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Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo - A Voyage of Exploration

Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo led the first European expedition that explored what is now the west coast of the United States. Cabrillo departed from the port of Navidad, Mexico on June 27, 1542. Three months later he arrived at "a very good enclosed port," which is known today as San Diego Bay. Historians believe he anchored his flagship, the San Salvador, on Point Loma's east shore near the land that becomes Cabrillo National Monument. Cabrillo later died during the expedition, but his crew continued on, possibly as far north as Oregon, before thrashing winter storms forced them back to Mexico.

Cabrillo National Monument, established in 1913, remembers Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo's voyage of exploration. It was the first contact between the coastal California Indigenous tribes, like the Kumeyaay, and men from Europe. Though the San Salvador stayed only six days in San Diego harbor, this journey and future Spanish journeys to the area would shape southern California's complex history.

Cabrillo's Early Life

Born in Spain, Cabrillo was a conquistador in his youth. The term "conquistador" is the name applied to the mostly Spanish soldiers who explored, conquered, and settled in the New World. We know little of Cabrillo's early years until 1519, when his name appears in the ranks of those who served in the army of famous conquistador Hernan Cortes. In the terrible battles between the Aztecs and the Spanish, Cabrillo fought as a captain of crossbowmen.

Metal weapons and effective tactics made the conquistadors formidable opponents. The Aztecs, however, were also very brave and they greatly outnumbered the Spanish. Ultimately, smallpox tipped the scales in favor of the Spanish. . The disease, previously unknown in the New World, swept through Aztec defenders and killed perhaps a quarter of their population. Everywhere the Spanish went, advanced disease went before them making it possible for a relatively few Europeans to conquer the New World. After the defeat of the Aztecs, Cabrillo joined other Spanish military expeditions in what is today southern Mexico, Guatemala, and El Salvador. Eventually Cabrillo settled in Guatemala.

A Businessman in the Spanish "Encomienda" System

By the mid-1530s, Cabrillo established himself as a leading citizen of Guatemala's primary town, Santiago. Cabrillo was one of the Spanish-born men who benefited from the "encomienda" system in the New World. In this system, the king of Spain granted long term leases for land that often came with the right to use forced Indigenous labor. In Spanish society, this was viewed as a reward for services to the crown, and it also served as a way to keep Spanish landowners in power. In Cabrillo's case, he was granted the right to farmlands and mines. Cabrillo's businesses on land and at sea - and so his resulting wealth - depended on slave labor. Indigenous Guatemalans were enslaved by the Spanish and forced to work not only on his farms and in his mines, but also in his shipyards and on his vessels.

After establishing himself, Cabrillo traveled to Spain in 1532 to marry his business partner's sister, Beatriz Sanchez de Ortega. Cabrillo had a previous relationship and children with an Indigenous Guatemalan woman, but his children from this union could not inherit his wealth because Spain required landowners to be white Spaniards. Beatriz had two sons who inherited much of Cabrillo's wealth.

Cabrillo was also known for his shipbuilding operations. Using a port on Guatemala's Pacific Coast, Cabrillo imported and exported goods in the developing trade between Guatemala, Spain, and other parts of the New World. The ships he used for this trade were constructed in Guatemala by skilled laborers from Spain and Indigenous Guatemalans forced into hard physical labor. Some of these ships were used for trade and others were used in Spain's early exploration efforts.

Why Explore California?

The Governor of Guatemala, Pedro de Alvarado, selected Cabrillo to build and provision ships to explore the Pacific because of his skills as a leader and businessman. Alvarado planned to use the ships to establish a trading route between Central America and the Spice Islands (modern day Indonesia) . When Alvarado died during an Indian uprising, his business partner, the Viceroy of New Spain, Antonio de Mendoza, prompted Cabrillo to lead one of two expeditions to explore the Pacific. Cabrillo accepted and soon set out to explore the coast north and west of New Spain (Mexico). Meanwhile, the other expedition, led by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, sailed directly across the Pacific to the Philippines. While this expedition did reach its Philippine destination, Villalobos was killed in a mutiny, and the hungry, disheartened crew eventually surrendered to a Portuguese garrison in the Spice Islands.

The Cabrillo expedition sailed out of the port of Navidad, near modern day Manzanillo, on June 27, 1542 with three ships. Accompanying Cabrillo were a crew of sailors, soldiers, enslaved people, merchants, a priest, livestock, and provisions for two years. The expedition was also seeking the seven fabulously wealthy cities known as Cibola that some believed were near the Pacific coast beyond New Spain, and the possibility of a route connection from the North Pacific to the North Atlantic - the Straits of Anian.

Exploring California

One hundred and three days into the journey, Cabrillo's ships entered San Diego Bay. He probably landed at Ballast Point (visible from the Visitor Center) where he claimed the land for Spain, though no Europeans settled in the area at that time. Cabrillo described the bay as "a closed and very good port," which he called San Miguel. The name San Miguel was changed to San Diego 60 years later by another explorer, Sebastian Vizcaino. The Kumeyaay tribes had already lived in the area for thousands of years and would continue to be the primary human shapers of the landscape until the Spanish established a fort in San Diego in 1769.

The expedition continued north to Monterey Bay and may have reached as far north as Point Reyes before storms forced the ships to turn back. The expedition failed to sight the entrance to San Francisco Bay, which remained undiscovered until 1769. Discouraged by foul weather, Cabrillo decided to winter in the Channel Islands. There, after a fall suffered during a brief skirmish with an Indigenous tribe , Cabrillo shattered a limb and died of complications on January 3, 1543. Following Cabrillo's death, the disheartened crew again sailed north, this time under the leadership of Bartolome Ferrer. The expedition may have reached a latitude as far north as the Rogue River in Oregon, but thrashing winter winds and spoiled supplies forced them to return to Mexico.

The Voyage's Impact

While Cabrillo's contemporaries considered the expedition a failure, it left behind our first written glimpse of the west coast of North America from a newcomer's perspective. There was no known lasting Spanish impact on Kumeyaay culture until the fort and mission system was established in 1769.

Future Spanish explorers used Cabrillo's records to better navigate the Pacific. They learned that a wide, slow current flows from north to south along the Pacific coast of North America. It is a quick route to return from Asia, but nearly impossible to travel north as Cabrillo and his crew found out.

References

Cabrillo National Monument Foundation. An Account of the Voyage of Juan Rodríquez Cabrillo. San Diego, CA: Cabrillo National Monument Foundation, 1999.

Kelsey, Harry. Juan Rodríquez Cabrillo. San Marino, CA: The Huntington Library, 1986.

Kramer, Wendy. "Juan Rodríquez Cabrillo: A Voyage of Rediscovery." Mains'l Haul: A Journal of Pacific Maritime History 55, 1-4 (2019): 16 - 85.

Lemke, Nancy. Cabrillo: First European Explorer of the California Coast. San Luis Obispo, CA: EZ Nature Books, 1991.

Other National Park Service Areas relating to early Spanish Explorers

Coronado National Memorial
DeSoto National Memorial
Pecos National Historical Park

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Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo - Cabrillo National Monument (U.S. National Park Service)

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Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo led the first European expedition that explored what is now the west coast of the United States. Cabrillo departed from the port of Navidad, Mexico on June 27, 1542. Three months later he arrived at "a very good enclosed port," which is known today as San Diego Bay.

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Synopsis

Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo was an ambitious, at times ruthless Portuguese soldier who served the Spanish Empire. He participated in the conquest of Cuba in the early 1500s and later battled the Aztecs in Mexico. Cabrillo eventually made his fortune in Guatemala, mining gold and trading goods while participating in the slave trade. In hopes of more riches, he set out to explore the California coast, mapping landmarks and identifying Native villages. He died on January 3, 1543, of infection from a wound suffered after an attack on his expedition by Tongva tribesmen.

Early Life

Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo's early life is a mystery. Historians believe he may have been of Portuguese descent but was born in Spain around 1475. More than one village in Portugal claims to be his birthplace. What is known is that he was raised in Castile, Spain under humble beginnings.

New World Expeditions

As a young man, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo became a skilled seaman, and in 1502 he sailed to the West Indies as part of a huge expedition of 30 ships and 2500 soldiers to colonize the island of Cuba. In 1519, he was sent to Mexico on a mission to arrest the rebellious Hernán Cortés, who had disobeyed orders in his conquest of the Aztecs. The mission didn't succeed and the ambitious Cabrillo joined Cortez in his assault on the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán (Mexico City).

After the defeat of the Aztecs due to decimation of the population from disease, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo joined Pedro de Alvarado's military expeditions into modern day southern Mexico, Guatemala and El Salvador. Eventually, Cabrillo settled in Guatemala. In 1532, he traveled to Spain where he met and married Beatriz Sanchez de Ortega, from Seville. She returned to Guatemala with him and the couple had two sons.

Conquistador and Enslaver

In the 1530s, Cabrillo made his fortune in gold mining. From a port on Guatemala's Pacific coast, Cabrillo facilitated the import and export of items to Spain and other regions of the New World. He benefited greatly from the encomienda system, an economic practice where indigenous inhabitants of specific areas of land were highly subjugated and expected to pay tribute to Spanish authorities. Cabrillo broke up native families by sending the men to work in the mines and turning over the women and girls to his soldiers and sailors, presumably as slaves. Historians believe Cabrillo may have also taken a native woman as his mistress and sired several children.

During this time, Spain began to expand its empire north. They understood that North America was not India, as Christopher Columbus had believed, but had no conception of its actual size. Legends told of a water passage through the continent that extended from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans called the Straits of Anián. Cabrillo was commissioned by Antonio de Mendoza, the Viceroy of New Spain, to explore the Pacific coast in hopes of finding rich cities and the water passage. He was also instructed to meet with Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, who it was believed was crossing overland to the Pacific. Since Cabrillo built and owned his flagship, the San Salvador, he stood to profit from any trade or treasure.

Exploring the California Coast

On June 24, 1542, Cabrillo sailed out of Navidad (near modern-day Manzanillo, Mexico) with his flagship and two other ships, the La Victoria and the San Miguel. Four days later, the expedition reached "a very good enclosed port" Cabrillo named "San Miguel" (later known as San Diego Bay) after one of his ships. Six days later the fleet sailed north along the uncharted California coast, visiting an array of islands that included Santa Cruz, Catalina and San Clemente. Along the way, the expedition visited numerous coastal native villages, recording their names and population counts. Spain would not revisit the area until 1769, returning with soldiers and missionaries.

The Cabrillo expedition slowly made its way north along the coast, occasionally buffeted by weather disturbances. On November 13, the explorers sighted and named "Cabo de Pinos" (present-day Point Reyes), and then sailed as far north as the mouth of the Russian River before autumn storms forced them to turn back. They then sailed south along the coast to Monterey Bay, naming it "Bahia de los Pinos." In the process, Cabrillo and his men completely missed the entrance to San Francisco Bay, an error mariners would repeat for the next two centuries most likely due to fog.

Death and Legacy

The expedition made its way back to San Miguel and wintered there. Sometime around Christmas Eve, the Spaniards were attacked by indigenous Tongva warriors. In an effort to assist his men, Cabrillo stumbled over jagged rocks and broke his shin bone. The injury became infected and developed gangrene. Cabrillo died on January 3, 1543, and is believed to have been buried on Catalina Island. The expedition set out again in mid-February, sailing possibly as far north as Oregon. They returned to Navidad in April 1543.

The Cabrillo expedition never achieved its major objectives of finding rich cities and the mythical Straits of Anián or rendezvousing with Coronado. The expedition did, however, claim new land for Spain that stretched north of Mexico, which the country would colonize and settle two centuries later.

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Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo was an ambitious, at times ruthless Portuguese soldier who served the Spanish Empire. He participated in the conquest of Cuba in the early 1500s and later battled the Aztecs in Mexico. Cabrillo eventually made his fortune in Guatemala, mining gold and trading goods while participating in the slave trade.

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This is what dysentery means.

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Dysentery is a disease that involves severe diarrhea. It is caused by a bacterium, which causes the intestines to swell up a lot. The main symptom of dysentery is having blood in the excrement. Some more symptoms are high fever and abdominal pain. It is usually treated with antibiotics. The diarrhea is severe and can be a problem for the people who catch the disease.

Images for kids

Cross-section of diseased intestines. Colored lithograph c.  1843

A Red Army soldier dies of dysentery after eating unwashed vegetables. This is a common way of contracting dysentery. From a health advisory pamphlet given to soldiers.

In Spanish: Disentería para niños

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this is francis drake wikipedia

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Sir Francis Drake ( c. 1540 - 28 January 1596) was an English sea captain, privateer, slave trader, pirate, naval officer and explorer of the Elizabethan era. Drake carried out the second circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition, from 1577 to 1580, and was the first to complete the voyage as captain while leading the expedition throughout the entire circumnavigation. With his incursion into the Pacific Ocean, he claimed what is now California for the English and inaugurated an era of conflict with the Spanish on the western coast of the Americas, an area that had previously been largely unexplored by western shipping.

Elizabeth I awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581 which he received on the Golden Hind in Deptford. As a Vice Admiral, he was second-in-command of the English fleet in the battle against the Spanish Armada in 1588. He died of dysentery in January 1596, after unsuccessfully attacking San Juan, Puerto Rico. Drake's exploits made him a hero to the English, but his privateering led the Spanish to brand him a pirate, known to them as El Draque. King Philip II allegedly offered a reward for his capture or death of 20,000 ducats, about £6 million (US$8 million) in modern currency.

Birth and early years

Francis Drake was born in Tavistock, Devon, England. Although his birth date is not formally recorded, it is known that he was born while the Six Articles were in force. His birth date is estimated from contemporary sources such as: "Drake was two and twenty when he obtained the command of the Judith" (1566). This would date his birth to 1544. A date of c.1540 is suggested from two portraits: one a miniature painted by Nicholas Hilliard in 1581 when he was allegedly 42, so born circa 1539, while the other, painted in 1594 when he was said to be 53, would give a birth year of around 1541.

He was the oldest of the twelve sons of Edmund Drake (1518-1585), a Protestant farmer, and his wife Mary Mylwaye. The first son was alleged to have been named after his godfather Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford.

Because of religious persecution during the Prayer Book Rebellion in 1549, the Drake family fled from Devon to Kent. There Drake's father obtained an appointment to minister the men in the King's Navy. He was ordained deacon and was made vicar of Upnor Church on the Medway. Drake's father apprenticed him to his neighbour, the master of a barque used for coastal trade transporting merchandise to France. The ship's master was so satisfied with the young Drake's conduct that, being unmarried and childless at his death, he bequeathed the barque to Drake.[when? ]

Marriage and family

Francis Drake married Mary Newman at St. Budeaux church, Plymouth, in July 1569. She died 12 years later, in 1581. In 1585, Drake married Elizabeth Sydenham-born circa 1562, the only child of Sir George Sydenham, of Combe Sydenham, who was the High Sheriff of Somerset. After Drake's death, the widow Elizabeth eventually married Sir William Courtenay of Powderham.

Career at sea

At the age of eighteen he was purser of a ship which sailed to the Bay of Biscay. At twenty he made a voyage to the coast of Guinea. In 1563, Drake, aged 23, made his first voyage to the Americas, sailing with his second cousin, Sir John Hawkins, on one of a fleet of ships owned by his relatives, the Hawkins family of Plymouth. He made three voyages with this fleet, attacking Portuguese towns and ships on the coast of West Africa. They then sailed to the Americas and sold the captured cargoes of slaves to Spanish plantations. John Hawkins is considered to have been the first English slave-trader. Hawkins made three such expeditions, the first in 1563, second in 1564 and the third expedition ending in the ill-fated 1568 incident at San Juan de Ulúa.

In 1568, Drake was on his third expedition with the Hawkins fleet when, whilst negotiating to resupply and repair at a Spanish port in Mexico, the fleet was attacked by Spanish warships, with all but two of the English ships lost. He escaped along with John Hawkins, surviving the attack by swimming.

Drake's hostility towards the Spanish is said to have started with this incident. Following the defeat at San Juan de Ulúa, Drake vowed revenge. In 1570, his reputation enabled him to proceed to the West Indies with two vessels under his command. He renewed his visit the next year for the sole purpose of obtaining information.

In 1572, he embarked on his first major independent enterprise. He planned an attack on the Isthmus of Panama, known to the Spanish as Tierra Firme and the English as the Spanish Main. This was the point at which the silver and gold treasure of Peru had to be landed and sent overland to the Caribbean Sea, where galleons from Spain would pick it up at the town of Nombre de Dios. Drake left Plymouth on 24 May 1572, with a crew of 73 men in two small vessels, the Pascha (70 tons) and the Swan (25 tons), to capture Nombre de Dios.

His first raid was late in July 1572. Drake and his men captured the town and its treasure. When his men noticed that Drake was bleeding profusely from a wound, they insisted on withdrawing to save his life and left the treasure. Drake stayed in the area for almost a year, raiding Spanish shipping and attempting to capture a treasure shipment.

- Gonzalo González del Castillo, letter to King Philip II, 1592

The most celebrated of Drake's adventures along the Spanish Main was his capture of the Spanish Silver Train at Nombre de Dios in March 1573. He raided the waters around Darien (in modern Panama) with a crew including many French privateers including Guillaume Le Testu, a French buccaneer, and African slaves (Maroons) who had escaped the Spanish. Drake tracked the Silver Train to the nearby port of Nombre de Dios. After their attack on the richly laden mule train, Drake and his party found that they had captured around 20 tons of silver and gold. They buried much of the treasure, as it was too much for their party to carry, and made off with a fortune in gold. (An account of this may have given rise to subsequent stories of pirates and buried treasure). Wounded, Le Testu was captured and later beheaded. The small band of adventurers dragged as much gold and silver as they could carry back across some 18 miles of jungle-covered mountains to where they had left the raiding boats. When they got to the coast, the boats were gone. Drake and his men, downhearted, exhausted and hungry, had nowhere to go and the Spanish were not far behind.

At this point, Drake rallied his men, buried the treasure on the beach, and built a raft to sail with two volunteers ten miles along the surf-lashed coast to where they had left the flagship. When Drake finally reached its deck, his men were alarmed at his bedraggled appearance. Fearing the worst, they asked him how the raid had gone. Drake could not resist a joke and teased them by looking downhearted. Then he laughed, pulled a necklace of Spanish gold from around his neck and said "Our voyage is made, lads!" By 9 August 1573, he had returned to Plymouth.

It was during this expedition that he climbed a high tree in the central mountains of the Isthmus of Panama and thus became the first Englishman to see the Pacific Ocean. He remarked as he saw it that he hoped one day an Englishman would be able to sail it-which he would do years later as part of his circumnavigation of the world.

When Drake returned to Plymouth after the raids, the government signed a temporary truce with King Philip II of Spain and so was unable to acknowledge Drake's accomplishment officially. Drake was considered a hero in England and a pirate in Spain for his raids.

Rathlin Island massacre

Drake was present at the Rathlin Island massacre in 1575. Acting on the instructions of Sir Henry Sidney and the Earl of Essex, Sir John Norreys and Drake laid siege to Rathlin Castle. Despite their surrender, Norreys' troops killed all the 200 defenders and more than 400 civilian men, women and children of Clan MacDonnell. Meanwhile Drake was given the task of preventing any Gaelic Irish or Scottish reinforcements reaching the island. Therefore, the remaining leader of the Gaelic defense against English power, Sorley Boy MacDonnell, was forced to stay on the mainland. Essex wrote in his letter to Queen Elizabeth's secretary, that following the attack Sorley Boy "was likely to have run mad for sorrow, tearing and tormenting himself and saying that he there lost all that he ever had."

With the success of the Panama isthmus raid in 1577, Elizabeth I of England sent Drake to start an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas. Drake used the plans that Sir Richard Grenville had received the patent for in 1574 from Elizabeth, which was rescinded a year later after protests from Philip of Spain. He set out from Plymouth on 15 November 1577, but bad weather threatened him and his fleet. They were forced to take refuge in Falmouth, Cornwall, from where they returned to Plymouth for repair.

After this major setback, Drake set sail again on 13 December aboard with four other ships and 164 men. He soon added a sixth ship, Mary (formerly Santa Maria), a Portuguese merchant ship that had been captured off the coast of Africa near the Cape Verde Islands. He also added its captain, Nuno da Silva, a man with considerable experience navigating in South American waters.

Drake's fleet suffered great attrition; he scuttled both Christopher and the flyboat Swan due to loss of men on the Atlantic crossing. He made landfall at the gloomy bay of San Julian, in what is now Argentina. Ferdinand Magellan had called here half a century earlier, where he put to death some mutineers. Drake's men saw weathered and bleached skeletons on the grim Spanish gibbets. Following Magellan's example, Drake tried and executed his own "mutineer" Thomas Doughty. The crew discovered that Mary had rotting timbers, so they burned the ship. Drake decided to remain the winter in San Julian before attempting the Strait of Magellan.

Execution of Thomas Doughty

On his voyage to interfere with Spanish treasure fleets, Drake had several quarrels with his co-commander Thomas Doughty and on 3 June 1578, accused him of witchcraft and charged him with mutiny and treason in a shipboard trial. Drake claimed to have a (never presented) commission from the Queen to carry out such acts and denied Doughty a trial in England. The main pieces of evidence against Doughty were the testimony of the ship's carpenter, Edward Bright, who after the trial was promoted to master of the ship Marigold, and Doughty's admission of telling Lord Burghley, a vocal opponent of agitating the Spanish, of the intent of the voyage. Drake consented to his request of Communion and dined with him, of which Francis Fletcher had this strange account:

And after this holy repast, they dined also at the same table together, as cheerfully, in sobriety, as ever in their lives they had done aforetime, each cheering up the other, and taking their leave, by drinking each to other, as if some journey only had been in hand.

Drake had Thomas Doughty beheaded on 2 July 1578. When the ship's chaplain Francis Fletcher in a sermon suggested that the woes of the voyage in January 1580 were connected to the unjust demise of Doughty, Drake chained the clergyman to a hatch cover and pronounced him excommunicated.

Entering the Pacific (1578)

The three remaining ships of his convoy departed for the Magellan Strait at the southern tip of South America. A few weeks later (September 1578) Drake made it to the Pacific, but violent storms destroyed one of the three ships, the Marigold (captained by John Thomas) in the strait and caused another, the Elizabeth captained by John Wynter, to return to England, leaving only the Pelican. After this passage, the Pelican was pushed south and discovered an island that Drake called Elizabeth Island. Drake, like navigators before him, probably reached a latitude of 55°S (according to astronomical data quoted in Hakluyt's The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation of 1589) along the Chilean coast. In the Magellan Strait Francis and his men engaged in skirmish with local indigenous people, becoming the first Europeans to kill indigenous peoples in southern Patagonia. During the stay in the strait, crew members discovered that an infusion made of the bark of Drimys winteri could be used as remedy against scurvy. Captain Wynter ordered the collection of great amounts of bark - hence the scientific name.

Despite popular lore, it seems unlikely that Drake reached Cape Horn or the eponymous Drake Passage, because his descriptions do not fit the first and his shipmates denied having seen an open sea. The first report of his discovery of an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego was written after the 1618 publication of the voyage of Willem Schouten and Jacob le Maire around Cape Horn in 1616.

Drake pushed onwards in his lone flagship, now renamed the Golden Hind in honour of Sir Christopher Hatton (after his coat of arms). The Golden Hind sailed north along the Pacific coast of South America, attacking Spanish ports and pillaging towns. Some Spanish ships were captured, and Drake used their more accurate charts. Before reaching the coast of Peru, Drake visited Mocha Island, where he was seriously injured by hostile Mapuche. Later he sacked the port of Valparaíso further north in Chile, where he also captured a ship full of Chilean wine.

Capture of Spanish treasure ships

Near Lima, Drake captured a Spanish ship laden with 25,000 pesos of Peruvian gold, amounting in value to 37,000 ducats of Spanish money (about £7m by modern standards). Drake also discovered news of another ship, Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, which was sailing west towards Manila. It would come to be called the . Drake gave chase and eventually captured the treasure ship, which proved his most profitable capture.

Aboard Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, Drake found 80 lb (36 kg) of gold, a golden crucifix, jewels, 13 chests full of royals of plate and 26 tons of silver. Drake was naturally pleased at his good luck in capturing the galleon, and he showed it by dining with the captured ship's officers and gentleman passengers. He offloaded his captives a short time later, and gave each one gifts appropriate to their rank, as well as a letter of safe conduct.

Coast of California: Nova Albion (1579)

After looting the Cacafuego, Drake turned north, hoping to meet another Spanish treasure ship coming south on its return from Manila to Acapulco. Although he failed to find a treasure ship, Drake reputedly sailed as far north as the 38th parallel, landing on the coast of California on 17 June 1579. He found a good port, landed, repaired and restocked his vessels, then stayed for a time, keeping friendly relations with the Coast Miwok natives. He claimed the land in the name of the Holy Trinity for the English Crown, called Nova Albion- Latin for "New Britain". Assertions that he left some of his men behind as an embryo "colony" are founded on the reduced number who were with him in the Moluccas.

The precise location of the port was carefully guarded to keep it secret from the Spaniards, and several of Drake's maps may have been altered to this end. All first-hand records from the voyage, including logs, paintings and charts, were lost when Whitehall Palace burned in 1698. A bronze plaque inscribed with Drake's claim to the new lands - Drake's Plate of Brass - fitting the description in his account, was discovered in Marin County, California but was later declared a hoax. Now a National Historic Landmark, the officially recognised location of Drake's New Albion is Drakes Bay, California.

Across the Pacific and around Africa

Drake left the Pacific coast, heading southwest to catch the winds that would carry his ship across the Pacific, and a few months later reached the Moluccas, a group of islands in the western Pacific, in eastern modern-day Indonesia. While there, Golden Hind became caught on a reef and was almost lost. After the sailors waited three days for convenient tides and had dumped cargo, they freed the barque. Befriending a sultan king of the Moluccas, Drake and his men became involved in some intrigues with the Portuguese there. He made multiple stops on his way toward the tip of Africa, eventually rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and reached Sierra Leone by 22 July 1580.

Return to Plymouth (1580)

On 26 September, Golden Hind sailed into Plymouth with Drake and 59 remaining crew aboard, along with a rich cargo of spices and captured Spanish treasures. The Queen's half-share of the cargo surpassed the rest of the crown's income for that entire year. Drake was hailed as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the Earth (and the second such voyage arriving with at least one ship intact, after Elcano's in 1520).

The Queen declared that all written accounts of Drake's voyages were to become the Queen's secrets of the Realm, and Drake and the other participants of his voyages on the pain of death sworn to their secrecy; she intended to keep Drake's activities away from the eyes of rival Spain. Drake presented the Queen with a jewel token commemorating the circumnavigation. Taken as a prize off the Pacific coast of Mexico, it was made of enamelled gold and bore an African diamond and a ship with an ebony hull.

For her part, the Queen gave Drake a jewel with her portrait, an unusual gift to bestow upon a commoner, and one that Drake sported proudly in his 1591 portrait by Marcus Gheeraerts now at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. On one side is a state portrait of Elizabeth by the miniaturist Nicholas Hilliard, on the other a sardonyx cameo of double portrait busts, a regal woman and an African male. The "Drake Jewel", as it is known today, is a rare documented survivor among sixteenth-century jewels; it is conserved at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

Award of knighthood

Queen Elizabeth awarded Drake a knighthood aboard Golden Hind in Deptford on 4 April 1581; the dubbing being performed by a French diplomat, Monsieur de Marchaumont, who was negotiating for Elizabeth to marry the King of France's brother, Francis, Duke of Anjou. By getting the French diplomat involved in the knighting, Elizabeth was gaining the implicit political support of the French for Drake's actions. During the Victorian era, in a spirit of nationalism, the story was promoted that Elizabeth I had done the knighting.

Award of arms

After receiving his knighthood Drake unilaterally adopted the armorials of the ancient Devon family of Drake of Ash, near Musbury, to whom he claimed a distant but unspecified kinship. These arms were: Argent, a wyvern wings displayed and tail nowed gules, and the crest, a dexter arm Proper grasping a battle axe Sable, headed Argent. The head of that family, also a distinguished sailor, Sir Bernard Drake (d.1586), angrily refuted Sir Francis's claimed kinship and his right to bear his family's arms. That dispute led to "a box in the ear" being given to Sir Francis by Sir Bernard at court, as recorded by John Prince (1643-1723) in his "Worthies of Devon", first published in 1701. Queen Elizabeth, to assuage matters, awarded Sir Francis his own coat of arms, blazoned as follows:

Sable a fess wavy between two pole-stars [Arctic and Antarctic] argent; and for his crest, a ship on a globe under ruff, held by a cable with a hand out of the clouds; over it this motto, Auxilio Divino; underneath, Sic Parvis Magna; in the rigging whereof is hung up by the heels a wivern, gules, which was the arms of Sir Bernard Drake.

The motto, Sic Parvis Magna, translated literally, is: "Thus great things from small things (come)". The hand out of the clouds, labelled Auxilio Divino, means "With Divine Help". The full achievement is depicted in the form of a large coloured plaster overmantel in the Lifetimes Gallery at Buckland Abbey

Nevertheless, Drake continued to quarter his new arms with the wyvern gules. The arms adopted by his nephew Sir Francis Drake, 1st Baronet (1588-1637) of Buckland were the arms of Drake of Ash, but the wyvern without a "nowed" (knotted) tail.

Arms of Sir Francis Drake: Sable, a fess wavy between two pole-stars Arctic and Antarctic argent

Arms of Drake of Ash: Argent, a wyvern wings displayed and tail nowed gules.[47] The Drake family of Crowndale and Buckland Abbey used the same arms but the tail of the wyvern is not nowed (knotted)[51]

Political career

Drake was politically astute, and although known for his private and military endeavours, he was an influential figure in politics during the time he spent in Britain. Often abroad, there is little evidence to suggest he was active in Westminster, despite being a member of parliament on three occasions.

After returning from his voyage of circumnavigation, Drake became the Mayor of Plymouth, in September 1581. He became a member of parliament during a session of the 4th Parliament of Elizabeth I, on 16 January 1581, for the constituency of Camelford. He did not actively participate at this point, and on 17 February 1581 he was granted leave of absence "for certain his necessary business in the service of her Majesty".

Drake became a member of parliament again in 1584 for Bossiney on the forming of the 5th Parliament of Elizabeth I. He served the duration of the parliament and was active in issues regarding the navy, fishing, early American colonisation, and issues related chiefly to Devon. He spent the time covered by the next two parliamentary terms engaged in other duties and an expedition to Portugal. He became a member of parliament for Plymouth in 1593. He was active in issues of interest to Plymouth as a whole, but also to emphasize defence against the Spanish.

Purchase of Buckland Abbey

In 1580, Drake purchased Buckland Abbey, a large manor house near Yelverton in Devon, via intermediaries from Sir Richard Greynvile. He lived there for fifteen years, until his final voyage, and it remained in his family for several generations. Buckland Abbey is now in the care of the National Trust and a number of mementos of his life are displayed there.

Great Expedition to America

War had already been declared by Phillip II after the Treaty of Nonsuch, so the Queen through Francis Walsingham ordered Sir Francis Drake to lead an expedition to attack the Spanish colonies in a kind of preemptive strike. An expedition left Plymouth in September 1585 with Drake in command of twenty-one ships with 1,800 soldiers under Christopher Carleill. He first attacked Vigo in Spain and held the place for two weeks ransoming supplies. He then plundered Santiago in the Cape Verde islands after which the fleet then sailed across the Atlantic, sacked the port of Santo Domingo, and captured the city of Cartagena de Indias in present-day Colombia. On 6 June 1586, during the return leg of the voyage, he raided the Spanish fort of San Augustín in Spanish Florida.

After the raids he then went on to find Sir Walter Raleigh's settlement much further north at Roanoke which he replenished and also took back with him all of the original colonists before Sir Richard Greynvile arrived with supplies and more colonists. He finally reached England on 22 July, when he sailed into Portsmouth, England to a hero's welcome.

Spanish Armada

Angered by these acts, Philip II ordered a planned invasion of England.

In another pre-emptive strike, Drake "singed the beard of the King of Spain" in 1587 by sailing a fleet into Cadiz and also Corunna, two of Spain's main ports, and occupied the harbours. He destroyed 37 naval and merchant ships. The attack delayed the Spanish invasion by a year..

Over the next month, Drake patrolled the Iberian coasts between Lisbon and Cape St. Vincent, intercepting and destroying ships on the Spanish supply lines. Drake estimated that he captured around 1600-1700 tons of barrel staves, enough to make 25,000 to 30,000 barrels (4,800 m ³) for containing provisions.

Defeat of the Spanish Armada

Drake was vice admiral in command of the English fleet (under Lord Howard of Effingham,) when it overcame the Spanish Armada that was attempting to invade England in 1588. As the English fleet pursued the Armada up the English Channel in closing darkness, Drake broke off and captured the Spanish galleon Nuestra Señora del Rosario, along with Admiral Pedro de Valdés and all his crew. The Spanish ship was known to be carrying substantial funds to pay the Spanish Army in the Low Countries. Drake's ship had been leading the English pursuit of the Armada by means of a lantern. By extinguishing this for the capture, Drake put the fleet into disarray overnight.

On the night of 29 July, along with Howard, Drake organised fire-ships, causing the majority of the Spanish captains to break formation and sail out of Calais into the open sea. The next day, Drake was present at the Battle of Gravelines. He wrote as follows to Admiral Henry Seymour after coming upon part of the Spanish Armada, whilst aboard on 31 July 1588 (21 July 1588 O.S.):

Coming up to them, there has passed some common shot between some of our fleet and some of them; and as far as we perceive, they are determined to sell their lives with blows.

The most famous (but probably apocryphal) anecdote about Drake relates that, prior to the battle, he was playing a game of bowls on Plymouth Hoe. On being warned of the approach of the Spanish fleet, Drake is said to have remarked that there was plenty of time to finish the game and still beat the Spaniards. There is no known eyewitness account of this incident and the earliest retelling of it was printed 37 years later. Adverse winds and currents caused some delay in the launching of the English fleet as the Spanish drew nearer, perhaps prompting a popular myth of Drake's cavalier attitude to the Spanish threat. It might also have been later ascribed to the stoic attribute of British culture.

Drake-Norris Expedition

In 1589, the year after defeating the Armada the English sent their own to attack Spain, Drake and Sir John Norreys were given three tasks: seek out and destroy the remaining ships, support the rebels in Lisbon, Portugal against King Philip II (then king of Spain and Portugal), and take the Azores if possible. In the Siege of Coruña Drake and Norreys destroyed a few ships in the harbour of A Coruña in Spain but lost more than 12,000 lives and 20 ships.[citation needed ] This defeat in all fronts delayed Drake, and he was forced to forgo hunting the rest of the surviving ships and head on to Lisbon.

Defeats and death

Drake's seafaring career continued into his mid-fifties. In 1595, he failed to conquer the port of Las Palmas, and following a disastrous campaign against Spanish America, where he suffered a number of defeats, he unsuccessfully attacked San Juan de Puerto Rico, eventually losing the Battle of San Juan.

The Spanish gunners from El Morro Castle shot a cannonball through the cabin of Drake's flagship, but he survived. He attempted to attack over land in an effort to capture the rich port of Panamá but was defeated again. A few weeks later, in January 1596, he died (aged about 56) of dysentery, a common disease in the tropics at the time, while anchored off the coast of Portobelo where some Spanish treasure ships had sought shelter. Following his death, the English fleet withdrew.

Before dying, he asked to be dressed in his full armour. He was buried at sea in a sealed lead-lined coffin, near Portobelo, a few miles off the coastline. It is supposed that his final resting place is near the wrecks of two British ships, the Elizabeth and the Delight, scuttled in Portobelo Bay. Divers continue to search for the coffin. Drake's body has never been recovered.

Cultural impact

In the UK there are various places named after him, especially in Plymouth, Devon. Places there carrying his name include the naval base HMS Drake, Drake's Island, and a shopping centre and roundabout named Drake Circus. Plymouth Hoe is also home to a statue of Drake.

In the United States Drakes Bay and Sir Francis Drake Boulevard of Marin County, California are both named after him, as well as the high school in San Anselmo, California. The boulevard runs between Drakes Bay at Point Reyes to Point San Quentin on San Francisco Bay. A large hotel in Union Square, San Francisco also bears his name. Additionally, the Sir Francis Drake Channel in the British Virgin Islands bears his name.

In British Columbia, Canada, where some theorize he may also have landed to the north of the usual site considered to be Nova Albion, various mountains were named in the 1930s for him, or in connection with Elizabeth I or other figures of that era, including Mount Sir Francis Drake, Mount Queen Bess, and the Golden Hinde, the highest mountain on Vancouver Island.

Drake's will was the focus of a vast confidence scheme which Oscar Hartzell perpetrated in the 1920s and 1930s. He convinced thousands of people, mostly in the American Midwest, that Drake's fortune was being held by the British government, and had compounded to a huge amount. If their last name was Drake they might be eligible for a share if they paid Hartzell to be their agent. The swindle continued until a copy of Drake's will was brought to Hartzell's mail fraud trial and he was convicted and imprisoned.

Drake's Drum has become an icon of English folklore with its variation of the classic king in the mountain story.

Drake was a major focus in the video game Uncharted: Drake's Fortune where the main character, a supposed descendant of Drake, searches for the treasure of El Dorado.

References

1. His name in ^ Latinised form was Franciscus Draco ("Francis the Dragon"). See Theodor de Bry.

2. ^ Campbell, John (1841). Lives of the British Admirals and Naval History of Great Britain from the Time of Caesar to the Chinese War of 1841 Chiefly Abridged from the work of Dr. John Campbell. Glasgow: Richard Griffin & Co. p. 104. ISBN 9780665347566. OCLC 12129656. Direct quote is followed by "this carries back his birth to 1544, at which time the six articles were in force, and Francis Russell was seventeen years of age."

3. 1921/22 edition of the ^ Dictionary of National Biography, which quotes Barrow's Life of Drake (1843) p. 5.

4. ^ Froude, James Anthony (1896). English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Quote: "He told Camden that he was of mean extraction. He meant merely that he was proud of his parents and made no idle pretensions to noble birth. His father was a tenant of the Earl of Bedford, and must have stood well with him, for Francis Russell, the heir of the earldom, was the boy's godfather."

5. James Mill (1840). The History of British India, Volume 1. London: James Madden and Co. p. 9.

6. ^ Benezet, Anthony (1788). Some historical account of Guinea, : its situation, produce, and the general disposition of its inhabitants, with an inquiry into the rise and progress of the slave trade, its nature and lamentable effects. London: J. Phillips.

7. "Drake escaped during the attack and returned to England in command of a small vessel, the Judith, with an even greater determination to have his revenge upon Spain and the Spanish king, Philip II."-"^ Sir Francis Drake" article in online Britannica Library. Accessed 14 January 2016

8. Sugden, John (1990). Sir Francis Drake. Barrie & Jenkins.^ ISBN 9780712620383; Great Britain. Public Record Office, Calendar of State Papers Relating to Ireland, of the Reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth: Preserved in the State Paper Department of Her Majesty's Public Record Office, 11 vols (London: Longman, Green, Longman & Roberts, 1860-1912))

9. ^ Forde, Hugh (1923). Sketches Of Olden Days In Northern Ireland: Including Portrush, Dunluce Castle, Dunseverick Castle, Ballycastle, Giant's Causeway, Rathlin Island, Coleraine, Derry, Inishowen, Tory Island. Belfast: MC'aw, Stevenson and Orr Ltd.

10. Coote, Stephen (2003). Drake: The Life and Legend of an Elizabethan Hero. New York: Saint Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-34165-2.

11. Wagner, Henry R., Sir Francis Drake's Voyage Around the World: Its Aims and Achievements, Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2006, ISBN 1-4286-2255-1.

12. Martinic, Mateo (1977). Historia del Estrecho de Magallanes (in Spanish). Santiago: Andrés Bello. pp. 67-68.

13. ^ Cortés Olivares, Hernán F. (2005). "El origen, producción y comercio del pisco chileno, 1546-1931". (in Spanish). Scielo.cl. 2 (20): 42-81. doi:10.4067/S0718-23762005000200005.

14. Dismissed by John Cummins, ^ Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero (1997) p. 118: "In view of the prominence given in different versions to the crowning of Drake it would be odd if the establishment of a colony had gone unrecorded."

15. Moseley, Brian (26 February 2011) [11 March 2004]. "Sir Francis Drake (c1541-1596)". The Encyclopaedia of Plymouth History. Plymouthdata.info. Archived from the original on 1 April 2012.

16. Vivian, Lt.Col. J.L., (Ed.) The Visitations of the County of Devon: Comprising the Heralds' Visitations of 1531, 1564 & 1620, Exeter, 1895, p.292, pedigree of Drake of Ash

17. ^ Prince, John (1810) [1701]. Danmonii orientales illustres: or, The worthies of Devon. p. 329.

18. Drake, Charles E.F., ^ The Arms of Sir Francis Drake Archived 19 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Quebec, 2008; Article by str8thinker, Project Avalon Forum, Dec 2010, based on article of Charles Drake, 2008, op. cit.

19. Vivian, p.299, pedigree of Drake of Crowndale and Buckland Abbey

20. ^ Thompson, Edith (1873). Freeman, Edward Augustus (ed.). History of England. Freeman's Historical Course for Schools. New York: Henry Holt and Company. p. 136.

21. Letter to Admiral Henry Seymour written aboard ^ Revenge on 31 July 1588 (21 July 1588 O.S.) Turner, Sharon. The History of England from the Earliest Period to the Death of Elizabeth, 1835.

22. ^ Henderson, Barney; Swaine, Jon (24 October 2011). "Sir Francis Drake's final fleet 'discovered off the coast of Panama'". Telegraph Newspaper.

23. Rayner, Richard (22 April 2002). "The Admiral and the Con Man". ^ The New Yorker. p. 150.

Bibliography

Barrow, John (1843). The life, voyages, and exploits of Admiral Sir Francis Drake : with numerous original letters from him and the Lord High Admiral to the Queen and great officers of state. London: John Murray.

Bawlf, Samuel (2003). The Secret Voyage of Sir Francis Drake, 1577-1580. Walker & Company. ISBN 0-8027-1405-6.

Corbett, Julian Stafford (1890). Sir Francis Drake.

Hughes-Hallett, Lucy (2004). Heroes: A History of Hero Worship. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 1-4000-4399-9.

Kelsey, Harry (1998). Sir Francis Drake, the Queen's Pirate. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07182-5.

(subscription or Kelsey, Harry (2004). "Drake, Sir Francis (1540-1596)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/8022. UK public library membership required)

Mattingly, Garett (1959). The Defeat of the Spanish Armada. ISBN 0-395-08366-4. A detailed account of the defeat of the Spanish Armada which received a special citation from the Pulitzer Prize committee in 1960.

Merideth, Mrs Charles, Notes and Sketches of New South Wales, during a residence in that colony from 1839 to 1844; Bound With: "Life of Drake" by John Barrow (1st ed., 1844) [xi, 164; and xii, 187 pp. respectively]

Hakluyt, Richard (1880). Payne, Edward John (ed.). Voyages of the Elizabethan seamen to America. Thirteen original narratives from the collection of Hakluyt. London: Thos. de la Rue & Co.

Rodger, N. A. M. (1997). The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660-1649. London

Wilson, Derek (1977). The World Encompassed: Drake's Great Voyage, 1577-80. Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-014679-6.

External links

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Sir Francis Drake ( c. 1540 - 28 January 1596) was an English sea captain, privateer, slave trader, pirate, naval officer and explorer of the Elizabethan era. Drake carried out the second circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition, from 1577 to 1580, and was the first to complete the voyage as captain while leading the expedition throughout the entire circumnavigation.

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Right now in London they have Drakes ship and they added to the ship.

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Sir Francis Drake | Biography, Routes, Ship, Born, Death, Accomplishments, & Facts

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Sir Francis Drake, (born c. 1540–43, Devonshire, England—died January 28, 1596, at sea, off Puerto Bello, Panama), English admiral who circumnavigated the globe (1577–80) and was the most renowned seaman of the Elizabethan Age. Born on the Crowndale estate of Lord Francis Russell, 2nd earl…

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Sir Francis Drake (Famous Explorers) book by Tanya Larkin

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Buy a cheap copy of Sir Francis Drake (Famous Explorers) book by Tanya Larkin. This book mixes pirates, riches, and adventure with issues of slavery and the tumultuous politics of Elizabethan England to create a book that is as informative as... Free Shipping on all orders over $15.

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In 1595 Elizebeth gave drake permission to raid the spanish.

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this is  dysentery

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Shigella is a germ that causes a highly contagious disease called shigellosis (bacillary dysentery). It is an acid-resistant, salt-tolerant bacteria. It has been increasingly involved in foodborne outbreaks. In 2002, Shigella was the third most reported foodborne bacterial pathogen, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

Shigellosis is most caused by an infected food handler, who practices poor personal hygiene. Shigella can survive in many types of foods, such as:

Fruits

Raw, unwashed vegetables, such as potatoes

Raw salad (macaroni)

Raw food items, such as sandwiches

Poultry (chicken) and eggs

Milk and dairy products

Low pH food

Food contaminated with human waste or dirt

Unhygienically prepared foods

Food held in a modified atmosphere

Vacuum packaged food items

Refrigerated food items

Contaminated seafood

What exactly does Shigella mean?

Shigella is a family of bacteria or germs that cause a gut (intestinal) infection called "shigellosis." It causes diarrhea and blood sticky stools. It is an extremely contagious infection and can spread very easily. Even a small number of germs can make you extremely sick.

People with shigellosis may shed Shigella in their stool (waste), spreading the infection to others even weeks after recovering from diarrhea.

You may get infected with Shigella if the germ enters the body through the mouth while you are:

Eating food prepared by a person who is infected with Shigella.

Swallowing contaminated drinking water and eating contaminated, raw food.

Accidentally swallowing recreational water, such as lake water or improperly treated swimming pool water.

Touching your mouth with contaminated hands while changing diapers or cleaning surfaces contaminated with Shigella, such as the bathroom.

Exposed to stool during sexual activity with a person infected with a Shigella or recently recovered from Shigella.

Who is most likely to get it?

Certain groups of people have a higher risk of getting shigellosis, such as

Young children

Travelers to developing countries

Men having sex with other men

People with HIV or those who undergo medical treatment, such as chemotherapy, for cancer. Severe Shigella infection in these individuals can spread into the blood, which can be life-threatening.

Large outbreaks of shigellosis often start in childcare settings and spread among small social groups.

SLIDESHOW
See Slideshow

What are the symptoms and how long do they last?

If you have shigellosis, then you may experience:

Symptoms usually start 1-2 days or sometimes 4 days after eating the contaminated food. The symptoms may last up to 4-7 days. You may get seizures from high fever. The health care provider may order a laboratory test to identify Shigella bacteria in the stool.

In some cases, bowel habits (frequency and consistency of stool) do not return to normal for several months.

How can shigellosis be treated?

Usually, people with shigellosis get better without any antibiotic treatment in 5-7 days. Some people with mild shigellosis might require only fluid and rest. Oral fluid consumption and hydration are important parts of the treatment.

Your doctor may suggest:

Pepto-Bismol (Bismuth subsalicylate) to reduce diarrhea. Antidiarrheal medications, such as Imodium (loperamide), are not advised as they slow down gut function and may result in increased toxin accumulation in the gut.

Antibiotics may help you to get better faster in severe cases. However, certain types of Shigella germs may not respond to some antibiotics. Therefore, the doctor may order certain laboratory tests (blood or stool culture and sensitivity) to determine which antibiotics are likely to work.

Adequate fluid intake with proper hygiene care.

How can I prevent shigellosis?

You can reduce the chance of getting sick from Shigella by taking the following steps:

Wash hands carefully with soap and water before preparing food, eating, and after changing a diaper and using the toilet.

Observe and supervise handwashing of toddlers and small children after they use the washroom.

Properly dispose of soiled diapers in a covered, lined garbage can. Clean diaper changing areas after use.

Avoid swallowing water from ponds, lakes, or untreated swimming pools, and discourage your children from doing the same.

Stick to safe eating and drinking habits as well as washing hands while traveling internationally.

Avoid having sex in any form until and several weeks after the recovery of your partner from diarrhea.

Avoid preparing food for others if you are sick.

Avoid childcare and daycare facilities if the baby is sick with diarrhea.

Avoid taking your child swimming or to group water play if they are sick.

Medically Reviewed on 2/3/2021
WebMD. What Is Shigella? https://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/food-poisoning/what-is-Shigella#1

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Shigella - Shigellosis. https://www.cdc.gov/Shigella/infection-sources.html

Mayo Clinic. Shigella Infection. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/Shigella/symptoms-causes/syc-20377529

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Shigella is a germ that causes a highly contagious disease called shigellosis (bacillary dysentery). It is an acid-resistant, salt-tolerant bacteria. It has been increasingly involved in foodborne outbreaks. In 2002, Shigella was the third most reported foodborne bacterial pathogen, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

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died from dysentery diarrhea...

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Fransis drake was so mean, proof: Whatever the legal situation, Drake's conduct was pitiless, and partially inspired by religious fanaticism. He and his men burned churches, threatened priests, and reportedly tortured their captives to make them reveal their hidden treasure.Jan 23, 2019

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The quen gave permishion to Drake to raid the spanish and take their loot ( loot means treasure )

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Drake took the The Straits of Magellen route, and landed on the west coast of South America

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Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo was a Spanish conquistador and explorer. He is known as the discoverer of California because he was the first European to see the area that is now…

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Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo ( Portuguese: João Rodrigues Cabrilho; 1499 - January 3, 1543) was an Iberian maritime explorer best known for investigations of the West Coast of North America, undertaken on behalf of the Spanish Empire. He was the first European to explore present-day California, navigating along the coast of California in 1542-1543.

Nationality

Cabrillo's nationality - Portuguese or Spanish - has been debated for centuries. He was described as Portuguese by Spanish chronicler Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas; in his Historia General de los hechos de los Castellanos en las Islas y tierra firme del Mar Oceano, written 60 years after Cabrillo's death, Herrera referred to Cabrillo as Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo Português. Several locations in Portugal claim to be his birthplace. However, the source for Herrera's description is unknown.

Some historians have long believed that Cabrillo was from Spain, and a set of documents discovered in 2015 gave strength to that opinion. A witness from a 1532 lawsuit, named Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, testified under oath that he was born in Palma de Micergilio (now Palma del Río), a town in the province of Córdoba in Spain. Other details of the witness's biography match known facts about the explorer. A leader of San Diego's Portuguese community cautioned that the new evidence must be carefully evaluated, and requested that copies of the documents be turned over to the Portuguese government for study.

Lapela, in the parish of Cabril and a municipality of Montalegre ( Portugal), is the region where allegedly the nickname "Cabrilha" originated. It became the surname Cabrilho and was pronounced at the time Cabrilhe in Galician and Cabrillo in Spanish, according to the historian João Soares Tavares, biographer of João Rodrigues Cabrilho. The name still exists in Portugal as a surname, and several localities named Cabril in Beira Alta and neighboring regions as Castro Daire, Viseu or Pampilhosa da Serra have been claimed as Cabrillo's birthplace. In Lapela there is an ancient house where local tradition claims he was born. Local people, and alleged local descendants of branches of his ancient family with the same surname ("Rodrigues Cabrilho"), call the house Casa do Galego ( House of the Galician) and Casa do Americano ( House of the American).

Cabrillo shipped for Havana as a young man and joined forces with Hernán Cortés in Mexico (then called New Spain). Later, his success in mining gold in Guatemala made him one of the richest of the conquistadores in Mexico. According to his biographer Harry Kelsey, he took an indigenous woman as his common-law wife and sired several children, including at least three daughters. Later he married Beatriz Sanchez de Ortega in Seville during a hiatus in Spain. She returned to Guatemala with him and bore him two sons.

Cabrillo benefited from the encomienda system that enslaved the Native peoples of the Americas. In Honduras, for example, he broke up families, sending the men to the mines for gold and to the forest to harvest materials he needed for shipbuilding. The women and girls he gave over to his soldiers and sailors, presumably as slaves.

He accompanied Francisco de Orozco to subdue the indigenous Mixtec people at what would eventually become the city of Oaxaca, in Mexico. Little is known of what Cabrillo did there.

In 1539, Francisco de Ulloa, who had been commissioned by Cortés, discovered the Gulf of California and reached nearly as far north as the 30th parallel. Cabrillo was then commissioned by the new Viceroy of New Spain, Antonio de Mendoza, to lead an expedition up the Pacific coast in search of trade opportunities, perhaps to find a way to China (for the full extent of the northern Pacific was unknown) or to find the mythical Strait of Anián (or Northwest Passage) connecting the Pacific Ocean with Hudson Bay. Cabrillo built and owned the flagship of his venture (two or three ships), and stood to profit from any trade or treasure.

In 1540, the fleet sailed from Acajutla, El Salvador, and reached Navidad, Mexico on Christmas Day. While in Mexico, Pedro de Alvarado went to the assistance of the town of Nochistlán, which was under siege by hostile natives, and was killed when his horse fell on him, crushing his chest. Following Alvarado's death, the viceroy took possession of Alvarado's fleet. Part of the fleet was sent off to the Philippine Islands under Ruy López de Villalobos and two of the ships were sent north under the command of Cabrillo.

On June 27, 1542, Cabrillo set out from Navidad with three ships: the 200-ton galleon and flagship San Salvador, the smaller La Victoria (c. 100 tons), and the lateen-rigged, twenty-six oared "fragata" or "bergantin" San Miguel. On August 1, Cabrillo anchored within sight of Cedros Island. Before the end of the month they had passed Baja Point (named "Cabo del Engaño" by de Ulloa in 1539) and entered "uncharted waters, where no Spanish ships had been before". On September 28, he landed in what is now San Diego Bay and named it "San Miguel". A little over a week later he reached Santa Catalina Island (October 7), which he named "San Salvador", after his flagship. On sending a boat to the island "a great crowd of armed Indians appeared" - whom, however, they later "befriended". Nearby San Clemente Island was named "Victoria", in honor of the third ship of the fleet. The next morning, October 8, Cabrillo came to San Pedro Bay, which was named "Baya de los Fumos" (English: Smoke Bay). The following day they anchored overnight in Santa Monica Bay. Going up the coast Cabrillo saw Anacapa Island, which they learned from the Indians was uninhabited.

The fleet spent the next week in the islands, mostly anchored in Cuyler Harbor, a bay on the northeastern coast of San Miguel Island. On October 18 the expedition saw Point Conception, which they named "Cabo de Galera". Cabrillo's expedition recorded the names of numerous Chumash villages on the California coast and adjacent islands in October 1542 - then located in the two warring provinces of Xexo (ruled by an "old woman", now Santa Barbara County, California) and Xucu (now Ventura County, California).

On November 13 they sighted and named "Cabo de Piños" (possibly either Point Pinos or Point Reyes), but missed the entrance to San Francisco Bay, a lapse that mariners would repeat for the next two centuries and more, most likely because its entrance is frequently shrouded by fog. The expedition may have reached as far north as the Russian River or even the Columbia before autumn storms forced them to turn back. Because of the vagueness of his description, it is uncertain which northern river the expedition sighted. Coming back down the coast, Cabrillo entered Monterey Bay, naming it "Bahia de Los Piños".

On November 23, 1542, the little fleet arrived back in "San Salvador" (Santa Catalina Island) to overwinter and make repairs. There, around Christmas Eve, Cabrillo stepped out of his boat and splintered his shin when he stumbled onto a jagged rock while trying to rescue some of his men from attacking Tongva warriors. The injury became infected and developed gangrene, and he died on January 3, 1543 and was buried. A possible headstone was later found on San Miguel Island. His second-in-command brought the remainder of the party back to Navidad, where they arrived April 14, 1543.

A notary's official report of Cabrillo's expedition was lost; all that survives is a summary of it made by another investigator, Andrés de Urdaneta, who also had access to ships' logs and charts. No printed account of Cabrillo's voyage appeared before historian Antonio de Herrera's account early in the 17th century.

Namesakes and commemorations

His discoveries went largely unnoticed at the time, so none of his place names were permanently adopted. Despite this, Cabrillo is now remembered as the first European to travel the California coast, and many parks, schools, buildings and streets in California bear his name.

Most notably, the National Park Service operates Cabrillo National Monument, overlooking the bay and ocean from Point Loma in San Diego, commemorating his first landing in California and offering views of San Diego and the Pacific Ocean. The monument features a larger-than-life statue of Cabrillo, donated by the government of Portugal, as well as a plaque honoring him donated in 1935 by the Portuguese ambassador to the United States. A museum in the park focuses on Cabrillo and his voyages of discovery. Every September Cabrillo Festival Inc. hosts the Cabrillo Festival, an annual three-day celebration of his discovery of San Diego Bay, including a re-enactment of his landing at Ballast Point.

Another Cabrillo Monument is located on San Miguel Island.

In the state of California, September 28 is officially "Cabrillo Day".

A civic organization of Portuguese-Americans primarily in California is called the Cabrillo Club.

In northern California, the Point Cabrillo Light is named after him. San Pedro, part of the city of Los Angeles, has Cabrillo Beach and the Cabrillo Marine Aquarium.

Schools named for him include Cabrillo College in Aptos, California, high schools in Lompoc and Long Beach, and several middle and elementary schools.

The portion of California State Route 1 that runs from Las Cruces in Santa Barbara County north to San Francisco is called the Cabrillo Highway. The Cabrillo Bridge and Cabrillo Freeway (California State Route 163) running through San Diego's Balboa Park are also named for him. There are streets named for him in many cities in California.

The SS Cabrillo was a wooden steamer launched in 1914 to serve as a ferry across the San Pedro Channel to Santa Catalina Island. It was later requisitioned by the United States Army and served as a troop transport in northern California during World War II.

In 1992, the United States Postal Service issued a 29¢ stamp in honor of Cabrillo.

The Maritime Museum of San Diego, in partnership with Cabrillo National Monument, has built a full-sized, fully functional, and historically accurate replica of Juan Rodriquez Cabrillo's flagship, San Salvador. The construction of the replica was based on historical and archeological research into early Spanish and Portuguese shipbuilding techniques.

The construction was carried out in full public view on the shores of San Diego Bay by professional boat builders, assisted by scores of volunteers. Her keel was laid in April 2011; her first official public unveiling was in September 2015 when she led a parade of tall ships. The replica ship now sails on regular tours in the waters the Southern California coast as an educational historical resource.

In Spanish: Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo para niños

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Learn Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo facts for kids

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Drake was born in Tavistock Devon. Year 1540.

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English seaman Francis Drake sets out from Plymouth , England , with five ships and 164 men on a mission to raid the Spanish holdings on the pacific coast of the new world and explore the pacific ocean.

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My explorer was sent by Queen Elizabeth. In 1577 Queen Elizabeth commissioned Drake to  lead an expedition around south america through the straits magellan. The voyage was plagued by conflict between Drake and the two other men tasked with sharing commands.

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Paintings of this god showed him as a man with white skin and a black beard, who came from the direction of the sunrise ( east ). Quetzalcoatl was supposed to come in 52 years also in 1519 and Hernan Cortes came at that time and they thought Hernan Cortes was a God.

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Drake past the English channel, They believe that fires near the equater will burn them to ashes and sea snakes will sqeeze the ship into pieces, They loaded their ship with so much gold that their ship almost sank.

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He was nice to people.

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Fransis drake was born in the 1540s, Fransis drake was a explorer to find money for his family, he became a professional pirate, The queen gave drake permission to sail to the Spanish and steal their riches.He sailed from Devon to Panama.

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He left his homeland in 1168.

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He was a leader for the soldiers.

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little known Drake facts

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Drake's knighthood was a reward for completing history's second circumnavigation of the globe between 1577 and 1580, but his expedition was no ordinary voyage of discovery. He also had a secret agreement with Queen Elizabeth that he would raid Spanish shipping, and upon entering the Pacific he spent several months plundering unsuspecting galleons and sacking ports along the coast of Chile and Peru. His biggest prize came in March 1579, when he seized the Spanish treasure ship Nuestra Señora de la Concepción and liberated it of a dozen chests of coins, 80 pounds of gold and 26 tons of silver. Drake would eventually return home as the world's richest pirate. According to one account, his financial backers received a return of 47 pounds sterling for each pound they had invested.

2. He began his career as a slave trader.

Drake went to sea as a young man, but his first major expeditions came in the 1560s, when he joined a cousin named John Hawkins on some of Britain's earliest slave trading voyages to West Africa. The pair usually procured their human cargo by attacking native villages or attacking Portuguese slave ships. They would then transport the slaves to the Spanish Caribbean and sell them off to local plantations-an action that was illegal under Spanish law. During one of these slaving expeditions in 1568, a flotilla of Spanish ships ambushed Drake and Hawkins at the Mexican port of San Juan de Ulúa, destroying four of their vessels and killing or capturing many of their crew. Drake escaped unharmed, but the defeat left him with a seething hatred for Spain and its king, Philip II.

3. The Spanish king put a massive price on Drake's head.

From 1570 until the end of his life, Drake made himself the scourge of the Spanish by leading repeated raids against their treasure ships and colonies in the New World. Many of the voyages were outright illegal-Drake often sailed without an official privateer's commission-and the Spanish eventually branded him a pirate and nicknamed him "El Draque" ("the dragon"). King Philip II is even said to have offered a bounty of 20,000 ducats for Drake's head-the equivalent of several million dollars today.

4. He teamed with a band of escaped slaves for one of his most profitable raids.

In 1573, Drake set his sights on pillaging a Spanish mule train as it carried gold and silver to a Caribbean port across the Isthmus of Panama. In preparation for the ambush, he sent emissaries into the jungle and enlisted the help of the Cimarrons, a group of escaped Spanish slaves who were eager to strike a blow against their former masters. By using the Cimarrons as scouts, Drake's band and a group of French privateers easily got the drop on the mule train and overpowered its guards. The raid produced an enormous haul of treasure-so much, in fact, that the adventurers were forced to bury 15 tons of silver that they were unable to carry. Drake still managed to return home with at least 20,000 British pounds worth of loot. Before departing, the former slave trader presented one of the Cimarron leaders with a gold-encrusted scimitar as a reward for his help.

(Credit: DeAgostini/Getty Images)

When Drake's round-the-world voyage set sail from England in December 1577, nearly all of his crewmen believed they were going on a simple trading expedition to Egypt. It was only after they bypassed the Mediterranean that their commander announced his true intentions to round the southern tip of South America and enter the Pacific Ocean-a feat never before accomplished by an English vessel. The journey was not an easy one. Of the five vessels Drake led to the bottom of the world, two were intentionally scuttled, the third sunk in a storm after exiting the Strait of Magellan, and the fourth turned back after becoming separated from the fleet. By the time the expedition began its journey into the Pacific, only Drake's flagship Golden Hind remained. The lone vessel would eventually sail some 36,000 miles before returning to England in September 1580.

6. He claimed California for England.

After packing his hold with Spanish treasure during early 1579, Drake steered Golden Hind north in an abortive attempt to find the Northwest Passage. He may have traveled as far as the Canadian border before turning back and dropping anchor in Northern California later that summer. Drake spent a month overhauling his ship in preparation for his circumnavigation, but he also took the time to fraternize with the local Indians and explore the surrounding region, which he named "Nova Albion" and claimed as England's first overseas territory in North America. The location of Drake's anchorage has since become a subject of considerable debate, but most scholars believe it was somewhere on Point Reyes near modern-day San Francisco.

7. Drake was a successful politician.

Upon returning from his circumnavigation in 1580, Drake brought a lavish estate called Buckland Abbey and settled into a second career as both a Member of Parliament and the mayor of the coastal town of Plymouth. As mayor, he helped build a canal that supplied Plymouth with fresh water for centuries, but he also took occasional breaks from his political duties to return to sea and conduct raids against the Spanish at Santa Domingo, Cartagena and St. Augustine, Florida.

8. He struck the first blow against the Spanish Armada.

In 1586, thanks in part to Drake's relentless privateering, King Philip II began assembling the famed Spanish Armada for an invasion of England. Desperate to beat his old enemy to the punch, Drake set sail the following spring and launched a preemptive strike on the Spanish mainland at the port of Cadiz. After catching the town by surprise, he and a small fleet spent two days occupying its harbor and bombarding, burning or pillaging everything in sight. The Cadiz raid succeeded in destroying between 30 and 40 ships and several thousand tons of supplies, and Drake later continued his reign of terror by harassing the Portuguese coastline and capturing a treasure ship off the Azores. All told, his "singeing of the King of Spain's beard," as he jokingly called it, may have delayed the Armada's launch by over a year. Drake would later serve as the vice admiral of the English fleet that helped scatter the Spanish invasion in the summer of 1588.

9. Drake was credited with having supernatural powers.

Drake's skills as a naval commander were so feared that many of his enemies became convinced that he was a practitioner of witchcraft. Superstitious Spanish mariners whispered tales of how Drake possessed a magic mirror that allowed him to spy the location of all the ships on the sea, and there were rumors that he was in league with a demon or even Satan himself. After being defeated as part of the Spanish Armada, many sailors returned home claiming that Drake "was a devil, and no man!"

(Credit: Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

10. His watery grave has never been found.

In 1595, an aging Sir Francis Drake set off on a final voyage to prowl the West Indies. His fleet was gunning for Spanish treasure, but an early attack on San Juan, Puerto Rico was repulsed, as was a second raid on Panama. Drake contracted dysentery as the disappointing voyage wore on, and on January 28, 1596, he died at sea off Portobello. The navigator's body was later placed in full-armor, sealed inside a lead coffin and consigned to the deep some a few miles off the coastline. Scores of divers and historians have searched his burial site in the years since, but while some claim to have discovered the wrecks of English ships scuttled nearby, Drake's body has never been recovered.

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10 Things You May Not Know About Francis Drake

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Drake's knighthood was a reward for completing history's second circumnavigation of the globe between 1577 and 1580, but his expedition was no ordinary voyage of discovery. He also had a secret agreement with Queen Elizabeth that he would raid Spanish shipping, and upon entering the Pacific he spent several months plundering unsuspecting galleons and sacking ports along the coast of Chile and Peru.

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http://www.plumsite.com/Rechtfertig/drake.htm

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So, we set sail. My ship was called the Golden Hind. As captain, I tried to be a good leader. So, I made sure that my ship had plenty of supplies. Also, I brought musicians and instruments onto the ship. The sounds of music made my crew comfortable.

While at sea, there were storms and other misfortunes. But I was able to handle all of these. My ship, the Golden Hind, made it across the Atlantic Ocean to the west coast of South America. While going north up the coast, my crew and I raided several Spanish towns and galleon ships. Although these people had more weapons, we surprised them and won. They did not expect to see an English ship so far away from Europe.

I took on board much Spanish treasure. But my ship was in need of repair, and the Spanish were chasing us in their ships. I did not think I could get back across the Atlantic Ocean safely, so I headed north into unknown waters. I anchored my ship in a bay and went ashore. I named this land Nova Albion (New England.) My crew and I stayed here for a month, and repaired our ship. (Note: This place is now called Drake's Bay.)

While on shore, we met some new people (the Coast Miwok Indians.) Their culture was very different than ours, but they were quite friendly to us. I told my crew to treat these people well. We gave gifts to one another. And, for six weeks all was well. Even when an Indian snatched a hat from my head, I did not punish him. I had heard that another English sea captain treated Indian people very poorly, but I did not.

Next, we set sail for England. But instead of heading East, we headed West, across the Pacific Ocean. When the Golden Hind reached England, we had sailed all the way around the world. I was only the second sea captain to ever do this. You can see all of my routes on the map below.

I delivered all of the treasure to Queen Elizabeth. This helped her make the English navy stronger. The queen was very pleased with me and made me a knight. Forever after, I would be known as Sir Francis Drake.

Answer these questions in complete sentences.

A. Tell two ways that I (Francis) tried to be a good and fair leader.

B. What other questions do you have about me, Sir Francis Drake? Write down TWO of them.

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So, we set sail. My ship was called the Golden Hind. As captain, I tried to be a good leader. So, I made sure that my ship had plenty of supplies. Also, I brought musicians and instruments onto the ship. The sounds of music made my crew comfortable.

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CLICK THIS!!! ;)

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Portrait of Sir Francis Drake
Library of Congress

Quick Facts

During his time, Sir Francis Drake was known in England as an expert sailor, adventurer, privateer, navigator, and war hero. The Spanish, however, viewed him as an illegal trader of enslaved people and a ruthless pirate.

Francis Drake came of age during a time of empire building for England, which trailed the earlier explorations and colonial expansion of its chief rival, Spain. His early years among the ships of the Thames Estuary were marked by the intensely emotional turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, which governed not only Europe's spiritual life, but also its political life.

Drake's quest for new lands and riches took him on many voyages across the Atlantic. During his first three trans-Atlantic voyages, he sailed with John Hawkins, his second cousin and the man who considered to have been the first English slave-trader. In 1568, during the third expedition, Hawkins' fleet was attacked by Spanish warships for engaging in illegal trade in the Caribbean Sea, including trading enslaved people. Hawkins lost four of six ships, and he and Drake narrowly escaped death. This event was a catalyst for Drake's hatred of Spain and preceded the many battles he waged against the Spanish.

It was during his fourth trans-Atlantic voyage, in 1572, that Drake is said to have climbed a tree on the Isthmus of Panama and first glimpsed the Pacific. Captivated by this view, he swore to sail an English ship to those waters.

Drake made good on this oath when he sailed from Plymouth in 1577 with a fleet of five ships and headed south and west amidst storms and mutiny. Passing through the Straights of Magellan, Drake reached the Pacific in September of 1578, and continued north, seeking the Northwest Passage. As he headed north, he continued striking at ships and ports along the western coast of South America, a significant source of Spain's colonial wealth. His ship, the Golden Hind (which had originally been named the Pelican), was soon filled with gold and silver, chests of rare porcelains from China, spices, and silks.

He ultimately gave up his search for the Northwest Passage and is believed to have spent six weeks at a "convenient and fit harbourgh" in what is now Point Reyes National Seashore in California, repairing the Golden Hind and preparing for a long voyage west across the Pacific.

Drake continued across the Pacific to Indonesia and then around Africa's Cape of Good Hope, completing the last leg of "The Voyage of Circumnavigation" as he returned to England. The Golden Hind, bulging with treasures from the East Indies, arrived in Plymouth in September of 1580. On April 4, 1581, Queen Elizabeth I knighted Drake onboard the Golden Hind in recognition of this journey.

While "The Voyage of Circumnavigation," is one of Drake's most famous maritime exploits, after serving as Mayor of Plymouth and a Member of Parliament in the early 1580s, he returned to sea in 1585 to raid Spanish settlements in the Caribbean. Drake commanded a fleet of about 25 ships and 2,300 men. His most important targets during this expedition were Santo Domingo (in present day Dominican Republic) and Cartagena (in present-day Colombia); from both of those towns he wrung fat ransoms.

Having devastated Spanish colonies in the Caribbean through the spring of 1586, Drake set course for England, following the Gulf Stream Current along Florida's east coast. On May 28, his lookout sighted the coastal watchtower of the San Agustín (St. Augustine) settlement (in present-day northeast Florida). Only about 150 soldiers constituted the bulk of the town's population, so Drake's forces were easily able to raid and burn the town. This action should have made clear to the Spanish both the weakness of the struggling colony and the formidable character of the English opponent. Yet, despite both the English and pirates repeatedly harassing the Spanish colony over the next century, the Spanish government was slow in building fortifications to strengthen its control of the area. Construction of Castillo de San Marcos to guard the Saint Augustin Inlet didn't begin until 1672, and construction of Fort Matanzas, to control Matanzas Inlet, the "backdoor" to San Agustín, didn't begin until 1740. Both fortifications are now National Park Service sites.

As he continued his voyage home, he also rescued the English military colony that was established on Roanoke Island in 1585 at what is now Fort Raleigh National Historic Site. Drake arrived at Roanoke in June of 1586 in time to rescue the 115-man military detachment from starvation and impending Algonquian attack, transporting them and their leader, Ralph Lane, back to England.

He didn't get to stay home long before he was dispatched by Queen Elizabeth I to lead an attack on the Spanish fleet at Cadiz in 1587. The expedition was a military success, with over one hundred Spanish vessels destroyed or captured and delaying King Philip's plan to launch his armada to invade England by a year. When the Spanish Armada did launch in 1588, Drake, serving as vice admiral in command of the nimble English fleet of warships, was instrumental in the destruction of the mighty Spanish Armada off the coast of England, helping to pave the way for England to become a global superpower and helping Drake secure a reputation as one of the finest sailors in history.

However, the defeat of the Spanish Armada was among the last of Drake's successful ventures. An expedition to attack Spain failed in 1589. Six years later, he returned to the Caribbean, where he would suffer two significant defeats.

After crossing the Atlantic, Drake passed through a channel between what are now the British Virgin Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands, a channel which now bears his name. And while Virgin Islands National Park on the island of St. John borders the Sir Francis Drake Channel, there is currently no evidence that he set foot on the island of St. John on his way to Puerto Rico, where the Battle of San Juan was fought.

On November 22, 1595, Drake encountered the Castillo San Felipe del Morro (El Morro)-which gained a reputation for being unconquerable and which is now part of San Juan National Historic Site -defending the harbor of San Juan. Good fortune was on the side of the Spanish; a miscalculation by Drake, together with the bravery of the defenders of El Morro, led to a totally unexpected defeat for the English.

Drake sailed on with his injured fleet to attack the port of Panamá in early January 1596, but was, once again, defeated. A couple weeks later, Sir Francis Drake died aboard ship of dysentery on January 28, 1596, and was buried at sea near Portobelo on the Caribbean coast of Panamá.

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Sir Francis Drake (U.S. National Park Service)

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Quick Facts During his time, Sir Francis Drake was known in England as an expert sailor, adventurer, privateer, navigator, and war hero. The Spanish, however, viewed him as an illegal trader of enslaved people and a ruthless pirate.

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Sir Francis Drake born.

Richard Eden publishes A Treatyse of the Newe India. First book in England to describe the new geographical knowledge.

1554 July 25
Queen Mary I and Philip Prince of Spain marry. Philip is proclaimed King of England, July 1554, as consort of Queen Mary I, Elizabeth's I's half sister.

Reign of King Philip II of Spain.

King Philip II fromSegundo Rey de Espana, 1619. Rare Book and Special Collections Division.

Queen Mary Tudor dies and Philip's title as King of England lapses. Elizabeth Tudor becomes Queen of England at the age of 25.

Queen Elizabeth I fromHeroologia Anglica, 1620. Rare Book and Special Collections Division.

John Hawkins, Drake's cousin, embarks on a slave trade expedition to West Africa and West Indies.

Signature of John Hawkins fromConquest of the Kingdom of New Galicia in North America..., 1588. Rare Book and Special Collections Division.

Drake sails with Captain Lovell to the Caribbean on a slave trading enterprise.

Drake sails with John Hawkins to New World where they are trapped by Spanish fleet that attacks and kills 500 Englishmen. Drake narrowly escapes on the Judith.

Drake sails to the West Indies.

Drake sails again to the West Indies. Plans to capture important town of Nombre de Dios, but was wounded in the attack. He later joined forces with Guillaume Le Testu on a mule train and made off with L 20,000 in gold and silver.

Drake sails around the world in the Golden Hind, is the First Englishman to do so.

The Golden Hind, from La HerdikeEenterprinse..., 1581. Rare Book and Special Collections Division.

Drake overtakes the Spanish ship Nuestra Senora de la Concepcion, nicknamed, Cacafuego. This ship proved to be Drake's richest plunder.

Drake discovers the coast of Upper California and names it New Albion. Drake stops in what is now the vicinity of the San Francisco Bay to overhaul his ship and makes friendly contract with the Indians of the area.

Description of California fromLe Voyage Cvrievx, 1641. Rare Book and Special Collections Division.

Drake sails across the Pacific.

Drake sights land in the Philippines.

Lands at Ternate in the East Indies. Makes a treaty with the Sultan and buys a cargo of cloves.

Drake sails to Java, across the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of Good Hope and arrives back in Plymouth on September 26.

Francis Drake is knighted by Queen Elizabeth.

Drake's Portrait fromThe World Encompassed, 1628 Rare Book and Special Collections Division.

Drake buys the first of his Devonshire estates, Buckland Abbey.

Page 18 and page 19.
Map of the County of Devon with the City and County of Execter, 1765. Rare Book and Special Collections Division.

Sir Francis Drake becomes mayor of Plymouth.

Drake serves as a member of parliament for Plymouth.

Letter by Duke of Medina Sidonia giving instructions regarding the expected attack of Cadiz by Drake. From Account of the Noteworthy Events of Admiral Porter Casanate..., 1587. Rare Book and Special Collections Division.

Drake raids and destroys many Spanish settlements in the Caribbean.

On the orders of Queen Elizabeth, Drake attacks, and destroys, the Spanish Fleet at Cadiz.

Drake presents Queen Elizabeth with manuscript with text the basis of which was later published as "Sir Francis Drake Revived." 1592/93.

Title page fromThe English hero, or, Sir Francis Drake Revived, 1695. Rare Book and Special Collections Division.

Drake dies of dysentery on the return journey after failing to capture Panama City.

Queen Elizabeth dies.

Effigies Regum ac Principum Queen Elizabeth I from , 1598. Rare Book and Special Collections Division.

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Sir Francis Drake born. Richard Eden publishes A Treatyse of the Newe India. First book in England to describe the new geographical knowledge. 1554 July 25 Queen Mary I and Philip Prince of Spain marry. Philip is proclaimed King of England, July 1554, as consort of Queen Mary I, Elizabeth's I's half sister.

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http://projectbritain.com/calendar/September/drake.html

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On this day in history and today including special days, historical facts, customs past and present.

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Sir Francis Drake was an English explorer, sea captain, privateer, slave trader, naval officer, and politician. Drake is best known for his circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition, from 1577 to 1580. Wikipedia

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Please click here if you are not redirected within a few seconds. Sir Francis Drake was an English explorer, sea captain, privateer, slave trader, naval officer, and politician. Drake is best known for his circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition, from 1577 to 1580. Wikipedia

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Facts Francis Drake https://kids.kiddle.co/Francis_Drake
Was he a good leader?
Paintings

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Vice Admiral Sir Francis Drake (1540 - 27 January 1596) was an English sea captain, privateer, navigator, slaver, and politician of the Elizabethan era.

Sir Francis Drake ( c.  1540 - 28 January 1596) was an English explorer, sea captain, privateer, slave trader, naval officer, and politician. Drake is best known for his circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition, from 1577 to 1580 (the first English circumnavigation, the second carried out in a single expedition, and third circumnavigation overall).

Elizabeth I awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581 which he received on the Golden Hind in Deptford. In the same year, he was appointed mayor of Plymouth. As a vice admiral, he was second-in-command of the English fleet in the victorious battle against the Spanish Armada in 1588. After unsuccessfully attacking San Juan, Puerto Rico, he died of dysentery in January 1596.

Drake's exploits made him a hero to the English, but the Spanish branded him a pirate, known to them as El Draque. King Philip II of Spain allegedly offered a reward of 20,000 ducats for his capture or death, equivalent to around £7,207,135.56 (or $8,816,416.86 USD) in 2022.

Birth and early years

Francis Drake was born in Tavistock, Devon, England. Although his birth date is not formally recorded. His birth date is estimated from contemporary sources such as: "Drake was two and twenty when he obtained the command of the Judith" (1566). This would date his birth to 1544. A date of c. 1540 is suggested from two portraits: one a miniature painted by Nicholas Hilliard in 1581 when he was allegedly 42, so born circa 1539, while the other, painted in 1594 when he was said to be 52, would give a birth year of around 1541. Lady Elliott-Drake, the collateral descendant, and final holder of the Drake Baronetcy, argued in her book on 'The Family and Heirs of Sir Francis Drake' that Drake's birth year was 1541.

He was the oldest of the twelve sons of Edmund Drake (1518-1585), a Protestant farmer, and his wife Mary Mylwaye. Drake probably was named after his godfather Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford.

Because of religious persecution during the Prayer Book Rebellion in 1549, the Drake family fled from Devon to Kent. There Drake's father obtained an appointment to minister the men in the King's Navy.

Drake's father apprenticed him to his neighbour, the master of a barque used for coastal trade transporting merchandise to France. The ship's master was so satisfied with the young Drake's conduct that, being unmarried and childless at his death, he bequeathed the barque to Drake.

Marriage and family

Francis Drake married Mary Newman at St. Budeaux church, Plymouth, in July 1569. She died 12 years later, in 1581. In 1585, Drake married Elizabeth Sydenham-born circa 1562, the only child of Sir George Sydenham, of Combe Sydenham, who was the High Sheriff of Somerset.

With the success of the Panama isthmus raid, in 1577 Elizabeth I of England sent Drake to start an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas. Drake acted on the plan authored by Sir Richard Grenville, who had received royal patent for it in 1574. Just a year later the patent was rescinded after protests from Philip of Spain.

Diego was once again employed under Drake; his fluency in Spanish and English would make him a useful interpreter when Spaniards or Spanish-speaking Portuguese were captured. He was employed as Drake's servant and was paid wages, just like the rest of the crew. Drake and the fleet set out from Plymouth on 15 November 1577, but bad weather threatened him and his fleet. They were forced to take refuge in Falmouth, Cornwall, from where they returned to Plymouth for repair.

After this major setback, Drake set sail again on 13 December aboard with four other ships and 164 men. He soon added a sixth ship, Mary (formerly Santa Maria), a Portuguese merchant ship that had been captured off the coast of Africa near the Cape Verde Islands. He also added its captain, Nuno da Silva, a man with considerable experience navigating in South American waters.

Drake's fleet suffered great attrition; he scuttled both Christopher and the flyboat Swan due to loss of men on the Atlantic crossing. He made landfall at the gloomy bay of San Julian, in what is now Argentina. Ferdinand Magellan had called here half a century earlier, where he put to death some mutineers. Drake's men saw weathered and bleached skeletons on the grim Spanish gibbets. Following Magellan's example, Drake tried and executed his own "mutineer" Thomas Doughty. The crew discovered that Mary had rotting timbers, so they burned the ship. Drake decided to remain the winter in San Julian before attempting the Strait of Magellan.

Defeat of the Spanish Armada

Drake was vice admiral in command of the English fleet (under Lord Howard of Effingham) when it overcame the Spanish Armada that was attempting to invade England in 1588. As the English fleet pursued the Armada up the English Channel in closing darkness, Drake broke off and captured the Spanish galleon Nuestra Señora del Rosario, along with Admiral Pedro de Valdés and all his crew. The Spanish ship was known to be carrying substantial funds to pay the Spanish Army in the Low Countries. Drake's ship had been leading the English pursuit of the Armada by means of a lantern. By extinguishing this for the capture, Drake put the fleet into disarray overnight.

On the night of 29 July, along with Howard, Drake organised fire-ships, causing the majority of the Spanish captains to break formation and sail out of Calais into the open sea. The next day, Drake was present at the Battle of Gravelines.

The most famous (but probably apocryphal) anecdote about Drake relates that, prior to the battle, he was playing a game of bowls on Plymouth Hoe. On being warned of the approach of the Spanish fleet, Drake is said to have remarked that there was plenty of time to finish the game and still beat the Spaniards, perhaps because he was waiting for high tide. There is no known eyewitness account of this incident and the earliest retelling of it was printed 37 years later. Adverse winds and currents caused some delay in the launching of the English fleet as the Spanish drew nearer, perhaps prompting a popular myth of Drake's cavalier attitude to the Spanish threat. It might also have been later ascribed to the stoic attribute of British culture.

Cultural impact

In Valparaíso, Chile, folklore associates a cave known as Cueva del Pirata (lit. "Cave of the Pirate") with Francis Drake. A legend says that when Drake sacked the port he became disappointed over the scant plunder. Drake proceeded to enter the churches in fury to sack them. However he still found the plunder to be not worth enough to take it on board his galleon, hiding it in the cave. Another version of the legend says a treasure was left in the cave because the plunder had been more than he could take on board. Together with the treasure Drake would have left a man chained or a sentry to wait for them to return, which they did not. The treasure is said to still be there, but those who approach it drown.

Further north in Chile a tale says that because Drake feared falling prisoner to the Spanish he buried his treasure near Arica, these being one of many Chilean stories about entierros ("burrowings").

In the UK there are various places named after him, especially in Plymouth, Devon. Places there carrying his name include the naval base HMS Drake, Drake's Island, and a shopping centre and roundabout named Drake Circus. Plymouth Hoe is also home to a statue of Drake. The Sir Francis Drake Channel is located in the British Virgin Islands.

Several landmarks in northern California were named after Drake, beginning in the late 19th century and continuing into the 20th century. protests against police brutality and racism drew critical attention to place names and monuments connected to white supremacy. Several California landmarks that commemorated Drake were removed or renamed. Citing Drake's associations with the transatlantic slave trade, colonialism and piracy, Sir Francis Drake High School, in San Anselmo, California, changed its name to Archie Williams High School, after former teacher and Olympic athlete Archie Williams. A statue of Drake in Larkspur, California was also removed by the city authorities. Multiple jurisdictions in Marin County considered renaming Sir Francis Drake Boulevard, one of its major thoroughfares, but left the name intact when they failed to reach a consensus. In San Francisco, the Sir Francis Drake Hotel was renamed the Beacon Grand Hotel.

Drake's will was the focus of a vast confidence scheme which Oscar Hartzell perpetrated in the 1920s and 1930s. He convinced thousands of people, mostly in the American Midwest, that Drake's fortune was being held by the British government, and had compounded to a huge amount. If their last name was Drake they might be eligible for a share if they paid Hartzell to be their agent. The swindle continued until a copy of Drake's will was brought to Hartzell's mail fraud trial and he was convicted and imprisoned.

Drake's Drum has become an icon of English folklore with its variation of the classic King asleep in mountain story motif.

Drake was a major focus in the video game series Uncharted, specifically its first and third instalments, Uncharted: Drake's Fortune and Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception, respectively. The series follows Nathan Drake, a self-proclaimed descendant of Drake who retraces his ancestor's voyages.

Drake was the subject of a TV series, Sir Francis Drake (1961-1962). Terence Morgan played Drake in the 26-episode adventure drama.

Images for kids

A map of Drake's route around the world. The northern limit of Drake's exploration of the Pacific coast of North America is still in dispute. Drake's Bay is south of Cape Mendocino.

Arms of Sir Francis Drake: Sable, a fess wavy between two pole-stars Arctic and Antarctic argent

Arms of Drake of Ash: Argent, a wyvern wings displayed and tail nowed gules. The Drake family of Crowndale and Buckland Abbey used the same arms but the tail of the wyvern is not nowed (knotted)

Sir Francis Drake with his new heraldic achievement, with motto: Sic Parvis Magna, translated literally: "Thus great things from small things (come)". The hand out of the clouds is labelled Auxilio Divino, or "With Divine Help"

In Spanish: Francis Drake para niños

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In addition to circumnavigating the world, Sir Francis Drake is known for making several voyages to the West Indies as a slave trader. He later served Queen Elizabeth I as a privateer and naval officer charged with striking against Spain's possessions. He also served as the mayor of Plymouth, England.

What was Francis Drake's personality?

What was Sir Francis Drake early life like?

Sir Francis Drake was an English explorer, sea captain, privateer, slave trader, naval officer, and politician. Drake is best known for his circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition, from 1577 to 1580. Wikipedia

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what was francis drake like - Google Search

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Please click here if you are not redirected within a few seconds. In addition to circumnavigating the world, Sir Francis Drake is known for making several voyages to the West Indies as a slave trader. He later served Queen Elizabeth I as a privateer and naval officer charged with striking against Spain's possessions.

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Sir Francis Drake | Biography, Routes, Ship, Born, Death, Accomplishments, & Facts

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Sir Francis Drake, (born c. 1540–43, Devonshire, England—died January 28, 1596, at sea, off Puerto Bello, Panama), English admiral who circumnavigated the globe (1577–80) and was the most renowned seaman of the Elizabethan Age. Born on the Crowndale estate of Lord Francis Russell, 2nd earl…

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cortes

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Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro Altamirano, 1st Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca (; Spanish: [eɾˈnaŋkoɾˈtesðemonˈrojipiˈθaroaltamiˈɾano]; December 1485 - December 2, 1547) was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of what is now mainland Mexico under the rule of the king of Castile in the early 16th century. Cortés was part of the generation of Spanish explorers and conquistadors who began the first phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.

Born in Medellín, Spain, to a family of lesser nobility, Cortés chose to pursue adventure and riches in the New World. He went to Hispaniola and later to Cuba, where he received an encomienda (the right to the labor of certain subjects). For a short time, he served as (magistrate) of the second Spanish town founded on the island. In 1519, he was elected captain of the third expedition to the mainland, which he partly funded. His enmity with the governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, resulted in the recall of the expedition at the last moment, an order which Cortés ignored.

Arriving on the continent, Cortés executed a successful strategy of allying with some indigenous people against others. He also used a native woman, Doña Marina, as an interpreter. She later bore his first son. When the governor of Cuba sent emissaries to arrest Cortés, he fought them and won, using the extra troops as reinforcements. Cortés wrote letters directly to the king asking to be acknowledged for his successes instead of being punished for mutiny. After he overthrew the Aztec Empire, Cortés was awarded the title of marqués del Valle de Oaxaca, while the more prestigious title of viceroy was given to a high-ranking nobleman, Antonio de Mendoza. In 1541 Cortés returned to Spain, where he died six years later of natural causes.

Cortés himself used the form "Hernando" or "Fernando" for his first name, as seen in the contemporary archive documents, his signature and the title of an early portrait. William Hickling Prescott's Conquest of Mexico (1843) also refers to him as Hernando Cortés. At some point writers began using the shortened form of "Hernán" more generally.

Physical appearance

In addition to the illustration by the German artist Christoph Weiditz in his Trachtenbuch, there are three known portraits of Hernán Cortés which were likely made during his lifetime, though only copies of them have survived. All of these portraits show Cortés in the later years of his life. The account of the conquest of the Aztec Empire written by Bernal Díaz del Castillo, gives a detailed description of Hernán Cortés's physical appearance:

He was of good stature and body, well proportioned and stocky, the color of his face was somewhat grey, not very cheerful, and a longer face would have suited him more. His eyes seemed at times loving and at times grave and serious. His beard was black and sparse, as was his hair, which at the time he sported in the same way as his beard. He had a high chest, a well shaped back and was lean with little belly.

Cortés was born in 1485 in the town of Medellín, then a village in the Kingdom of Castile, now a municipality of the modern-day province of Badajoz in Extremadura, Spain. His father, Martín Cortés de Monroy, born in 1449 to Rodrigo or Ruy Fernández de Monroy and his wife María Cortés, was an infantry captain of distinguished ancestry but slender means. Hernán's mother was Catalína Pizarro Altamirano.

Through his mother, Hernán was second cousin once removed of Francisco Pizarro, who later conquered the Inca Empire of modern-day Peru, and not to be confused with another Francisco Pizarro, who joined Cortés to conquer the Aztecs. (His maternal grandmother, Leonor Sánchez Pizarro Altamirano, was first cousin of Pizarro's father Gonzalo Pizarro y Rodriguez.) Through his father, Hernán was related to Nicolás de Ovando, the third governor of Hispaniola. His paternal great-grandfather was Rodrigo de Monroy y Almaraz, 5th Lord of Monroy.

According to his biographer and chaplain, Francisco López de Gómara, Cortés was pale and sickly as a child. At the age of 14, he was sent to study Latin under an uncle in Salamanca. Later historians have misconstrued this personal tutoring as time enrolled at the University of Salamanca.

After two years, Cortés returned home to Medellín, much to the irritation of his parents, who had hoped to see him equipped for a profitable legal career. However, those two years in Salamanca, plus his long period of training and experience as a notary, first in Valladolid and later in Hispaniola, gave him knowledge of the legal codes of Castile that he applied to help justify his unauthorized conquest of Mexico.

At this point in his life, Cortés was described by Gómara as ruthless, haughty, and mischievous. The 16-year-old youth had returned home to feel constrained life in his small provincial town. By this time, news of the exciting discoveries of Christopher Columbus in the New World was streaming back to Spain.

Early career in the New World

Plans were made for Cortés to sail to the Americas with a family acquaintance and distant relative, Nicolás de Ovando, the newly appointed Governor of Hispaniola. (This island is now divided between Haiti and the Dominican Republic). Cortés suffered an injury and was prevented from traveling. He spent the next year wandering the country, probably spending most of his time in Spain's southern ports of Cadiz, Palos, Sanlucar, and Seville. He finally left for Hispaniola in 1504 and became a colonist.

Cortés reached Hispaniola in a ship commanded by Alonso Quintero, who tried to deceive his superiors and reach the New World before them in order to secure personal advantages. Quintero's mutinous conduct may have served as a model for Cortés in his subsequent career.

Upon his arrival in 1504 in Santo Domingo, the capital of Hispaniola, the 18-year-old Cortés registered as a citizen; this entitled him to a building plot and land to farm. Soon afterward, Governor Nicolás de Ovando granted him an encomienda and appointed him as a notary of the town of Azua de Compostela. His next five years seemed to help establish him in the colony; in 1506, Cortés took part in the conquests of Hispaniola and Cuba. The expedition leader awarded him a large estate of land and Taíno slaves for his efforts.

Cuba (1511-1519)

In 1511, Cortés accompanied Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, an aide of the Governor of Hispaniola, in his expedition to conquer Cuba. Velázquez was appointed Governor of New Spain. At the age of 26, Cortés was made clerk to the treasurer with the responsibility of ensuring that the Crown received the quinto, or customary one fifth of the profits from the expedition.

Velázquez was so impressed with Cortés that he secured a high political position for him in the colony. He became secretary for Governor Velázquez. Cortés was twice appointed municipal magistrate () of Santiago. In Cuba, Cortés became a man of substance with an encomienda to provide Indian labor for his mines and cattle. This new position of power also made him the new source of leadership, which opposing forces in the colony could then turn to. In 1514, Cortés led a group which demanded that more Indians be assigned to the settlers.

As time went on, relations between Cortés and Governor Velázquez became strained. Cortés found time to become romantically involved with Catalina Xuárez (or Juárez), the sister-in-law of Governor Velázquez. Part of Velázquez's displeasure seems to have been based on a belief that Cortés was trifling with Catalina's affections. Cortés was temporarily distracted by one of Catalina's sisters but finally married Catalina, reluctantly, under pressure from Governor Velázquez. However, by doing so, he hoped to secure the good will of both her family and that of Velázquez.

It was not until he had been almost 15 years in the Indies that Cortés began to look beyond his substantial status as mayor of the capital of Cuba and as a man of affairs in the thriving colony. He missed the first two expeditions, under the orders of Francisco Hernández de Córdoba and then Juan de Grijalva, sent by Diego Velázquez to Mexico in 1518. News reached Velázquez that Juan de Grijalva had established a colony on the mainland where there was a bonanza of silver and gold, and Velázquez decided to send him help. Cortés was appointed Captain-General of this new expedition in October 1518, but was advised to move fast before Velázquez changed his mind.

With Cortés's experience as an administrator, knowledge gained from many failed expeditions, and his impeccable rhetoric he was able to gather six ships and 300 men, within a month. Velázquez's jealousy exploded and he decided to put the expedition in other hands. However, Cortés quickly gathered more men and ships in other Cuban ports.

Conquest of Mexico (1519-1521)

A map depicting Cortés's invasion route from the coast to the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.

In 1518, Velázquez put Cortés in command of an expedition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for colonization. At the last minute, due to the old argument between the two, Velázquez changed his mind and revoked Cortés's charter. Cortés ignored the orders and, in an act of open mutiny, went anyway in February 1519. He stopped in Trinidad, Cuba, to hire more soldiers and obtain more horses. Accompanied by about 11 ships, 500 men (including seasoned slaves), 13 horses, and a small number of cannons, Cortés landed on the Yucatán Peninsula in Maya territory. There he encountered Geronimo de Aguilar, a Spanish Franciscan priest who had survived a shipwreck followed by a period in captivity with the Maya, before escaping. Aguilar had learned the Chontal Maya language and was able to translate for Cortés.

Cortés's military experience was almost nonexistent, but he proved to be an effective leader of his small army and won early victories over the coastal Indians. In March 1519, Cortés formally claimed the land for the Spanish crown. Then he proceeded to Tabasco, where he met with resistance and won a battle against the natives. He received twenty young indigenous women from the vanquished natives, and he converted them all to Christianity.

Among these women was La Malinche, his future mistress and mother of his son Martín. Malinche knew both the Nahuatl language and Chontal Maya, thus enabling Cortés to communicate with the Aztecs through Aguilar. At San Juan de Ulúa on Easter Sunday 1519, Cortés met with Moctezuma II's Aztec Empire governors Tendile and Pitalpitoque.

In July 1519, his men took over Veracruz. By this act, Cortés dismissed the authority of the governor of Cuba to place himself directly under the orders of King Charles. To eliminate any ideas of retreat, Cortés scuttled his ships.

March on Tenochtitlán

In Veracruz, he met some of the tributaries of the Aztecs and asked them to arrange a meeting with Moctezuma II, the (ruler) of the Aztec Empire. Moctezuma repeatedly turned down the meeting, but Cortés was determined. Leaving a hundred men in Veracruz, Cortés marched on Tenochtitlán in mid-August 1519, along with 600 soldiers, 15 horsemen, 15 cannons, and hundreds of indigenous carriers and warriors.

On the way to Tenochtitlán, Cortés made alliances with indigenous peoples such as the Totonacs of Cempoala and the Nahuas of Tlaxcala. The Otomis initially, and then the Tlaxcalans clashed with the Spanish in a series of three battles from 2 to 5 September 1519, and at one point, Diaz remarked, "they surrounded us on every side". After Cortés continued to release prisoners with messages of peace, and realizing the Spanish were enemies of Moctezuma, Xicotencatl the Elder and Maxixcatzin persuaded the Tlaxcalan warleader, Xicotencatl the Younger, that it would be better to ally with the newcomers than to kill them.: 143-155, 171

In October 1519, Cortés and his men, accompanied by about 1,000 Tlaxcalteca, marched to Cholula, the second-largest city in central Mexico. Cortés, either in a pre-meditated effort to instill fear upon the Aztecs waiting for him at Tenochtitlan or (as he later claimed, when he was being investigated) wishing to make an example when he feared native treachery, massacred thousands of unarmed members of the nobility gathered at the central plaza, then partially burned the city.

Cortés and La Malinche meet Moctezuma in Tenochtitlán, November 8, 1519.

By the time he arrived in Tenochtitlán, the Spaniards had a large army. On November 8, 1519, they were peacefully received by Moctezuma II. Moctezuma deliberately let Cortés enter the Aztec capital, the island city of Tenochtitlán, hoping to get to know their weaknesses better and to crush them later.

Moctezuma gave lavish gifts of gold to the Spaniards which, rather than placating them, excited their ambitions for plunder. In his letters to King Charles, Cortés claimed to have learned at this point that he was considered by the Aztecs to be either an emissary of the feathered serpent god Quetzalcoatl or Quetzalcoatl himself - a belief which has been contested by a few modern historians. But quickly Cortés learned that several Spaniards on the coast had been killed by Aztecs while supporting the Totonacs, and decided to take Moctezuma as a hostage in his palace, indirectly ruling Tenochtitlán through him.

Cristóbal de Olid leads Spanish soldiers with Tlaxcalan allies in the conquests of Jalisco, 1522.

Meanwhile, Velázquez sent another expedition, led by Pánfilo de Narváez, to oppose Cortés, arriving in Mexico in April 1520 with 1,100 men. Cortés left 200 men in Tenochtitlán and took the rest to confront Narváez. He overcame Narváez, despite his numerical inferiority, and convinced the rest of Narváez's men to join him. In Mexico, one of Cortés's lieutenants Pedro de Alvarado, committed the massacre in the Great Temple, triggering a local rebellion.

Cortés speedily returned to Tenochtitlán. On July 1, 1520, Moctezuma was killed (he was stoned to death by his own people, as reported in Spanish accounts; although some claim he was murdered by the Spaniards once they realized his inability to placate the locals). Faced with a hostile population, Cortés decided to flee for Tlaxcala. During the Noche Triste (June 30 - July 1, 1520), the Spaniards managed a narrow escape from Tenochtitlán across the Tlacopan causeway, while their rearguard was being massacred. Much of the treasure looted by Cortés was lost (as well as his artillery) during this panicked escape from Tenochtitlán.

Destruction of Tenochtitlán

After a battle in Otumba, they managed to reach Tlaxcala, having lost 870 men. With the assistance of their allies, Cortés's men finally prevailed with reinforcements arriving from Cuba. Cortés began a policy of attrition towards Tenochtitlán, cutting off supplies and subduing the Aztecs' allied cities. During the siege he would construct brigantines in the lake and slowly destroy blocks of the city to avoid fighting in an urban setting. The Mexicas would fall back to Tlatelolco and even succeed in ambushing the pursuing Spanish forces, inflicting heavy losses, but would ultimately be the last portion of the island that resisted the conquistadores. The siege of Tenochtitlán ended with Spanish victory and the destruction of the city.

In January 1521, Cortés countered a conspiracy against him, headed by Antonio de Villafana, who was hanged for the offense. Finally, with the capture of Cuauhtémoc, the (ruler) of Tenochtitlán, on August 13, 1521, the Aztec Empire was captured, and Cortés was able to claim it for Spain, thus renaming the city Mexico City. From 1521 to 1524, Cortés personally governed Mexico.

Appointment to governorship of Mexico and internal dissensions

A painting from Diego Muñoz Camargo's History of Tlaxcala (Lienzo Tlaxcala), c. 1585, showing La Malinche and Hernán Cortés.

Many historical sources have conveyed an impression that Cortés was unjustly treated by the Spanish Crown, and that he received nothing but ingratitude for his role in establishing New Spain. This picture is the one Cortés presents in his letters and in the later biography written by Francisco López de Gómara. However, there may be more to the picture than this. Cortés's own sense of accomplishment, entitlement, and vanity may have played a part in his deteriorating position with the king:

Cortés personally was not ungenerously rewarded, but he speedily complained of insufficient compensation to himself and his comrades. Thinking himself beyond reach of restraint, he disobeyed many of the orders of the Crown, and, what was more imprudent, said so in a letter to the emperor, dated October 15, 1524 (Ycazbalceta, "Documentos para la Historia de México", Mexico, 1858, I). In this letter Cortés, besides recalling in a rather abrupt manner that the conquest of Mexico was due to him alone, deliberately acknowledges his disobedience in terms which could not fail to create a most unfavourable impression.

King Charles appointed Cortés as governor, captain general and chief justice of the newly conquered territory, dubbed " New Spain of the Ocean Sea". But also, much to the dismay of Cortés, four royal officials were appointed at the same time to assist him in his governing - in effect, submitting him to close observation and administration. Cortés initiated the construction of Mexico City, destroying Aztec temples and buildings and then rebuilding on the Aztec ruins what soon became the most important European city in the Americas.

Cortés managed the founding of new cities and appointed men to extend Spanish rule to all of New Spain, imposing the encomienda system in 1524. He reserved many encomiendas for himself and for his retinue, which they considered just rewards for their accomplishment in conquering central Mexico. However, later arrivals and members of factions antipathetic to Cortés complained of the favoritism that excluded them.

In 1523, the Crown (possibly influenced by Cortés's enemy, Bishop Fonseca), sent a military force under the command of Francisco de Garay to conquer and settle the northern part of Mexico, the region of Pánuco. This was another setback for Cortés who mentioned this in his fourth letter to the King in which he describes himself as the victim of a conspiracy by his archenemies Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, Diego Columbus and Bishop Fonseca as well as Francisco Garay. The influence of Garay was effectively stopped by this appeal to the King who sent out a decree forbidding Garay to interfere in the politics of New Spain, causing him to give up without a fight.

Royal grant of arms (1525)

The coat of arms awarded to Cortés, by King Carlos I of Spain.

Although Cortés had flouted the authority of Diego Velázquez in sailing to the mainland and then leading an expedition of conquest, Cortés's spectacular success was rewarded by the crown with a coat of arms, a mark of high honor, following the conqueror's request. The document granting the coat of arms summarizes Cortés's accomplishments in the conquest of Mexico. The proclamation of the king says in part:

We, respecting the many labors, dangers, and adventures which you underwent as stated above, and so that there might remain a perpetual memorial of you and your services and that you and your descendants might be more fully honored ... it is our will that besides your coat of arms of your lineage, which you have, you may have and bear as your coat of arms, known and recognized, a shield ...

The grant specifies the iconography of the coat of arms, the central portion divided into quadrants. In the upper portion, there is a "black eagle with two heads on a white field, which are the arms of the empire". Below that is a "golden lion on a red field, in memory of the fact that you, the said Hernando Cortés, by your industry and effort brought matters to the state described above" (i.e., the conquest). The specificity of the other two quadrants is linked directly to Mexico, with one quadrant showing three crowns representing the three Aztec emperors of the conquest era, Moctezuma, Cuitlahuac, and Cuauhtemoc and the other showing the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. Encircling the central shield are symbols of the seven city-states around the lake and their lords that Cortés defeated, with the lords "to be shown as prisoners bound with a chain which shall be closed with a lock beneath the shield".

Death of his first wife and remarriage

Cortés's wife Catalina Súarez arrived in New Spain around summer 1522, along with her sister and brother. His marriage to Catalina was at this point extremely awkward, since she was a kinswoman of the governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, whose authority Cortés had thrown off and who was therefore now his enemy. Catalina lacked the noble title of doña, so at this point his marriage with her no longer raised his status. Their marriage had been childless. Since Cortés had sired children with a variety of indigenous women, including a son around 1522 by his cultural translator, Doña Marina, Cortés knew he was capable of fathering children. Cortés's only male heir at this point was illegitimate, but nonetheless named after Cortés's father, Martín Cortés. This son Martín Cortés was also popularly called "El Mestizo".

Catalina Suárez died under mysterious circumstances the night of November 1-2, 1522. There were accusations at the time that Cortés had murdered his wife. There was an investigation into her death, interviewing a variety of household residents and others. The documentation of the investigation was published in the nineteenth century in Mexico and these archival documents were uncovered in the twentieth century. The death of Catalina Suárez produced a scandal and investigation, but Cortés was now free to marry someone of high status more appropriate to his wealth and power. In 1526, he built an imposing residence for himself, the Palace of Cortés in Cuernavaca, in a region close to the capital where he had extensive encomienda holdings. In 1529 he had been accorded the noble designation of , but more importantly was given the noble title of Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca and married the Spanish noblewoman Doña Juana de Zúñiga. The marriage produced three children, including another son, who was also named Martín. As the first-born legitimate son, Don Martín Cortés y Zúñiga was now Cortés's heir and succeeded him as holder of the title and estate of the Marquessate of the Valley of Oaxaca. Cortés's legitimate daughters were Doña Maria, Doña Catalina, and Doña Juana.

Cortés and the "Spiritual Conquest" of Mexico

Since the conversion to Christianity of indigenous peoples was an essential and integral part of the extension of Spanish power, making formal provisions for that conversion once the military conquest was completed was an important task for Cortés. During the Age of Discovery, the Catholic Church had seen early attempts at conversion in the Caribbean islands by Spanish friars, particularly the mendicant orders. Cortés made a request to the Spanish monarch to send Franciscan and Dominican friars to Mexico to convert the vast indigenous populations to Christianity. In his fourth letter to the king, Cortés pleaded for friars rather than diocesan or secular priests because those clerics were in his view a serious danger to the Indians' conversion.

If these people [Indians] were now to see the affairs of the Church and the service of God in the hands of canons or other dignitaries, and saw them indulge in the vices and profanities now common in Spain, knowing that such men were the ministers of God, it would bring our Faith into much harm that I believe any further preaching would be of no avail.

He wished the mendicants to be the main evangelists. Mendicant friars did not usually have full priestly powers to perform all the sacraments needed for conversion of the Indians and growth of the neophytes in the Christian faith, so Cortés laid out a solution to this to the king.

Your Majesty should likewise beseech His Holiness [the pope] to grant these powers to the two principal persons in the religious orders that are to come here, and that they should be his delegates, one from the Order of St. Francis and the other from the Order of St. Dominic. They should bring the most extensive powers Your Majesty is able to obtain, for, because these lands are so far from the Church of Rome, and we, the Christians who now reside here and shall do so in the future, are so far from the proper remedies of our consciences and, as we are human, so subject to sin, it is essential that His Holiness should be generous with us and grant to these persons most extensive powers, to be handed down to persons actually in residence here whether it be given to the general of each order or to his provincials.

The Franciscans arrived in May 1524, a symbolically powerful group of twelve known as the Twelve Apostles of Mexico, led by Fray Martín de Valencia. Franciscan Geronimo de Mendieta claimed that Cortés's most important deed was the way he met this first group of Franciscans. The conqueror himself was said to have met the friars as they approached the capital, kneeling at the feet of the friars who had walked from the coast. This story was told by Franciscans to demonstrate Cortés piety and humility and was a powerful message to all, including the Indians, that Cortés's earthly power was subordinate to the spiritual power of the friars. However, one of the first twelve Franciscans, Fray Toribio de Benavente Motolinia does not mention it in his history. Cortés and the Franciscans had a particularly strong alliance in Mexico, with Franciscans seeing him as "the new Moses" for conquering Mexico and opening it to Christian evangelization. In Motolinia's 1555 response to Dominican Bartolomé de Las Casas, he praises Cortés.

And as to those who murmur against the Marqués del Valle [Cortés], God rest him, and who try to blacken and obscure his deeds, I believe that before God their deeds are not as acceptable as those of the Marqués. Although as a human he was a sinner, he had faith and works of a good Christian, and a great desire to employ his life and property in widening and augmenting the fair of Jesus Christ, and dying for the conversion of these gentiles ... Who has loved and defended the Indians of this new world like Cortés? ... Through this captain, God opened the door for us to preach his holy gospel and it was he who caused the Indians to revere the holy sacraments and respect the ministers of the church.

In Fray Bernardino de Sahagún's 1585 revision of the conquest narrative first codified as Book XII of the Florentine Codex, there are laudatory references to Cortés that do not appear in the earlier text from the indigenous perspective. Whereas Book XII of the Florentine Codex concludes with an account of Spaniards' search for gold, in Sahagún's 1585 revised account, he ends with praise of Cortés for requesting the Franciscans be sent to Mexico to convert the Indians.

Expedition to Honduras and aftermath (1524-1541)

Expedition to Honduras (1524-1526)

From 1524 to 1526, Cortés headed an expedition to Honduras where he defeated Cristóbal de Olid, who had claimed Honduras as his own under the influence of the Governor of Cuba Diego Velázquez. Fearing that Cuauhtémoc might head an insurrection in Mexico, he brought him with him to Honduras. In a controversial move, Cuauhtémoc was executed during the journey. Raging over Olid's treason, Cortés issued a decree to arrest Velázquez, whom he was sure was behind Olid's treason. This, however, only served to further estrange the Crown of Castile and the Council of Indies, both of which were already beginning to feel anxious about Cortés's rising power.

Cortés's fifth letter to King Charles attempts to justify his conduct, concludes with a bitter attack on "various and powerful rivals and enemies" who have "obscured the eyes of your Majesty". Charles, who was also Holy Roman Emperor, had little time for distant colonies (much of Charles's reign was taken up with wars with France, the German Protestants and the expanding Ottoman Empire), except insofar as they contributed to finance his wars. In 1521, year of the Conquest, Charles was attending to matters in his German domains and Bishop Adrian of Utrecht functioned as regent in Spain.

Velázquez and Fonseca persuaded the regent to appoint a commissioner (a Juez de residencia, Luis Ponce de León) with powers to investigate Cortés's conduct and even arrest him. Cortés was once quoted as saying that it was "more difficult to contend against [his] own countrymen than against the Aztecs." Governor Diego Velázquez continued to be a thorn in his side, teaming up with Bishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, chief of the Spanish colonial department, to undermine him in the Council of the Indies.

A few days after Cortés's return from his expedition, Ponce de León suspended Cortés from his office of governor of New Spain. The Licentiate then fell ill and died shortly after his arrival, appointing Marcos de Aguilar as alcalde mayor. The aged Aguilar also became sick and appointed Alonso de Estrada governor, who was confirmed in his functions by a royal decree in August 1527. Cortés, suspected of poisoning them, refrained from taking over the government.

Estrada sent Diego de Figueroa to the south. De Figueroa raided graveyards and extorted contributions, meeting his end when the ship carrying these treasures sank. Albornoz persuaded Alonso de Estrada to release Gonzalo de Salazar and Chirinos. When Cortés complained angrily after one of his adherents' hands was cut off, Estrada ordered him exiled. Cortés sailed for Spain in 1528 to appeal to King Charles.

First return to Spain (1528) and Marquessate of the Valley of Oaxaca

Emperor Charles V with Hound (1532), a painting by the 16th-century artist Jakob Seisenegger.

In 1528, Cortés returned to Spain to appeal to the justice of his master, Charles V. Juan Altamirano and Alonso Valiente stayed in Mexico and acted as Cortés's representatives during his absence. Cortés presented himself with great splendor before Charles V's court. By this time Charles had returned and Cortés forthrightly responded to his enemy's charges. Denying he had held back on gold due the crown, he showed that he had contributed more than the quinto (one-fifth) required. Indeed, he had spent lavishly to build the new capital of Mexico City on the ruins of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán, leveled during the siege that brought down the Aztec empire.

He was received by Charles with every distinction, and decorated with the order of Santiago. In return for his efforts in expanding the still young Spanish Empire, Cortés was rewarded in 1529 by being accorded the noble title of but more importantly named the "Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca" ( Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca) and married the Spanish noblewoman Doña Juana Zúñiga, after the 1522 death of his much less distinguished first wife, Catalina Suárez. The noble title and senorial estate of the Marquesado was passed down to his descendants until 1811. The Oaxaca Valley was one of the wealthiest regions of New Spain, and Cortés had 23,000 vassals in 23 named encomiendas in perpetuity.

Although confirmed in his land holdings and vassals, he was not reinstated as governor and was never again given any important office in the administration of New Spain. During his travel to Spain, his property was mismanaged by abusive colonial administrators. He sided with local natives in a lawsuit. The natives documented the abuses in the Huexotzinco Codex.

The entailed estate and title passed to his legitimate son Don Martín Cortés upon Cortés's death in 1547, who became the Second Marquess. Don Martín's association with the so-called Encomenderos' Conspiracy endangered the entailed holdings, but they were restored and remained the continuing reward for Hernán Cortés's family through the generations.

Return to Mexico (1530) and appointment of a viceroy (1535)

Cortés returned to Mexico in 1530 with new titles and honors. Although Cortés still retained military authority and permission to continue his conquests, Don Antonio de Mendoza was appointed in 1535 as a viceroy to administer New Spain's civil affairs. This division of power led to continual dissension, and caused the failure of several enterprises in which Cortés was engaged. On returning to Mexico, Cortés found the country in a state of anarchy. There was a strong suspicion in court circles of an intended rebellion by Cortés.

After reasserting his position and reestablishing some sort of order, Cortés retired to his estates at Cuernavaca, about 30 miles (48 km) south of Mexico City. There he concentrated on the building of his palace and on Pacific exploration. Remaining in Mexico between 1530 and 1541, Cortés quarreled with Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán and disputed the right to explore the territory that is today California with Antonio de Mendoza, the first viceroy.

Cortés acquired several silver mines in Zumpango del Rio in 1534. By the early 1540s, he owned 20 silver mines in Sultepec, 12 in Taxco, and 3 in Zacualpan. Earlier, Cortés had claimed the silver in the Tamazula area.

In 1536, Cortés explored the northwestern part of Mexico and discovered the Baja California peninsula. Cortés also spent time exploring the Pacific coast of Mexico. The Gulf of California was originally named the Sea of Cortés by its discoverer Francisco de Ulloa in 1539. This was the last major expedition by Cortés.

Later life and death

Second return to Spain

After his exploration of Baja California, Cortés returned to Spain in 1541, hoping to confound his angry civilians, who had brought many lawsuits against him (for debts, abuse of power, etc.). On his return he went through a crowd to speak to the emperor, who demanded of him who he was. "I am a man," replied Cortés, "who has given you more provinces than your ancestors left you cities."

Expedition against Algiers

The emperor finally permitted Cortés to join him and his fleet commanded by Andrea Doria at the great expedition against Algiers in the Barbary Coast in 1541, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire. During this campaign, Cortés was almost drowned in a storm that hit his fleet while he was pursuing the Pasha of Algiers.

Last years, death, and remains

Having spent a great deal of his own money to finance expeditions, he was now heavily in debt. In February 1544 he made a claim on the royal treasury, but was ignored for the next three years. Disgusted, he decided to return to Mexico in 1547. When he reached Seville, he was stricken with dysentery. He died in Castilleja de la Cuesta, Seville province, on December 2, 1547, from a case of pleurisy at the age of 62.

He left his many mestizo and white children well cared for in his will, along with every one of their mothers. He requested in his will that his remains eventually be buried in Mexico. Before he died he had the Pope remove the "natural" status of four of his children (legitimizing them in the eyes of the church), including Martin, the son he had with Doña Marina (also known as La Malinche), said to be his favourite.[citation needed ] His daughter, Doña Catalina, however, died shortly after her father's death.

Bust Hernán Cortés in the General Archive of the Indies in Seville

After his death, his body was moved more than eight times for several reasons. On December 4, 1547, he was buried in the mausoleum of the Duke of Medina in the church of San Isidoro del Campo, Sevilla. Three years later (1550) due to the space being required by the duke, his body was moved to the altar of Santa Catarina in the same church. In his testament, Cortés asked for his body to be buried in the monastery he had ordered to be built in Coyoacan in México, ten years after his death, but the monastery was never built. So in 1566, his body was sent to New Spain and buried in the church of San Francisco de Texcoco, where his mother and one of his sisters were buried.

In 1629, Cortes's last male descendant Don Pedro Cortés, fourth Marquez del Valle, died. The viceroy decided to move the bones of Cortés along with those of his descendant to the Franciscan church in México. This was delayed for nine years, while his body stayed in the main room of the palace of the viceroy. Eventually it was moved to the Sagrario of Franciscan church, where it stayed for 87 years. In 1716, it was moved to another place in the same church. In 1794, his bones were moved to the " Hospital de Jesus" (founded by Cortés), where a statue by Tolsá and a mausoleum were made. There was a public ceremony and all the churches in the city rang their bells.[citation needed ]

In 1823, after the independence of México, it seemed imminent that his body would be desecrated, so the mausoleum was removed, the statue and the coat of arms were sent to Palermo, Sicily, to be protected by the Duke of Terranova. The bones were hidden, and everyone thought that they had been sent out of México. In 1836, his bones were moved to another place in the same building.[clarification needed ]

It was not until November 24, 1946, that they were rediscovered, thanks to the discovery of a secret document by Lucas Alamán. His bones were put in the charge of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH). The remains were authenticated by INAH. They were then restored to the same place, this time with a bronze inscription and his coat of arms. When the bones were first rediscovered, the supporters of the Hispanic tradition in Mexico were excited, but one supporter of an indigenist vision of Mexico "proposed that the remains be publicly burned in front of the statue of Cuauhtemoc, and the ashes flung into the air". Following the discovery and authentication of Cortés's remains, there was a discovery of what were described as the bones of Cuauhtémoc, resulting in a "battle of the bones".

On December 16, 1560, the lawsuits related to vassals of the Cortes estate were resolved by a royal order issued by Philip II.

Taxa named after Cortés

Cortés is commemorated in the scientific name of a subspecies of Mexican lizard, Phrynosoma orbiculare cortezii.

Disputed interpretation of his life

There are relatively few sources to the early life of Cortés; his fame arose from his participation in the conquest of Mexico and it was only after this that people became interested in reading and writing about him.

Probably the best source is his letters to the king which he wrote during the campaign in Mexico, but they are written with the specific purpose of putting his efforts in a favourable light and so must be read critically. Another main source is the biography written by Cortés's private chaplain Lopez de Gómara, which was written in Spain several years after the conquest. Gómara never set foot in the Americas and knew only what Cortés had told him, and he had an affinity for knightly romantic stories which he incorporated richly in the biography. The third major source is written as a reaction to what its author calls "the lies of Gomara", the eyewitness account written by the Conquistador Bernal Díaz del Castillo which does not paint Cortés as a romantic hero, but rather tries to emphasize that Cortés's men should also be remembered as important participants in the undertakings in Mexico.

In the years following the conquest more critical accounts of the Spanish arrival in Mexico were written. The Dominican friar Bartolomé de Las Casas wrote his A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies which raises strong accusations of brutality and heinous violence towards the Indians; accusations against both the conquistadors in general and Cortés in particular. The accounts of the conquest given in the Florentine Codex by the Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún and his native informants are also less than flattering towards Cortés. The scarcity of these sources has led to a sharp division in the description of Cortés's personality and a tendency to describe him as either a vicious and ruthless person or a noble and honorable cavalier.

Representations in Mexico

Monument in Mexico City commemorating the encounter of Cortés and Moctezuma at the Hospital de Jesús Nazareno.

In México there are few representations of Cortés. However, many landmarks still bear his name, from the castle Palacio de Cortés in the city of Cuernavaca to some street names throughout the republic.

The pass between the volcanoes Iztaccíhuatl and Popocatépetl where Cortés took his soldiers on their march to Mexico City. It is known as the Paso de Cortés.

The muralist Diego Rivera painted several representation of him but the most famous, depicts him as a powerful and ominous figure along with Malinche in a mural in the National Palace in Mexico City.

In 1981, President Lopez Portillo tried to bring Cortés to public recognition. First, he made public a copy of the bust of Cortés made by Manuel Tolsá in the Hospital de Jesús Nazareno with an official ceremony, but soon a nationalist group tried to destroy it, so it had to be taken out of the public. Today the copy of the bust is in the "Hospital de Jesús Nazareno" while the original is in Naples, Italy, in the Villa Pignatelli.

Later, another monument, known as "Monumento al Mestizaje" by Julián Martínez y M. Maldonado (1982) was commissioned by Mexican president José López Portillo to be put in the "Zócalo" (Main square) of Coyoacan, near the place of his country house, but it had to be removed to a little known park, the Jardín Xicoténcatl, Barrio de San Diego Churubusco, to quell protests. The statue depicts Cortés, Malinche and their son Martín.

There is another statue by Sebastián Aparicio, in Cuernavaca, was in a hotel " El casino de la selva". Cortés is barely recognizable, so it sparked little interest. The hotel was closed to make a commercial center, and the statue was put out of public display by Costco the builder of the commercial center.

Cultural depictions

Scene from the opera La Conquista, 2005

Hernán Cortés is a character in the opera La Conquista (2005) by Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero, which depicts the major episodes of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521.

Writings: the Cartas de Relación

Cortés's personal account of the conquest of Mexico is narrated in his five letters addressed to Charles V. These five letters, the cartas de relación, are Cortés's only surviving writings. See "Letters and Dispatches of Cortés", translated by George Folsom (New York, 1843); Prescott's "Conquest of Mexico" (Boston, 1843); and Sir Arthur Helps's "Life of Hernando Cortes" (London, 1871).

His first letter was considered lost, and the one from the municipality of Veracruz has to take its place. It was published for the first time in volume IV of "Documentos para la Historia de España", and subsequently reprinted.

The Segunda Carta de Relacion, bearing the date of October 30, 1520, appeared in print at Seville in 1522. The third letter, dated May 15, 1522, appeared at Seville in 1523. The fourth, October 20, 1524, was printed at Toledo in 1525. The fifth, on the Honduras expedition, is contained in volume IV of the Documentos para la Historia de España.

Natural children of Don Hernán Cortés

doña Catalina Pizarro, born between 1514 and 1515 in Santiago de Cuba or maybe later in Nueva España, daughter of an indigenous woman in Cuba, Leonor Pizarro. Doña Catalina married Juan de Salcedo, a conqueror and encomendero, with whom she had a son, Pedro.

don Martín Cortés, born in Coyoacán in 1522, son of doña Marina (La Malinche), called the First Mestizo; about him was written The New World of Martín Cortés; married doña Bernaldina de Porras and had two children:

doña Ana Cortés

don Fernando Cortés, Principal Judge of Veracruz. Descendants of this line are alive today in Mexico.

don Luis Cortés, born in 1525, son of doña Antonia or Elvira Hermosillo, a native of Trujillo (Cáceres)

doña Leonor Cortés Moctezuma, born in 1527 or 1528 in Ciudad de Mexico, daughter of Aztec princess Tecuichpotzin (baptized Isabel), born in Tenochtitlan on July 11, 1510, and died on July 9, 1550, the eldest legitimate daughter of Moctezuma II Xocoyotzin and wife doña María Miahuaxuchitl; married to Juan de Tolosa, a Basque merchant and miner.

doña María Cortés de Moctezuma, daughter of an Aztec princess; nothing more is known about her except that she probably was born with some deformity.[citation needed ]

He married twice: firstly in Cuba to Catalina Suárez Marcaida, who died at Coyoacán in 1522 without issue, and secondly in 1529 to doña Juana Ramírez de Arellano de Zúñiga, daughter of don Carlos Ramírez de Arellano, 2nd Count of Aguilar and wife the Countess doña Juana de Zúñiga, and had:

don Luis Cortés y Ramírez de Arellano, born in Texcoco in 1530 and died shortly after his birth.

doña Catalina Cortés de Zúñiga, born in Cuernavaca in 1531 and died shortly after her birth.

don Martín Cortés y Ramírez de Arellano, 2nd Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca, born in Cuernavaca in 1532, married at Nalda on February 24, 1548, his twice cousin once removed doña Ana Ramírez de Arellano y Ramírez de Arellano and had issue, currently extinct in male line

doña María Cortés de Zúñiga, born in Cuernavaca between 1533 and 1536, married to don Luis de Quiñones y Pimentel, 5th Count of Luna

doña Catalina Cortés de Zúñiga, born in Cuernavaca between 1533 and 1536, died unmarried in Sevilla after the funeral of her father

doña Juana Cortés de Zúñiga, born in Cuernavaca between 1533 and 1536, married Don Fernando Enríquez de Ribera y Portocarrero, 2nd Duke of Alcalá de los Gazules, 3rd Marquess of Tarifa and 6th Count of Los Molares, and had issue

In popular culture

Cortés was portrayed (as "Hernando Cortez") by actor Cesar Romero in the 1947 historical adventure film Captain from Castile.

"Cortez the Killer", a 1975 song by Neil Young

Cortés is a major villain in the 2000 animated movie The Road to El Dorado, voiced by Jim Cummings

Cortes played by Óscar Jaenada, is a morally ambiguous protagonist in the 2019 8 episode TV-series Hernán.

In 1986, Polish illustrator Jerzy Wróblewski created a 48-page comic book titled Hernán Cortés i podbój Meksyku (Hernán Cortés and the Conquest of Mexico). The comic book, based on historical chronicles, narrated Cortés's life, concentrating on the titular 1519-1521 period; it was noted for its realistic depictions of violence, unusual in Polish comic books of the era.

Cortés features in the 1980 novel Aztec by Gary Jennings as an antagonist.

Cortés is the villain of "Idol of Death", an episode of The Time Tunnel.

References

1. ^ Hanson, Victor Davis (2007). Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-42518-8.

2. ^ See information box for his signature and painting.

3. Friede, Juan (1969). "The Coat of Arms of Hernando Cortés". The Quarterly Journal of the Library of Congress. 26 (2): 64-69. JSTOR 29781347.

4. Machado, J. T. Montalvão, Dos Pizarros de Espanha aos de Portugal e Brasil, Author's Edition, 1st Edition, Lisbon, 1970.

5. David A. Boruchoff, "Hernán Cortés," ^ International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 2nd. ed. (2008), vol. 2, pp. 146-149 Hernán Cortés

6. ^ Pemberton, John (2011). Conquistadors : searching for El Dorado : the terrifying Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires. London: Futura. ISBN 978-1-907795-96-1. OCLC 1132344342.

7. Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Longman Group UK Limited, 1994, pp. 45-46

8. ^ Jane Landers, Slaves, Subjects, and Subversives: Blacks in Colonial Latin America, UNM Press, 2006, p. 43

9. ^ Bernard Grunberg, "La folle aventure d'Hernan Cortés", in n° 322, July-August 2007

10. Crowe, John A. The Epic of Latin America. Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1992. 4th ed. p. 75

11. ^ Diaz, B. (1963), The Conquest of New Spain, London: Penguin Books, ISBN 0140441239

12. Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. Longman Group UK Limited, 1994, pp. 53-54

13. Restall, Matthew (2003). ^ Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest. Oxford University Press; Townsend, Camilla (2003). "Burying the White Gods: New Perspectives on the Conquest of Mexico." American Historical Review 108, no. 3: 659-687.

14. ^ pp. 30-31 of J.H. Elliot, introductory essay to Anthony Pagden's translation of Cortés's letters "Hernan Cortés" letters from Mexico" 2001 (1971, 1986) Yale University NotaBene books

15. ^ "Grant of coat of arms to Hernando Cortés, 1525" transcription and translation by J. Benedict Warren. The Harkness Collection in the Library of Congress: Manuscripts concerning Mexico. Washington DC: Library of Congress 1974.

16. ^ Seaman, Rebecca M. (2013). Conflict in the Early Americas - An Encyclopedia of the Spanish Empire's Aztec, Incan, and Mayan Conquests. ABC-Clio. ISBN 978-1598847772.

17. ^ Muñoz, Victoria (2021). Spanish Romance in the Battle for Global Supremacy Tudor and Stuart Black Legends. Anthem Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-1785273315.

18. Hugh Thomas, ^ Conquest, cites documents from the residencia against Cortés published by Ignacio López Rayon, Documentos para la historia de Mexico, Mexico, 1852-53 and the documentation in the Archivo General de Indias (AGI), Justicia, leg. 220, ff. 316-342.

19. Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, "The Franciscan reply (to the Dominicans) in ^ Letters and People of the Spanish Indies, Sixteenth Century, translated and edited by James Lockhart and Enrique Otte. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976 pp. 244-246.

20. ^ p. 34 of J.H. Elliot, introductory essay to Anthony Pagdens translation of Cortés's letters "Hernan Cortés" letters from Mexico" 2001 (1971, 1986) Yale University NotaBene books

21. ^ Cartas y relaciones de Hernan Cortés al emperador Carlos V (in Spanish). Everything2.com. 1866.

22. ^ West, Robert. Early Silver Mining in New Spain, 1531-1555 (1997). Bakewell, Peter (ed.). Mines of Silver and Gold in the Americas. Aldershot: Variorum, Ashgate Publishing Limited. pp. 59, 61-62.

23. "Hernán Cortés". Virtualology.com. 2001-04-02. Archived from the original on 2009-02-21.

24. ^ Keen, Benjamin (1971). The Aztecs' Image in Western Thought. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.

25. Riley, G. Micheal. "Fernando Cortés and the Cuernavaca Encomiendas, 1522-1547." ^ The Americas, vol. 25, no. 1, Cambridge University Press, 1968, pp. 24-25. JSTOR website Retrieved 18 March 2022.

26. ^ Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. ISBN 978-1-4214-0135-5. ("Cortez", p. 60).

27. ^ de las Casas, Bartolomé; Gysius, Johannes (1620). Lons, Dirck Eversen; Vinckeboons, David (eds.). "Mirror of the Cruel and Horrible Spanish Tyranny Perpetrated in the Netherlands, by the Tyrant, the Duke of Alba, and Other Commanders of King Philip II". World Digital Library. Library of Congress.

Further reading

Primary sources

Cortés, Hernán. Letters - available as Letters from Mexico translated by Anthony Pagden. Yale University Press, 1986. ISBN 0-300-09094-3. Available online in Spanish from an 1866 edition.

Cortés, Hernán. Escritos sueltos de Hernán Cortés. Biblioteca Histórica de la Iberia. vol 12. Mexico 1871.

Díaz del Castillo, Bernal. The Conquest of New Spain - available as The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico: 1517-1521 ISBN 0-306-81319-X

Díaz del Castillo, Bernal, Carrasco, David, Rolena. Adorno, Sandra Messinger Cypess, and Karen Vieira Powers. The History of the Conquest of New Spain. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2008

León-Portilla, Miguel (Ed.) (1992) [1959]. The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Ángel María Garibay K. (Nahuatl-Spanish trans.), Lysander Kemp (Spanish-English trans.), Alberto Beltran (illus.) (Expanded and updated ed.). Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-5501-4. (textbook anthology of indigenous primary sources)

López de Gómara, Francisco, Cortés: The Life of the Conqueror by His Secretary, Ed. and trans. Lesley Byrd Simpson. Berkeley: University of California Press 1964.

López de Gómara, Francisco. Hispania Victrix; First and Second Parts of the General History of the Indies, with the whole discovery and notable things that have happened since they were acquired until the year 1551, with the conquest of Mexico and New Spain University of California Press, 1966

Prescott, William H. History of the Conquest of Mexico, with a Preliminary View of Ancient Mexican Civilization, and the Life of the Conqueror, Hernando Cortes

Last Will and Testament of Hernán Cortés

Letter From Hernán Cortés to Charles the V

Hernán Cortés Power of Attorney, 1526 From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress

Praeclara Ferdinandi Cortesii de noua maris oceani Hyspania narratio sacratissimo... 1524. From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress

Secondary sources

Boruchoff, David A. "Hernán Cortés." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 2nd. ed. (2008), vol. 2, pp. 146-149.

Brooks, Francis J. "Motecuzoma Xocoyotl, Hernán Cortés, and Bernal Díaz del Castillo: The Construction of an Arrest." Hispanic American Historical Review (1995): 149-183.

Chamberlain, Robert S. "Two unpublished documents of Hernán Cortés and New Spain, 1519 and 1524." Hispanic American Historical Review 19 (1939) 120-137.

Chamberlain, Robert S. "La controversia entre Cortés y Velázquez sobre la gobernación de Nueva España, 1519-1522" in Anales de la Sociedad de Geografía e Historia de Guatemala, vol XIX 1943.

Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cortes, Hernan" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 205-207.

Cline, Howard F. "Hernando Cortés and the Aztec indians in Spain." The Quarterly Journal of the Library of Congress. Vol. 26. No. 2. Library of Congress, 1969.

Denhardt. Robert Moorman. "The equine strategy of Cortés." Hispanic American Historical Review 18 (1938) 550-555.

Elliott, J.H., "The mental world of Hernán Cortés." In Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. Fifth Series (1967) 41-58.

Frankl, Victor. "Hernán Cortés y la tradición de las Siete Partidas." Revista de Historia de América 53-54 (1962) 9-74.

Himmerich y Valencia, Robert. The Encomenderos of New Spain, 1521-1555, Austin: University of Texas Press 1991

Jacobs, W.J. Hernando Cortés. New York: Franklin Watts, Inc. 1974.

Keen, Benjamin, The Aztecs Image in Western Thought, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press 1971.

Konetzke, Richard. "Hernán Cortés como poblador de la Nueva España." Estudios Cortesianos, pp. 341-381. Madrid 1948.

Levy, Buddy. Conquistador: Hernán Cortés, King Montezuma, and the Last Stand of the Aztecs. 2008 ISBN 978-0-553-80538-3

Lorenzana, Francisco Antonio. Viaje de Hernán Cortés a la Peninsula de Californias. Mexico 1963

MacNutt, F.A. Fernando Cortés and the Conquest of Mexico, 1485-1547. New York and London 1909.

Madariaga, Salvador de. Hernán Cortés, Conqueror of Mexico. Mexico 1942.

Marks, Richard Lee. Cortés: The Great Adventurer and the Fate of Aztec Mexico. Alfred A. Knopf, 1993.

Mathes, W. Michael, ed. The Conquistador in California: 1535. The Voyage of Fernando Cortés to Baja California in Chronicles and Documents. Vol. 31. Dawson's Book Shop, 1973.

Maura, Juan Francisco."Cobardía, falsedad y opportunismo español: algunas consideraciones sobre la "verdadera" historia de la conquista de la Nueva España" Lemir (Revista de literatura medieval y del Renacimiento) 7 (2003): 1-29.

Medina, José Toribio. Ensayo Bio-bibliográfico sobre Hernán Cortés. Introducción de Guillermo Feliú Cruz. Santiago de Chile 1952.

Miller, Robert Ryal. "Cortés and the first attempt to colonize California." Calif Hist QJ Calif Hist Soc 53.1 (1974): 4-16.

Petrov, Lisa. For an Audience of Men: Masculinity, Violence and Memory in Hernán Cortés's Las Cartas de Relación and Carlos Fuentes's Fictional Cortés. University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2004.

Phelan, John Leddy The Millennial Kingdom of the Franciscans in the New World, chapter 3, "Hernán Cortés, the Moses of the New World," Berkeley: University of California Press, 2nd ed., revised, 1971, pp. 33-34.

William H. Prescott (1898). Mexico and the Life of the Conqueror Fernando Cortes. Vol. 2. New York: Peter Fenelon Collier.

Restall, Matthew. Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest Oxford University Press (2003) ISBN 0-19-516077-0

Silva, José Valerio. El legalismo de Hernán Cortés como instrumento de su conquista. Mexico 1965.

Stein, R.C. The World's Greatest Explorers: Hernando Cortés. Illinois: Chicago Press Inc. 1991.

Thomas, Hugh (1993). Conquest: Cortés, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico ISBN 0-671-51104-1

Todorov, Tzvetan The Conquest of America (1996) ISBN 0-06-132095-1

Toro, Alfonso. Un crimen de Hernán Cortés. La muerte de Doña Catalina Xuárez Marcaida, estudio histórico y medico legal. Mexico 1922

Wagner, H.R. "The lost first letter of Cortés." Hispanic American Historical Review. 21 (1941) 669-672.

White, Jon Manchip. (1971) Cortés and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire ISBN 0-7867-0271-0

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro Altamirano, 1st Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca (; Spanish: [eɾˈnaŋkoɾˈtesðemonˈrojipiˈθaroaltamiˈɾano]; December 1485 - December 2, 1547) was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of what is now mainland Mexico under the rule of the king of Castile in the early 16th century.

# data[].attributes.body
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Drake

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Sir Francis Drake ( c. 1540 - 28 January 1596) was an English sea captain, privateer, slave trader, pirate, naval officer and explorer of the Elizabethan era. Drake carried out the second circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition, from 1577 to 1580, and was the first to complete the voyage as captain while leading the expedition throughout the entire circumnavigation. With his incursion into the Pacific Ocean, he claimed what is now California for the English and inaugurated an era of conflict with the Spanish on the western coast of the Americas, an area that had previously been largely unexplored by western shipping.

Elizabeth I awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581 which he received on the Golden Hind in Deptford. As a Vice Admiral, he was second-in-command of the English fleet in the battle against the Spanish Armada in 1588. He died of dysentery in January 1596, after unsuccessfully attacking San Juan, Puerto Rico. Drake's exploits made him a hero to the English, but his privateering led the Spanish to brand him a pirate, known to them as El Draque. King Philip II allegedly offered a reward for his capture or death of 20,000 ducats, about £6 million (US$8 million) in modern currency.

Birth and early years

Francis Drake was born in Tavistock, Devon, England. Although his birth date is not formally recorded, it is known that he was born while the Six Articles were in force. His birth date is estimated from contemporary sources such as: "Drake was two and twenty when he obtained the command of the Judith" (1566). This would date his birth to 1544. A date of c.1540 is suggested from two portraits: one a miniature painted by Nicholas Hilliard in 1581 when he was allegedly 42, so born circa 1539, while the other, painted in 1594 when he was said to be 53, would give a birth year of around 1541.

He was the oldest of the twelve sons of Edmund Drake (1518-1585), a Protestant farmer, and his wife Mary Mylwaye. The first son was alleged to have been named after his godfather Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford.

Because of religious persecution during the Prayer Book Rebellion in 1549, the Drake family fled from Devon to Kent. There Drake's father obtained an appointment to minister the men in the King's Navy. He was ordained deacon and was made vicar of Upnor Church on the Medway. Drake's father apprenticed him to his neighbour, the master of a barque used for coastal trade transporting merchandise to France. The ship's master was so satisfied with the young Drake's conduct that, being unmarried and childless at his death, he bequeathed the barque to Drake.[when? ]

Marriage and family

Francis Drake married Mary Newman at St. Budeaux church, Plymouth, in July 1569. She died 12 years later, in 1581. In 1585, Drake married Elizabeth Sydenham-born circa 1562, the only child of Sir George Sydenham, of Combe Sydenham, who was the High Sheriff of Somerset. After Drake's death, the widow Elizabeth eventually married Sir William Courtenay of Powderham.

Career at sea

At the age of eighteen he was purser of a ship which sailed to the Bay of Biscay. At twenty he made a voyage to the coast of Guinea. In 1563, Drake, aged 23, made his first voyage to the Americas, sailing with his second cousin, Sir John Hawkins, on one of a fleet of ships owned by his relatives, the Hawkins family of Plymouth. He made three voyages with this fleet, attacking Portuguese towns and ships on the coast of West Africa. They then sailed to the Americas and sold the captured cargoes of slaves to Spanish plantations. John Hawkins is considered to have been the first English slave-trader. Hawkins made three such expeditions, the first in 1563, second in 1564 and the third expedition ending in the ill-fated 1568 incident at San Juan de Ulúa.

In 1568, Drake was on his third expedition with the Hawkins fleet when, whilst negotiating to resupply and repair at a Spanish port in Mexico, the fleet was attacked by Spanish warships, with all but two of the English ships lost. He escaped along with John Hawkins, surviving the attack by swimming.

Drake's hostility towards the Spanish is said to have started with this incident. Following the defeat at San Juan de Ulúa, Drake vowed revenge. In 1570, his reputation enabled him to proceed to the West Indies with two vessels under his command. He renewed his visit the next year for the sole purpose of obtaining information.

In 1572, he embarked on his first major independent enterprise. He planned an attack on the Isthmus of Panama, known to the Spanish as Tierra Firme and the English as the Spanish Main. This was the point at which the silver and gold treasure of Peru had to be landed and sent overland to the Caribbean Sea, where galleons from Spain would pick it up at the town of Nombre de Dios. Drake left Plymouth on 24 May 1572, with a crew of 73 men in two small vessels, the Pascha (70 tons) and the Swan (25 tons), to capture Nombre de Dios.

His first raid was late in July 1572. Drake and his men captured the town and its treasure. When his men noticed that Drake was bleeding profusely from a wound, they insisted on withdrawing to save his life and left the treasure. Drake stayed in the area for almost a year, raiding Spanish shipping and attempting to capture a treasure shipment.

- Gonzalo González del Castillo, letter to King Philip II, 1592

The most celebrated of Drake's adventures along the Spanish Main was his capture of the Spanish Silver Train at Nombre de Dios in March 1573. He raided the waters around Darien (in modern Panama) with a crew including many French privateers including Guillaume Le Testu, a French buccaneer, and African slaves (Maroons) who had escaped the Spanish. Drake tracked the Silver Train to the nearby port of Nombre de Dios. After their attack on the richly laden mule train, Drake and his party found that they had captured around 20 tons of silver and gold. They buried much of the treasure, as it was too much for their party to carry, and made off with a fortune in gold. (An account of this may have given rise to subsequent stories of pirates and buried treasure). Wounded, Le Testu was captured and later beheaded. The small band of adventurers dragged as much gold and silver as they could carry back across some 18 miles of jungle-covered mountains to where they had left the raiding boats. When they got to the coast, the boats were gone. Drake and his men, downhearted, exhausted and hungry, had nowhere to go and the Spanish were not far behind.

At this point, Drake rallied his men, buried the treasure on the beach, and built a raft to sail with two volunteers ten miles along the surf-lashed coast to where they had left the flagship. When Drake finally reached its deck, his men were alarmed at his bedraggled appearance. Fearing the worst, they asked him how the raid had gone. Drake could not resist a joke and teased them by looking downhearted. Then he laughed, pulled a necklace of Spanish gold from around his neck and said "Our voyage is made, lads!" By 9 August 1573, he had returned to Plymouth.

It was during this expedition that he climbed a high tree in the central mountains of the Isthmus of Panama and thus became the first Englishman to see the Pacific Ocean. He remarked as he saw it that he hoped one day an Englishman would be able to sail it-which he would do years later as part of his circumnavigation of the world.

When Drake returned to Plymouth after the raids, the government signed a temporary truce with King Philip II of Spain and so was unable to acknowledge Drake's accomplishment officially. Drake was considered a hero in England and a pirate in Spain for his raids.

Rathlin Island massacre

Drake was present at the Rathlin Island massacre in 1575. Acting on the instructions of Sir Henry Sidney and the Earl of Essex, Sir John Norreys and Drake laid siege to Rathlin Castle. Despite their surrender, Norreys' troops killed all the 200 defenders and more than 400 civilian men, women and children of Clan MacDonnell. Meanwhile Drake was given the task of preventing any Gaelic Irish or Scottish reinforcements reaching the island. Therefore, the remaining leader of the Gaelic defense against English power, Sorley Boy MacDonnell, was forced to stay on the mainland. Essex wrote in his letter to Queen Elizabeth's secretary, that following the attack Sorley Boy "was likely to have run mad for sorrow, tearing and tormenting himself and saying that he there lost all that he ever had."

With the success of the Panama isthmus raid in 1577, Elizabeth I of England sent Drake to start an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas. Drake used the plans that Sir Richard Grenville had received the patent for in 1574 from Elizabeth, which was rescinded a year later after protests from Philip of Spain. He set out from Plymouth on 15 November 1577, but bad weather threatened him and his fleet. They were forced to take refuge in Falmouth, Cornwall, from where they returned to Plymouth for repair.

After this major setback, Drake set sail again on 13 December aboard with four other ships and 164 men. He soon added a sixth ship, Mary (formerly Santa Maria), a Portuguese merchant ship that had been captured off the coast of Africa near the Cape Verde Islands. He also added its captain, Nuno da Silva, a man with considerable experience navigating in South American waters.

Drake's fleet suffered great attrition; he scuttled both Christopher and the flyboat Swan due to loss of men on the Atlantic crossing. He made landfall at the gloomy bay of San Julian, in what is now Argentina. Ferdinand Magellan had called here half a century earlier, where he put to death some mutineers. Drake's men saw weathered and bleached skeletons on the grim Spanish gibbets. Following Magellan's example, Drake tried and executed his own "mutineer" Thomas Doughty. The crew discovered that Mary had rotting timbers, so they burned the ship. Drake decided to remain the winter in San Julian before attempting the Strait of Magellan.

Execution of Thomas Doughty

On his voyage to interfere with Spanish treasure fleets, Drake had several quarrels with his co-commander Thomas Doughty and on 3 June 1578, accused him of witchcraft and charged him with mutiny and treason in a shipboard trial. Drake claimed to have a (never presented) commission from the Queen to carry out such acts and denied Doughty a trial in England. The main pieces of evidence against Doughty were the testimony of the ship's carpenter, Edward Bright, who after the trial was promoted to master of the ship Marigold, and Doughty's admission of telling Lord Burghley, a vocal opponent of agitating the Spanish, of the intent of the voyage. Drake consented to his request of Communion and dined with him, of which Francis Fletcher had this strange account:

And after this holy repast, they dined also at the same table together, as cheerfully, in sobriety, as ever in their lives they had done aforetime, each cheering up the other, and taking their leave, by drinking each to other, as if some journey only had been in hand.

Drake had Thomas Doughty beheaded on 2 July 1578. When the ship's chaplain Francis Fletcher in a sermon suggested that the woes of the voyage in January 1580 were connected to the unjust demise of Doughty, Drake chained the clergyman to a hatch cover and pronounced him excommunicated.

Entering the Pacific (1578)

The three remaining ships of his convoy departed for the Magellan Strait at the southern tip of South America. A few weeks later (September 1578) Drake made it to the Pacific, but violent storms destroyed one of the three ships, the Marigold (captained by John Thomas) in the strait and caused another, the Elizabeth captained by John Wynter, to return to England, leaving only the Pelican. After this passage, the Pelican was pushed south and discovered an island that Drake called Elizabeth Island. Drake, like navigators before him, probably reached a latitude of 55°S (according to astronomical data quoted in Hakluyt's The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation of 1589) along the Chilean coast. In the Magellan Strait Francis and his men engaged in skirmish with local indigenous people, becoming the first Europeans to kill indigenous peoples in southern Patagonia. During the stay in the strait, crew members discovered that an infusion made of the bark of Drimys winteri could be used as remedy against scurvy. Captain Wynter ordered the collection of great amounts of bark - hence the scientific name.

Despite popular lore, it seems unlikely that Drake reached Cape Horn or the eponymous Drake Passage, because his descriptions do not fit the first and his shipmates denied having seen an open sea. The first report of his discovery of an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego was written after the 1618 publication of the voyage of Willem Schouten and Jacob le Maire around Cape Horn in 1616.

Drake pushed onwards in his lone flagship, now renamed the Golden Hind in honour of Sir Christopher Hatton (after his coat of arms). The Golden Hind sailed north along the Pacific coast of South America, attacking Spanish ports and pillaging towns. Some Spanish ships were captured, and Drake used their more accurate charts. Before reaching the coast of Peru, Drake visited Mocha Island, where he was seriously injured by hostile Mapuche. Later he sacked the port of Valparaíso further north in Chile, where he also captured a ship full of Chilean wine.

Capture of Spanish treasure ships

Near Lima, Drake captured a Spanish ship laden with 25,000 pesos of Peruvian gold, amounting in value to 37,000 ducats of Spanish money (about £7m by modern standards). Drake also discovered news of another ship, Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, which was sailing west towards Manila. It would come to be called the . Drake gave chase and eventually captured the treasure ship, which proved his most profitable capture.

Aboard Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, Drake found 80 lb (36 kg) of gold, a golden crucifix, jewels, 13 chests full of royals of plate and 26 tons of silver. Drake was naturally pleased at his good luck in capturing the galleon, and he showed it by dining with the captured ship's officers and gentleman passengers. He offloaded his captives a short time later, and gave each one gifts appropriate to their rank, as well as a letter of safe conduct.

Coast of California: Nova Albion (1579)

After looting the Cacafuego, Drake turned north, hoping to meet another Spanish treasure ship coming south on its return from Manila to Acapulco. Although he failed to find a treasure ship, Drake reputedly sailed as far north as the 38th parallel, landing on the coast of California on 17 June 1579. He found a good port, landed, repaired and restocked his vessels, then stayed for a time, keeping friendly relations with the Coast Miwok natives. He claimed the land in the name of the Holy Trinity for the English Crown, called Nova Albion- Latin for "New Britain". Assertions that he left some of his men behind as an embryo "colony" are founded on the reduced number who were with him in the Moluccas.

The precise location of the port was carefully guarded to keep it secret from the Spaniards, and several of Drake's maps may have been altered to this end. All first-hand records from the voyage, including logs, paintings and charts, were lost when Whitehall Palace burned in 1698. A bronze plaque inscribed with Drake's claim to the new lands - Drake's Plate of Brass - fitting the description in his account, was discovered in Marin County, California but was later declared a hoax. Now a National Historic Landmark, the officially recognised location of Drake's New Albion is Drakes Bay, California.

Across the Pacific and around Africa

Drake left the Pacific coast, heading southwest to catch the winds that would carry his ship across the Pacific, and a few months later reached the Moluccas, a group of islands in the western Pacific, in eastern modern-day Indonesia. While there, Golden Hind became caught on a reef and was almost lost. After the sailors waited three days for convenient tides and had dumped cargo, they freed the barque. Befriending a sultan king of the Moluccas, Drake and his men became involved in some intrigues with the Portuguese there. He made multiple stops on his way toward the tip of Africa, eventually rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and reached Sierra Leone by 22 July 1580.

Return to Plymouth (1580)

On 26 September, Golden Hind sailed into Plymouth with Drake and 59 remaining crew aboard, along with a rich cargo of spices and captured Spanish treasures. The Queen's half-share of the cargo surpassed the rest of the crown's income for that entire year. Drake was hailed as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the Earth (and the second such voyage arriving with at least one ship intact, after Elcano's in 1520).

The Queen declared that all written accounts of Drake's voyages were to become the Queen's secrets of the Realm, and Drake and the other participants of his voyages on the pain of death sworn to their secrecy; she intended to keep Drake's activities away from the eyes of rival Spain. Drake presented the Queen with a jewel token commemorating the circumnavigation. Taken as a prize off the Pacific coast of Mexico, it was made of enamelled gold and bore an African diamond and a ship with an ebony hull.

For her part, the Queen gave Drake a jewel with her portrait, an unusual gift to bestow upon a commoner, and one that Drake sported proudly in his 1591 portrait by Marcus Gheeraerts now at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. On one side is a state portrait of Elizabeth by the miniaturist Nicholas Hilliard, on the other a sardonyx cameo of double portrait busts, a regal woman and an African male. The "Drake Jewel", as it is known today, is a rare documented survivor among sixteenth-century jewels; it is conserved at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

Award of knighthood

Queen Elizabeth awarded Drake a knighthood aboard Golden Hind in Deptford on 4 April 1581; the dubbing being performed by a French diplomat, Monsieur de Marchaumont, who was negotiating for Elizabeth to marry the King of France's brother, Francis, Duke of Anjou. By getting the French diplomat involved in the knighting, Elizabeth was gaining the implicit political support of the French for Drake's actions. During the Victorian era, in a spirit of nationalism, the story was promoted that Elizabeth I had done the knighting.

Award of arms

After receiving his knighthood Drake unilaterally adopted the armorials of the ancient Devon family of Drake of Ash, near Musbury, to whom he claimed a distant but unspecified kinship. These arms were: Argent, a wyvern wings displayed and tail nowed gules, and the crest, a dexter arm Proper grasping a battle axe Sable, headed Argent. The head of that family, also a distinguished sailor, Sir Bernard Drake (d.1586), angrily refuted Sir Francis's claimed kinship and his right to bear his family's arms. That dispute led to "a box in the ear" being given to Sir Francis by Sir Bernard at court, as recorded by John Prince (1643-1723) in his "Worthies of Devon", first published in 1701. Queen Elizabeth, to assuage matters, awarded Sir Francis his own coat of arms, blazoned as follows:

Sable a fess wavy between two pole-stars [Arctic and Antarctic] argent; and for his crest, a ship on a globe under ruff, held by a cable with a hand out of the clouds; over it this motto, Auxilio Divino; underneath, Sic Parvis Magna; in the rigging whereof is hung up by the heels a wivern, gules, which was the arms of Sir Bernard Drake.

The motto, Sic Parvis Magna, translated literally, is: "Thus great things from small things (come)". The hand out of the clouds, labelled Auxilio Divino, means "With Divine Help". The full achievement is depicted in the form of a large coloured plaster overmantel in the Lifetimes Gallery at Buckland Abbey

Nevertheless, Drake continued to quarter his new arms with the wyvern gules. The arms adopted by his nephew Sir Francis Drake, 1st Baronet (1588-1637) of Buckland were the arms of Drake of Ash, but the wyvern without a "nowed" (knotted) tail.

Arms of Sir Francis Drake: Sable, a fess wavy between two pole-stars Arctic and Antarctic argent

Arms of Drake of Ash: Argent, a wyvern wings displayed and tail nowed gules.[47] The Drake family of Crowndale and Buckland Abbey used the same arms but the tail of the wyvern is not nowed (knotted)[51]

Political career

Drake was politically astute, and although known for his private and military endeavours, he was an influential figure in politics during the time he spent in Britain. Often abroad, there is little evidence to suggest he was active in Westminster, despite being a member of parliament on three occasions.

After returning from his voyage of circumnavigation, Drake became the Mayor of Plymouth, in September 1581. He became a member of parliament during a session of the 4th Parliament of Elizabeth I, on 16 January 1581, for the constituency of Camelford. He did not actively participate at this point, and on 17 February 1581 he was granted leave of absence "for certain his necessary business in the service of her Majesty".

Drake became a member of parliament again in 1584 for Bossiney on the forming of the 5th Parliament of Elizabeth I. He served the duration of the parliament and was active in issues regarding the navy, fishing, early American colonisation, and issues related chiefly to Devon. He spent the time covered by the next two parliamentary terms engaged in other duties and an expedition to Portugal. He became a member of parliament for Plymouth in 1593. He was active in issues of interest to Plymouth as a whole, but also to emphasize defence against the Spanish.

Purchase of Buckland Abbey

In 1580, Drake purchased Buckland Abbey, a large manor house near Yelverton in Devon, via intermediaries from Sir Richard Greynvile. He lived there for fifteen years, until his final voyage, and it remained in his family for several generations. Buckland Abbey is now in the care of the National Trust and a number of mementos of his life are displayed there.

Great Expedition to America

War had already been declared by Phillip II after the Treaty of Nonsuch, so the Queen through Francis Walsingham ordered Sir Francis Drake to lead an expedition to attack the Spanish colonies in a kind of preemptive strike. An expedition left Plymouth in September 1585 with Drake in command of twenty-one ships with 1,800 soldiers under Christopher Carleill. He first attacked Vigo in Spain and held the place for two weeks ransoming supplies. He then plundered Santiago in the Cape Verde islands after which the fleet then sailed across the Atlantic, sacked the port of Santo Domingo, and captured the city of Cartagena de Indias in present-day Colombia. On 6 June 1586, during the return leg of the voyage, he raided the Spanish fort of San Augustín in Spanish Florida.

After the raids he then went on to find Sir Walter Raleigh's settlement much further north at Roanoke which he replenished and also took back with him all of the original colonists before Sir Richard Greynvile arrived with supplies and more colonists. He finally reached England on 22 July, when he sailed into Portsmouth, England to a hero's welcome.

Spanish Armada

Angered by these acts, Philip II ordered a planned invasion of England.

In another pre-emptive strike, Drake "singed the beard of the King of Spain" in 1587 by sailing a fleet into Cadiz and also Corunna, two of Spain's main ports, and occupied the harbours. He destroyed 37 naval and merchant ships. The attack delayed the Spanish invasion by a year..

Over the next month, Drake patrolled the Iberian coasts between Lisbon and Cape St. Vincent, intercepting and destroying ships on the Spanish supply lines. Drake estimated that he captured around 1600-1700 tons of barrel staves, enough to make 25,000 to 30,000 barrels (4,800 m ³) for containing provisions.

Defeat of the Spanish Armada

Drake was vice admiral in command of the English fleet (under Lord Howard of Effingham,) when it overcame the Spanish Armada that was attempting to invade England in 1588. As the English fleet pursued the Armada up the English Channel in closing darkness, Drake broke off and captured the Spanish galleon Nuestra Señora del Rosario, along with Admiral Pedro de Valdés and all his crew. The Spanish ship was known to be carrying substantial funds to pay the Spanish Army in the Low Countries. Drake's ship had been leading the English pursuit of the Armada by means of a lantern. By extinguishing this for the capture, Drake put the fleet into disarray overnight.

On the night of 29 July, along with Howard, Drake organised fire-ships, causing the majority of the Spanish captains to break formation and sail out of Calais into the open sea. The next day, Drake was present at the Battle of Gravelines. He wrote as follows to Admiral Henry Seymour after coming upon part of the Spanish Armada, whilst aboard on 31 July 1588 (21 July 1588 O.S.):

Coming up to them, there has passed some common shot between some of our fleet and some of them; and as far as we perceive, they are determined to sell their lives with blows.

The most famous (but probably apocryphal) anecdote about Drake relates that, prior to the battle, he was playing a game of bowls on Plymouth Hoe. On being warned of the approach of the Spanish fleet, Drake is said to have remarked that there was plenty of time to finish the game and still beat the Spaniards. There is no known eyewitness account of this incident and the earliest retelling of it was printed 37 years later. Adverse winds and currents caused some delay in the launching of the English fleet as the Spanish drew nearer, perhaps prompting a popular myth of Drake's cavalier attitude to the Spanish threat. It might also have been later ascribed to the stoic attribute of British culture.

Drake-Norris Expedition

In 1589, the year after defeating the Armada the English sent their own to attack Spain, Drake and Sir John Norreys were given three tasks: seek out and destroy the remaining ships, support the rebels in Lisbon, Portugal against King Philip II (then king of Spain and Portugal), and take the Azores if possible. In the Siege of Coruña Drake and Norreys destroyed a few ships in the harbour of A Coruña in Spain but lost more than 12,000 lives and 20 ships.[citation needed ] This defeat in all fronts delayed Drake, and he was forced to forgo hunting the rest of the surviving ships and head on to Lisbon.

Defeats and death

Drake's seafaring career continued into his mid-fifties. In 1595, he failed to conquer the port of Las Palmas, and following a disastrous campaign against Spanish America, where he suffered a number of defeats, he unsuccessfully attacked San Juan de Puerto Rico, eventually losing the Battle of San Juan.

The Spanish gunners from El Morro Castle shot a cannonball through the cabin of Drake's flagship, but he survived. He attempted to attack over land in an effort to capture the rich port of Panamá but was defeated again. A few weeks later, in January 1596, he died (aged about 56) of dysentery, a common disease in the tropics at the time, while anchored off the coast of Portobelo where some Spanish treasure ships had sought shelter. Following his death, the English fleet withdrew.

Before dying, he asked to be dressed in his full armour. He was buried at sea in a sealed lead-lined coffin, near Portobelo, a few miles off the coastline. It is supposed that his final resting place is near the wrecks of two British ships, the Elizabeth and the Delight, scuttled in Portobelo Bay. Divers continue to search for the coffin. Drake's body has never been recovered.

Cultural impact

In the UK there are various places named after him, especially in Plymouth, Devon. Places there carrying his name include the naval base HMS Drake, Drake's Island, and a shopping centre and roundabout named Drake Circus. Plymouth Hoe is also home to a statue of Drake.

In the United States Drakes Bay and Sir Francis Drake Boulevard of Marin County, California are both named after him, as well as the high school in San Anselmo, California. The boulevard runs between Drakes Bay at Point Reyes to Point San Quentin on San Francisco Bay. A large hotel in Union Square, San Francisco also bears his name. Additionally, the Sir Francis Drake Channel in the British Virgin Islands bears his name.

In British Columbia, Canada, where some theorize he may also have landed to the north of the usual site considered to be Nova Albion, various mountains were named in the 1930s for him, or in connection with Elizabeth I or other figures of that era, including Mount Sir Francis Drake, Mount Queen Bess, and the Golden Hinde, the highest mountain on Vancouver Island.

Drake's will was the focus of a vast confidence scheme which Oscar Hartzell perpetrated in the 1920s and 1930s. He convinced thousands of people, mostly in the American Midwest, that Drake's fortune was being held by the British government, and had compounded to a huge amount. If their last name was Drake they might be eligible for a share if they paid Hartzell to be their agent. The swindle continued until a copy of Drake's will was brought to Hartzell's mail fraud trial and he was convicted and imprisoned.

Drake's Drum has become an icon of English folklore with its variation of the classic king in the mountain story.

Drake was a major focus in the video game Uncharted: Drake's Fortune where the main character, a supposed descendant of Drake, searches for the treasure of El Dorado.

References

1. His name in ^ Latinised form was Franciscus Draco ("Francis the Dragon"). See Theodor de Bry.

2. ^ Campbell, John (1841). Lives of the British Admirals and Naval History of Great Britain from the Time of Caesar to the Chinese War of 1841 Chiefly Abridged from the work of Dr. John Campbell. Glasgow: Richard Griffin & Co. p. 104. ISBN 9780665347566. OCLC 12129656. Direct quote is followed by "this carries back his birth to 1544, at which time the six articles were in force, and Francis Russell was seventeen years of age."

3. 1921/22 edition of the ^ Dictionary of National Biography, which quotes Barrow's Life of Drake (1843) p. 5.

4. ^ Froude, James Anthony (1896). English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Quote: "He told Camden that he was of mean extraction. He meant merely that he was proud of his parents and made no idle pretensions to noble birth. His father was a tenant of the Earl of Bedford, and must have stood well with him, for Francis Russell, the heir of the earldom, was the boy's godfather."

5. James Mill (1840). The History of British India, Volume 1. London: James Madden and Co. p. 9.

6. ^ Benezet, Anthony (1788). Some historical account of Guinea, : its situation, produce, and the general disposition of its inhabitants, with an inquiry into the rise and progress of the slave trade, its nature and lamentable effects. London: J. Phillips.

7. "Drake escaped during the attack and returned to England in command of a small vessel, the Judith, with an even greater determination to have his revenge upon Spain and the Spanish king, Philip II."-"^ Sir Francis Drake" article in online Britannica Library. Accessed 14 January 2016

8. Sugden, John (1990). Sir Francis Drake. Barrie & Jenkins.^ ISBN 9780712620383; Great Britain. Public Record Office, Calendar of State Papers Relating to Ireland, of the Reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth: Preserved in the State Paper Department of Her Majesty's Public Record Office, 11 vols (London: Longman, Green, Longman & Roberts, 1860-1912))

9. ^ Forde, Hugh (1923). Sketches Of Olden Days In Northern Ireland: Including Portrush, Dunluce Castle, Dunseverick Castle, Ballycastle, Giant's Causeway, Rathlin Island, Coleraine, Derry, Inishowen, Tory Island. Belfast: MC'aw, Stevenson and Orr Ltd.

10. Coote, Stephen (2003). Drake: The Life and Legend of an Elizabethan Hero. New York: Saint Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-34165-2.

11. Wagner, Henry R., Sir Francis Drake's Voyage Around the World: Its Aims and Achievements, Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2006, ISBN 1-4286-2255-1.

12. Martinic, Mateo (1977). Historia del Estrecho de Magallanes (in Spanish). Santiago: Andrés Bello. pp. 67-68.

13. ^ Cortés Olivares, Hernán F. (2005). "El origen, producción y comercio del pisco chileno, 1546-1931". (in Spanish). Scielo.cl. 2 (20): 42-81. doi:10.4067/S0718-23762005000200005.

14. Dismissed by John Cummins, ^ Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero (1997) p. 118: "In view of the prominence given in different versions to the crowning of Drake it would be odd if the establishment of a colony had gone unrecorded."

15. Moseley, Brian (26 February 2011) [11 March 2004]. "Sir Francis Drake (c1541-1596)". The Encyclopaedia of Plymouth History. Plymouthdata.info. Archived from the original on 1 April 2012.

16. Vivian, Lt.Col. J.L., (Ed.) The Visitations of the County of Devon: Comprising the Heralds' Visitations of 1531, 1564 & 1620, Exeter, 1895, p.292, pedigree of Drake of Ash

17. ^ Prince, John (1810) [1701]. Danmonii orientales illustres: or, The worthies of Devon. p. 329.

18. Drake, Charles E.F., ^ The Arms of Sir Francis Drake Archived 19 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Quebec, 2008; Article by str8thinker, Project Avalon Forum, Dec 2010, based on article of Charles Drake, 2008, op. cit.

19. Vivian, p.299, pedigree of Drake of Crowndale and Buckland Abbey

20. ^ Thompson, Edith (1873). Freeman, Edward Augustus (ed.). History of England. Freeman's Historical Course for Schools. New York: Henry Holt and Company. p. 136.

21. Letter to Admiral Henry Seymour written aboard ^ Revenge on 31 July 1588 (21 July 1588 O.S.) Turner, Sharon. The History of England from the Earliest Period to the Death of Elizabeth, 1835.

22. ^ Henderson, Barney; Swaine, Jon (24 October 2011). "Sir Francis Drake's final fleet 'discovered off the coast of Panama'". Telegraph Newspaper.

23. Rayner, Richard (22 April 2002). "The Admiral and the Con Man". ^ The New Yorker. p. 150.

Bibliography

Barrow, John (1843). The life, voyages, and exploits of Admiral Sir Francis Drake : with numerous original letters from him and the Lord High Admiral to the Queen and great officers of state. London: John Murray.

Bawlf, Samuel (2003). The Secret Voyage of Sir Francis Drake, 1577-1580. Walker & Company. ISBN 0-8027-1405-6.

Corbett, Julian Stafford (1890). Sir Francis Drake.

Hughes-Hallett, Lucy (2004). Heroes: A History of Hero Worship. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 1-4000-4399-9.

Kelsey, Harry (1998). Sir Francis Drake, the Queen's Pirate. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07182-5.

(subscription or Kelsey, Harry (2004). "Drake, Sir Francis (1540-1596)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/8022. UK public library membership required)

Mattingly, Garett (1959). The Defeat of the Spanish Armada. ISBN 0-395-08366-4. A detailed account of the defeat of the Spanish Armada which received a special citation from the Pulitzer Prize committee in 1960.

Merideth, Mrs Charles, Notes and Sketches of New South Wales, during a residence in that colony from 1839 to 1844; Bound With: "Life of Drake" by John Barrow (1st ed., 1844) [xi, 164; and xii, 187 pp. respectively]

Hakluyt, Richard (1880). Payne, Edward John (ed.). Voyages of the Elizabethan seamen to America. Thirteen original narratives from the collection of Hakluyt. London: Thos. de la Rue & Co.

Rodger, N. A. M. (1997). The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660-1649. London

Wilson, Derek (1977). The World Encompassed: Drake's Great Voyage, 1577-80. Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-014679-6.

External links

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Sir Francis Drake ( c. 1540 - 28 January 1596) was an English sea captain, privateer, slave trader, pirate, naval officer and explorer of the Elizabethan era. Drake carried out the second circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition, from 1577 to 1580, and was the first to complete the voyage as captain while leading the expedition throughout the entire circumnavigation.

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Sir Francis Drake was the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. ...

Drake was one of the first British slave traders. ...

Drake was hated by the Spanish who nicknamed him 'El Draque' or the Dragon. ...

Drake was buried at sea off the coast of Portobelo, Panama.

Sir Francis Drake was an English explorer, sea captain, privateer, slave trader, naval officer, and politician. Drake is best known for his circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition, from 1577 to 1580. Wikipedia

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Please click here if you are not redirected within a few seconds. Sir Francis Drake was the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. ... Drake was one of the first British slave traders. ... Drake was hated by the Spanish who nicknamed him 'El Draque' or the Dragon. ...

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Drake info

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Kids learn about the biography and life of English explorer Sir Francis Drake. Privateer and pirate sailed around the world and conquered the Spanish.

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Hernando Cortes was a brave leader that encouraged his crew to fight the Aztecs.

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Sir Francis Drake, favourite of Queen Elizabeth I, explorer, pirate, privateer - famous for 'singeing the King of Spain's beard' in his ship the Golden Hind...

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Drake's death

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He was a good leader

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Drake

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Dysentery is an infection of the intestines that causes diarrhoea containing blood or mucus. Other symptoms of dysentery can include: painful stomach cramps. feeling sick or being sick (vomiting)

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He died when he was only 62

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died in Portobello Panama

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He died to Pleurisy and his lungs got inflamed.

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he died in spain Deceber 2 1547 by pleurisy

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He died from a infection called dysentrey in a sea voyage

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he die on jan 28 1596

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Francis died by Dysentery (infectious diarrhea)

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Francis drake died 1596

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Francis Drake died from dysentery

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Died in 1596, Jan 28

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francis died on 1596 jan 28 he died by dysentery.