, 2022. https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/2f91ea97c2e2431b8fa07cab15ece1f7.

"Page Law of 1875." In Encyclopedia of the American West, edited by Charles Phillips and Alan Axelrod. New York, NY: Macmillan Reference USA, 1996. Gale In Context: U.S. History (accessed February 17, 2022). https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/BT2330501150/UHIC?u=pitt94721&sid=bookmark-UHIC&xid=7ff4f989.

Rotondi, Jessica Pearce. "Before the Chinese Exclusion Act, This Anti-Immigrant Law Targeted Asian Women." History.com. Last modified March 19, 2021. Accessed February 17, 2022. https://www.history.com/news/chinese-immigration-page-act-women.

"U.S. Immigration since 1965." HISTORY. Last modified June 17, 2019. Accessed February 15, 2022. https://www.history.com/topics/immigration/us-immigration-since-1965.

White, Richard. "When the Idea of Home Was Key to American Identity." Smithsonian Magazine. Last modified September 18, 2017. Accessed February 15, 2022. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/when-idea-home-was-key-american-identity-180964892/.

Zheng, Lily. "To Dismantle Anti-Asian Racism, We Must Understand Its Roots." Harvard Business Review. Last modified May 27, 2021. Accessed February 15, 2022. https://hbr.org/2021/05/to-dismantle-anti-asian-racism-we-must-understand-its-roots.

Zhou, Li. "Hate Crime Laws Won't Actually Prevent Anti-Asian Hate Crimes." Vox. Accessed February 17, 2022. https://www.vox.com/2021/6/15/22480152/hate-crime-law-congress-prevent-anti-asian-hate-crimes.

Zhou, Li. "The House Passes Bill to Combat Anti-Asian Hate Crimes." Vox, May 18, 2021. Accessed February 17, 2022. https://www.vox.com/2021/4/22/22385461/senate-anti-asian-hate-crimes-bill.

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The House - in a bipartisan 364-62 vote on Tuesday - passed legislation intended to combat anti-Asian hate crimes, sending it President Joe Biden's desk.

The legislation, which aims to improve hate crime data collection as anti-Asian racism has surged in the last year, has already passed the Senate and garnered Biden's support. Dubbed the Covid-19 Hate Crimes Act, it would bolster hate crime tracking by designating a Justice Department official to specifically review potential hate crime incidents, providing grants for regional law enforcement agencies to set up reporting hotlines, and offering training to police on how to handle hate crime response.

The bill is significant in that it marks a notable denouncement of anti-Asian racism, which has increased during the pandemic as Asian Americans have been scapegoated for the spread of coronavirus, though some activists and legal experts worry that it doesn't really address the root causes of hate crimes and relies too heavily on policing to tackle the issue.

According to a tracker from Stop AAPI Hate, nearly 3,800 incidents involving everything from verbal abuse and shunning to physical assault toward Asian Americans have been reported this past year. Shootings in Georgia, which killed six women of Asian descent in March, as well as violent attacks on Asian American elders, have also drawn attention to the issue.

The passage of this bill makes some inroads to gathering better information about hate crimes in general: Currently, thousands of hate crimes go unreported each year, and federal data is also lacking since local law enforcement agencies don't always keep tabs on or communicate their numbers.

As ProPublica's Ken Schwencke reported in 2017, there are serious gaps in the records that law enforcement agencies keep:

The evidence suggests that many police agencies across the country are not working very hard to count hate crimes. Thousands of them opt not to participate in the FBI's hate crime program at all. Among the 15,000 that do, some 88 percent reported they had no hate crimes. According to federal records, the Huntsville Police Department has never reported a hate crime.

Local law enforcement agencies reported a total of 6,121 hate crimes in 2016 to the FBI, but estimates from the National Crime Victimization Survey, conducted by the federal government, pin the number of potential hate crimes at almost 250,000 a year - one indication of the inadequacy of the FBI's data.

"At a time when the AAPI community is under siege, this bill is an important signal that Congress is taking anti-Asian racism and hatred seriously," Sen. Mazie Hirono (D-HI), a lead sponsor on the bill, has said.

What this bill will do

This legislation is primarily focused on making it easier for people to report hate crimes by opening up more channels to do so and supporting better training for law enforcement officers. Additionally, by naming a specific Justice Department official to review anti-Asian hate crimes, it hopes to heighten federal focus on such incidents.

Below are some of the key components of the bill:

Designates a DOJ official to expedite the review of anti-Asian hate crimes, both to improve tracking and help with potential prosecution

Calls on the DOJ to offer guidance to local and state law enforcement agencies about setting up online hate crime reporting platforms and public education campaigns

Urges HHS and the DOJ to remove any discriminatory language in how agencies talk about the pandemic

Provides grants to local and state law enforcement agencies so they can set up hotlines for reporting hate crimes and get training for reporting data about hate crimes to the federal government

Pushes judges involved in sentencing for hate crimes to include community service and education about the group that was affected as part of the penalties they assign

All of these efforts are focused on getting a better understanding of just how expansive the problem with hate crimes is, though as one legal expert told Vox, they likely won't be effective at fully addressing the drivers of such attacks.

"Enhancing criminal prosecutions of and requiring greater reporting on hate crimes are interventions that take place after bias incidents have taken place," Columbia University law professor Katherine Franke told Vox. "Education, public messaging - particularly from elected officials - and other community-based programs aimed at reconciliation and repair are more likely to reduce the incidence of hate crimes."

The legislation presented a unique opportunity for bipartisanship

The bipartisan support for this legislation was ultimately somewhat surprising, including to Democrats in the Senate who came in thinking Republicans would block the legislation from being debated. "We passed the first hurdle, which I didn't think we would pass," Hirono told HuffPost's Igor Bobic after a procedural vote in the upper chamber earlier this year.

Given how divided the Senate has been on most measures until now, it is a relatively rare occurrence, and a welcome joint effort, for legislation to endure debate and pass with support from both sides of the aisle on a problem that's been broadly criticized. A major component of the bill that ended up garnering both Democratic and Republican backing was the Jabara-Heyer No Hate Act - an amendment led by Sens. Richard Blumenthal (D-CT) and Jerry Moran (R-KS), which included the grants to regional law enforcement.

In the end, lawmakers in both parties agreed that the issue of racism and hate crimes warranted a collective policy response, even though it's still a limited one.

Upcoming votes, including one on HR 1, Democrats' sweeping voting rights reform bill, are unlikely to pass as smoothly.

If a bill is blocked, or filibustered, by even one member, after all, it will need 60 votes to pass, a tough threshold for Democrats to meet given the Senate's current 50-50 breakdown. If the filibuster stays intact, a number of Democratic priorities - including gun control, police reform, and the $15 minimum wage - probably won't pass.

These coming votes will further test the chamber's potential for bipartisanship - and likely play a role in whether Democrats end up deciding to blow up the filibuster down the line.

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The House passes bill to combat anti-Asian hate crimes

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The House - in a bipartisan 364-62 vote on Tuesday - passed legislation intended to combat anti-Asian hate crimes, sending it President Joe Biden's desk. The legislation, which aims to improve hate crime data collection as anti-Asian racism has surged in the last year, has already passed the Senate and garnered Biden's support.

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