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The Royal family has lots of twists and turns and and when read about all the conspiracy theories, Queen Elizabeth, and Princess Diana you might be able to unrap the mysteries of Diana's death.

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Conspiracists of Diana's Death.

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Was the tragic car accident really an accident?

Our editors and experts handpick every product we feature. We may earn a commission from your purchases.

Why all the Princess Diana conspiracy theories?

Here's what we know: On August 31, 1997, a car crashed in the Alma tunnel in Paris. The driver was speeding and had high levels of alcohol in his system. Princess Diana was proclaimed dead less than four hours later. Her partner and the driver didn't survive either. Then, Princess Diana's funeral was held on September 6, 1997. It sounds like Princess Diana's death was a result of a cut and dry drunk driving accident, but some people-notably the father of Diana's boyfriend, who also died in the crash-have questioned whether it really was an "accident." Enough conspiracy theories started circulating that London's Metropolitan Police did a full investigation into the claims and published their findings in Operation Paget. This is the truth behind the rumors and Princess Diana conspiracy theories.

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10 Conspiracy Theories That Still Surround Princess Diana's Death

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As Princess Diana's 60th birthday approaches, many still wonder: Was the tragic car accident really an accident? An official report investigated the conspiracy theories-and found the truth.

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This is an overview of the layout. It shows rooms, restaurants, below deck, the engines, etc.

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This article goes over everything from what a marine biologist does, has to do to become a marine biologist, where they work, and all the animals they work with.

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Do you love spending time on the ocean? Are you interested in dolphins and whales? While many marine biologists study these intelligent and endearing creatures, there are several areas of study within the field. Marine biologists may study anything from the largest whale down to tiny plankton, microbes, and even the seawater itself. The sea and its denizens are facing the challenges of coexisting with commercial shipping, recreational boating, plastics, chemicals, and other issues associated with human activities. Marine biologists study how these activities affect marine life, and suggest alternatives to minimize or prevent them.

What Is a Marine Biologist?

Marine biologists study life in the oceans, and sometimes the oceans themselves. They may investigate the behavior and physiological processes of marine species, or the diseases and environmental conditions that affect them. They may also assess the impacts of human activities on marine life. Many marine biologists work under job titles such as wildlife biologist, zoologist, fish and wildlife biologist, fisheries biologist, aquatic biologist, conservation biologist, and biological technician.

What Does a Marine Biologist Do?

Marine biologists study marine organisms in their natural habitats. They may investigate a population's behaviors or physiology. Or, they may assess the condition of habitats, and the effects of human activity on those animals and habitats.

Their research typically involves conducting species inventories, testing and monitoring sea creatures exposed to pollutants, collecting and testing ocean samples, preserving specimens and samples of unknown species and diseases, and mapping the distribution, ranges, or movements of marine populations.

In some cases, they may recommend alternative industrial practices to minimize negative effects on marine species and habitats. They may also communicate their findings and recommendations by writing reports and scientific journal articles.

Some marine biologists specialize in marine biotechnology. In other words, they investigate the adaptations and advantages of marine species and how they might be applied to industrial processes. For instance, one biotech company has mimicked the structure of shark skin to create doorknobs that germs and viruses such as MRSA can't attach to. This is a promising and interesting area of the field.

Where Does a Marine Biologist Work?

The majority of marine biologists work for state and federal government agencies. These positions typically offer greater job security and more opportunity for advancement. Many work at private research laboratories or consulting firms. Others work for aquariums, zoos, and museums, or become faculty members in academia. Some become high school science teachers.

Marine biologists may spend a significant amount of time outdoors when conducting research. Fieldwork often involves working on ships to locate, tag, and monitor marine animals and their movements, and to collect seawater samples.

What Is the Average Marine Biologist Salary?

While the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) doesn't collect data on marine biologists specifically, they are included with zoologists and wildlife biologists. As of 2020, the median salary for marine biologists was $66,350. Those employed by the federal government earned more than those in state government and other sectors.*

Marine Biology Jobs & Job Description

While marine biologist careers vary significantly, at its basic level, this type of scientist specializes in the living organisms in bodies of water. Most marine biologists have an area of specialty - some study mammals, or fish, single celled organisms like plankton, or plants and coral. While duties do vary from job to job, but the list below includes job duties that one typically encounters as a marine biologist:

Review research and literature relating to current discoveries in the field

Collect field and control samples of biological samples and non-living media in order to perform analyses

Research the behaviour and relationships among organisms in the marine environment

Analyze the evolution and distribution of organisms and their environment in the ocean

Use and maintain instrumentation used to track organisms and measure the properties of the environment

Analyze the diversity and health of various components of the marine environment

Consult and work to rebuild damaged marine ecosystems

Use computer modelling to build predictive data for the marine ecosystem

Consult with stakeholders regarding programs to monitor pollution

Advocate for and monitor environmental compliance

Provide assistance to fisheries management and coast guard units as required

Senior Marine Biologists often have a more broad set of job responsibilities that focus on management and leadership tasks. These responsibilities often include:

Navigate various agencies and regulations in order to effectively monitor the ecosystem in question

Construct grant proposals to fund research and fieldwork

Draft scientific papers reporting research findings

Facilitate a positive and challenging team environment with clear communication and mentoring opportunities

Present research findings at conferences, and to policymakers and stakeholders

Communicate with the public to help educate about issues affecting marine ecosystems like climate change and overfishing.

Determine jurisdictions for various laws and regulations

Develop scope of work for projects as well as calculate project budgets and schedules Writes environmental assessments and impact statements

Shares data with consideration to endangered species advocacy organizations

What Is the Job Demand for Marine Biologists?

Jobs in this field are limited and competition is strong. BLS projects that job demand for zoologists and wildlife biologists will grow by 5 percent between 2020 and 2030.* Those with advanced math and computer skills will be at an advantage in the job market.

What are Marine Biologist education requirements?

A bachelor's or master's degree is typically required for entry-level marine biology research jobs, such as those at private research organizations and biotechnology companies. Doctoral degrees are usually required for faculty positions and other jobs that allow you to follow your own research interests.

While several schools offer programs in marine biology, many students graduate with bachelor's degrees in biology, zoology, fisheries, ecology, or other animal sciences. Classes in chemistry, physics, mathematics, and statistics are also important. Classes on public policy, English and writing are also helpful for working on regulatory issues and communicating with others.

Other Degrees Related to Marine Biology

What Kind of Societies and Professional Organizations Do Marine Biologists Have?

The Association of Zoos & Aquariums (https://www.aza.org/) is a network of more than 6,000 zoo and aquarium professionals and organizations. It offers animal management information, business benchmarking data, conference proceedings, grants and more.

With over 9,000 members, the American Fisheries Society (http://fisheries.org/) is the oldest and largest professional society for fisheries scientists in the world. The Society promotes professional development, networking, and information exchange among its members. It does this through a major annual meeting and several more specialized symposia. It also promotes student involvement, professional standards, and professional certification.

The Society for Marine Mammology (http://www.marinemammalscience.org/) advances marine mammal science through meetings, publications, and the development of ethical standards for the treatment of marine mammals. The Society organizes workshops, training opportunities, and student chapters. It also maintains a job board, as well as a taxonomic list of marine mammal species and subspecies.

Other Recommend Resources

*2020 US Bureau of Labor Statistics salary figures and job growth projections for zoologists and wildlife biologists reflect national data not school-specific information. Conditions in your area may vary. Data accessed September 2021.

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How to Become a Marine Biologist | EnvironmentalScience.org

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Do you love spending time on the ocean? Are you interested in dolphins and whales? While many marine biologists study these intelligent and endearing creatures, there are several areas of study within the field. Marine biologists may study anything from the largest whale down to tiny plankton, microbes, and even the seawater itself.

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1912 facts about titanic

Scholastic titanic

Titanic sinks!

Titanic disaster at sea

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This video clearly explains what polio is and how the dealt with it etc.

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History of Polio - Part I: Suffering the disease

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This source shows what happened during the attack.

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World Trade Center

On September 11, 2001, at 8:45 a.m. on a clear Tuesday morning, an American Airlines Boeing 767 loaded with 20,000 gallons of jet fuel crashed into the north tower of the World Trade Center in New York City.

The impact left a gaping, burning hole near the 80th floor of the 110-story skyscraper, instantly killing hundreds of people and trapping hundreds more in higher floors.

As the evacuation of the tower and its twin got underway, television cameras broadcasted live images of what initially appeared to be a freak accident. Then, 18 minutes after the first plane hit, a second Boeing 767-United Airlines Flight 175-appeared out of the sky, turned sharply toward the World Trade Center and sliced into the south tower near the 60th floor.

The collision caused a massive explosion that showered burning debris over surrounding buildings and onto the streets below. It immediately became clear that America was under attack.

Osama bin Laden

The hijackers were Islamic terrorists from Saudi Arabia and several other Arab nations. Reportedly financed by the al Qaeda terrorist organization of Saudi fugitive Osama bin Laden, they were allegedly acting in retaliation for America's support of Israel, its involvement in the Persian Gulf War and its continued military presence in the Middle East.

Some of the terrorists had lived in the United States for more than a year and had taken flying lessons at American commercial flight schools. Others had slipped into the country in the months before September 11 and acted as the "muscle" in the operation.

Where Did the 9/11 Planes Take Off From?

The 19 terrorists smuggled box-cutters and knives through security at three East Coast airports-Logan International Airport in Boston, Dulles International Airport in Washington, D.C. and Newark International Airport in New Jersey-and boarded four early-morning flights bound for California, chosen because the planes were loaded with fuel for the long transcontinental journey. Soon after takeoff, the terrorists commandeered the four planes and took the controls, transforming ordinary passenger jets into guided missiles.

Pentagon Attack

As millions watched the events unfolding in New York, American Airlines Flight 77 circled over downtown Washington, D.C., before crashing into the west side of the Pentagon military headquarters at 9:45 a.m.

Jet fuel from the Boeing 757 caused a devastating inferno that led to the structural collapse of a portion of the giant concrete building, which is the headquarters of the U.S. Department of Defense.

All told, 125 military personnel and civilians were killed in the Pentagon, along with all 64 people aboard the airliner.

Twin Towers Collapse

Less than 15 minutes after the terrorists struck the nerve center of the U.S. military, the horror in New York took a catastrophic turn when the south tower of the World Trade Center collapsed in a massive cloud of dust and smoke.

The structural steel of the skyscraper, built to withstand winds in excess of 200 miles per hour and a large conventional fire, could not withstand the tremendous heat generated by the burning jet fuel.

At 10:30 a.m., the north building of the twin towers collapsed. Only 18 people in the World Trade Center towers at the time of the collapse survived. Most were with a group of FDNY firefighters in the North Tower's Stairwell B, which remained intact. One woman survived after the stairs she was rushing down disintegrated around her. Almost 10,000 others were treated for injuries, many severe.

Flight 93

Meanwhile, a fourth California-bound plane- United Flight 93-was hijacked about 40 minutes after leaving Newark Liberty International Airport in New Jersey. Because the plane had been delayed in taking off, passengers on board learned of events in New York and Washington via cell phone and Airfone calls to the ground.

Knowing that the aircraft was not returning to an airport as the hijackers claimed, a group of passengers and flight attendants planned an insurrection.

One of the passengers, Thomas Burnett, Jr., told his wife over the phone that "I know we're all going to die. There's three of us who are going to do something about it. I love you, honey." Another passenger-Todd Beamer-was heard saying "Are you guys ready? Let's roll" over an open line.

Sandy Bradshaw, a flight attendant, called her husband and explained that she had slipped into a galley and was filling pitchers with boiling water. Her last words to him were "Everyone's running to first class. I've got to go. Bye."

The passengers fought the four hijackers and are suspected to have attacked the cockpit with a fire extinguisher. The plane then flipped over and sped toward the ground at upwards of 500 miles per hour, crashing in a rural field near Shanksville in western Pennsylvania at 10:10 a.m.

All 44 people aboard were killed. Its intended target is not known, but theories include the White House, the U.S. Capitol, the Camp David presidential retreat in Maryland or one of several nuclear power plants along the eastern seaboard.

How Many People Died in the 9/11 Attacks?

A total of 2,996 people were killed in the 9/11 attacks, including the 19 terrorist hijackers aboard the four airplanes. Citizens of 78 countries died in New York, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania.

At the World Trade Center, 2,763 died after the two planes slammed into the twin towers. That figure includes 343 firefighters and paramedics, 23 New York City police officers and 37 Port Authority police officers who were struggling to complete an evacuation of the buildings and save the office workers trapped on higher floors.

At the Pentagon, 189 people were killed, including 64 on American Airlines Flight 77, the airliner that struck the building. On Flight 93, 44 people died when the plane crash-landed in Pennsylvania.

America Responds to the Attacks

At 7 p.m., President George W. Bush, who was in Florida at the time of the attacks and had spent the day being shuttled around the country because of security concerns, returned to the White House.

At 9 p.m., he delivered a televised address from the Oval Office, declaring, "Terrorist attacks can shake the foundations of our biggest buildings, but they cannot touch the foundation of America. These acts shatter steel, but they cannot dent the steel of American resolve."

In a reference to the eventual U.S. military response he declared, "We will make no distinction between the terrorists who committed these acts and those who harbor them."

Operation Enduring Freedom, the American-led international effort to oust the Taliban regime in Afghanistan and destroy Osama bin Laden's terrorist network based there, began on October 7. Within two months, U.S. forces had effectively removed the Taliban from operational power, but the war continued, as U.S. and coalition forces attempted to defeat a Taliban insurgency campaign based in neighboring Pakistan.

Osama bin Laden, the mastermind behind the September 11th attacks, remained at large until May 2, 2011, when he was finally tracked down and killed by U.S. forces at a hideout in Abbottabad, Pakistan. In June 2011, then-President Barack Obama announced the beginning of large-scale troop withdrawals from Afghanistan; it took until August 2021 for all U.S. forces to withdraw.

Department of Homeland Security Is Created

In the wake of security fears raised by 9/11 and the mailing of letters containing anthrax that killed two and infected 17, The Homeland Security Act of 2002 created the Department of Homeland Security. It was signed into law by President George W. Bush on November 25, 2002. Today, the Department of Homeland Security is a cabinet responsible for preventing terror attacks, border security, immigrations and customs and disaster relief and prevention.

The act was followed two days later by the formation of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. The bipartisan " 9/11 Commission," as it came to be known, was charged with investigating the events that lead up to September 11th. The 9/11 Commission Report was released on July 22, 2004. It named Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, the accused mastermind behind 9/11, "the principal architect of the 9/11 attacks."

Mohammed led propaganda operations for al Qaeda from 1999-2001. He was captured on March 1, 2003 by the Central Intelligence Agency and Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence and interrogated before being imprisoned in Guantanamo Bay detention camp with four other accused terrorists charged with 9/11-related war crimes. The use of torture, including waterboarding, during Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's interrogation has received international attention. In August 2019, a U.S. military court judge in Guantánamo Bay, Cuba set a trial date for Mohammed and the other four men charged with plotting the 9/11 terrorist attacks to begin in 2021; it was later postponed because of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Economic Impact of 9/11

The 9/11 attacks had an immediate negative effect on the U.S. economy. Many Wall Street institutions, including the New York Stock Exchange, were evacuated during the attacks. On the first day of trading after the attacks, the market fell 7.1 percent, or 684 points. New York City's economy alone lost 143,000 jobs a month and $2.8 billion wages in the first three months. The heaviest losses were in finance and air transportation, which accounted for 60 percent of lost jobs. The estimated cost of the World Trade Center damage is $60 billion. The cost to clean the debris at Ground Zero was $750 million.

Victim Compensation Fund

Thousands of first responders and people working and living in lower Manhattan near Ground Zero were exposed to toxic fumes and particles emanating from the towers as they burned and fell. By 2018, 10,000 people were diagnosed with 9/11-related cancer.

From 2001 to 2004, over $7 billion dollars in compensation was given to families of the 9/11 victims and the 2,680 people injured in the attacks. Funding was renewed on January 2, 2011, when President Barack Obama signed The James Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act into law. Named for James Zadroga, a New York City Police officer who died of respiratory disease he contracted after rescuing people from the rubble at Ground Zero, the law continued health monitoring and compensation for 9/11 first responders and survivors.

In 2015, funding for the treatment of 9/11-related illness was renewed for five more years at a total of $7.4 billion. The Victim Compensation Fund was set to stop accepting claims in December 2020.

On July 29, 2019, then-President Trump signed a law authorizing support for the September 11 Victim Compensation Fund through 2092. Previously, administrators had cut benefits by up to 70 percent as the $7.4 billion fund depleted. Vocal lobbyists for the fund included Jon Stewart, 9/11 first responder John Feal and retired New York Police Department detective and 9/11 responder Luis Alvarez, who died of cancer 18 days after testifying before Congress.

Anniversary and Memorial

On December 18, 2001, Congress approved naming September 11 "Patriot Day" to commemorate the anniversary of the 9/11 attacks. In 2009, Congress named September 11 a National Day of Service and Remembrance.

The first memorials to September 11 came in the immediate wake of the attacks, with candlelight vigils and flower tributes at U.S. embassies around the world. In Great Britain, Queen Elizabeth sang the American national anthem during the changing of the guard at Buckingham Palace. Rio de Janeiro put up billboards showing the city's Christ the Redeemer statue embracing the New York City skyline.

For the first anniversary of the attacks in New York City in 2002, two bright columns of light were shot up into the sky from where the Twin Towers once stood. The "Tribute in Light" then became an annual installation run by the Municipal Art Society of New York. On clear nights, the beams are visible from over 60 miles away.

A World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition was held to select an appropriate permanent memorial to the victims of 9/11. The winning design by Michael Arad, "Reflecting Absence," now sits outside the museum in an eight-acre park. It consists of two reflecting pools with waterfalls rushing down where the Twin Towers once rose into the sky.

The names of all 2,983 victims are engraved on the 152 bronze panels surrounding the pools, arranged by where individuals were on the day of the attacks, so coworkers and people on the same flight are memorialized together. The site was opened to the public on September 11, 2011, to commemorate the 10-year anniversary of 9/11. The National September 11 Memorial & Museum followed, opening on the original World Trade Center site in May 2014. The Freedom Tower, also on the original World Trade Center site, opened in November 2014.

Sources

"Study Confirms 9/11 Impact on New York City Economy." The New York Times
"September 11: nearly 10,000 people affected by 'cesspool of cancer.'" The Guardian.
"Congress passes 9/11 Victim Compensation Fund extension championed by Jon Stewart." CNN.com
The Encyclopedia of 9/11. New York Magazine.
FAQ About 9/11. 9/11 Memorial.
September 11th Terror Attacks Fast Facts. CNN.
9/11 Death Statistics. StatisticBrain.com.

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September 11 Attacks: Facts, Background & Impact

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On September 11, 2001, 19 militants associated with the Islamic extremist group al Qaeda hijacked four airplanes and carried out suicide attacks against targets in the United States. Two of the planes were flown into the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, a third plane hit the Pentagon just outside Washington, D.C., and the fourth plane crashed in a field in Pennsylvania.

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The Bubonic Plague is an infectious disease caused by a specific type of bacteria called Yersinia (A types of pestis). This can affect humans and animals and is spread mainly by fleas.

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Overview

What is the bubonic plague?

Plague is an infectious disease caused by a specific type of bacterium called Yersinia pestis. Y. pestis can affect humans and animals and is spread mainly by fleas. Bubonic plague is one type of plague. It gets its name from the swollen lymph nodes (buboes) caused by the disease. The nodes in the armpit, groin and neck can become as large as eggs and can ooze pus.

The other types of plague are:

Septicemic plague, which happens when the infection goes all through the body.

Pneumonic plague, which happens when lungs are infected.

Is this the same bubonic plague that killed so many people during medieval times?

Yes. Bubonic plague deaths exceeded 25 million people during the fourteenth century. This was about two-thirds of the population in Europe at the time. Rats traveled on ships and brought fleas and plague with them. Because most people who got the plague died, and many often had blackened tissue due to gangrene, bubonic plague was called the Black Death. A cure for bubonic plague wasn't available.

Does the bubonic plague still exist?

There have been other episodes of bubonic plague in world history apart from the Black Death years (1346-1353). Bubonic plague still occurs throughout the world and in the U.S., with cases in Africa, Asia, South America and the western areas of North America. About seven cases of plague happen in the U.S. every year on average. Half of the U.S. cases involve people aged 12 to 45 years.

In the U.S., most plague cases in people happen in two areas: Northern New Mexico, northern Arizona and southern Colorado, and another area involving California, southern Oregon and western Nevada.

Symptoms and Causes

What are the symptoms of bubonic plague?

Bubonic plague symptoms include:

Sudden high fever and chills.

Pains in the areas of the abdomen, arms and legs.

Large and swollen lumps in the lymph nodes (buboes) that develop and leak pus.

Symptoms of septicemic plague may include blackened tissue from gangrene, often involving the fingers or toes, or unusual bleeding. People with pneumonic plague may have additional trouble breathing and may cough up blood. Sometimes there are symptoms like nausea or vomiting.

What causes bubonic plague?

Bubonic plague is a type of infection caused by the Yersinia pestis ( Y. pestis) bacterium which is spread mostly by fleas on rodents and other animals. Humans who are bitten by the fleas then can come down with plague. It's an example of a disease that can spread between animals and people (a zoonotic disease).

It can be noted that cats in particular are vulnerable to plague and can be infected by eating sick rodents. These cats can pass droplets infected with plague to their owners or to the veterinarians that treat them.

Person-to-person spread is unlikely, except in rare cases of someone who has pneumonic plague (infected lungs) spreading plague through droplets sprayed into the air. In other rare cases, people have been infected with pneumonic plague by their dogs or cats.

Diagnosis and Tests

How is bubonic plague diagnosed?

To diagnose bubonic plague, your healthcare provider will order blood or tissue sample tests. The samples will be sent to the lab for testing to see if Y. pestis is present.

Management and Treatment

How is bubonic plague treated?

The bubonic plague can be treated and cured with antibiotics. If you are diagnosed with bubonic plague, you'll be hospitalized and given antibiotics. In some cases, you may be put into an isolation unit.

Antibiotics that treat bubonic plague include:

Ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin and moxifloxacin.

Gentamicin.

Doxycycline.

What happens if bubonic plague isn't treated?

Bubonic plague can be fatal if it's not treated. It can create infection throughout the body (septicemic plague) and / or infect your lungs (pneumonic plague.) Without treatment, septicemic plague and pneumonic plague are both fatal.

Prevention

How can bubonic plague be prevented?

You can take the following steps to prevent bubonic plague:

Make your home and yard inhospitable to rodents (mice, rats, squirrels) and other wild animals. Don't leave places for them to hide or food for them to eat. This means cleaning up clutter, brush and other items and being careful when feeding animals.

Use flea control products for your pets, especially those who are allowed to roam freely. Take sick pets to the veterinarian immediately.

Don't let pets who roam freely sleep in your bed.

Wear protective clothing - especially gloves - if you handle dead animals.

Use insect repellent if you go into wooded locations or other places that may expose you to fleas. Look for repellents that use DEET or permethrin.

Is there a bubonic plague vaccine?

In the U.S., there is currently no bubonic plague vaccine. In other locations, a vaccine is available only to people who have a high exposure to the plague because of their jobs.

Outlook / Prognosis

What is the outlook for someone with bubonic plague?

If you've had bubonic plague and been treated for it, your outlook is very good. Symptoms usually develop two to six days after exposure. The best recovery happens if you are treated within 24 hours of developing symptoms. You'll probably feel better after one to two weeks. However, untreated bubonic plague can be fatal.

Living With

If you develop symptoms of plague, such as high fever, pain and swollen lymph nodes, you should contact your healthcare provider. This is especially true if you have been exposed to flea bites. This is also true in the rare case that you have been exposed to someone who has bubonic plague.
A note from Cleveland Clinic
Bubonic plague may seem like a part of the past, but it still exists today in the world and in rural areas of the U.S. The best way to prevent getting plague is to avoid the fleas that live on rodents such as rats, mice and squirrels. The fleas can also live on chipmunks and rabbits. Take care to protect your pets and yourself from fleas and the possible infections they can carry. Make sure to contact your healthcare provider if you develop high fever, chills and especially symptoms like swollen and painful lymph nodes.

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Bubonic Plague (Black Death): What Is It, Symptoms, Treatment

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Plague is an infectious disease caused by a specific type of bacterium called Yersinia pestis. Y. pestis can affect humans and animals and is spread mainly by fleas. Bubonic plague is one type of plague. It gets its name from the swollen lymph nodes (buboes) caused by the disease.

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This is a producer going over basic tips for making a movie.

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Top 10 Tips For Producing A Movie - John Paul Rice

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A more detailed dive into the 1918 Spanish Flu, including diagnosing, treatment, prevention, etc.

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Why was the disease behind the 1918-1919 pandemic called the Spanish flu?

Spain was unlikely to be the source of the Spanish flu. It's possible that the flu might have begun in the U.S. or France. But Spain was neutral during World War I and didn't censor its news. Therefore, Spanish news sources reported the results of the devastating disease that was sickening and killing people. People all over the world were getting sick and dying, but countries involved in World War I were censoring the news.

What made the Spanish flu so deadly?

Some of the reasons why the Spanish flu killed so many people include:

The lack of effective treatment, due in part to the unknown cause at the time.

The cramped living arrangements of animals and people, especially the military, during World War I.

The lack of healthcare providers. A significant percentage of doctors were off fighting in the war.

The exceptional ability of the virus to copy itself and infect the lungs. This last feature was found during research into the 1918 virus, using tissue found in people who had died from the Spanish flu.

How long did the Spanish flu pandemic last?

The Spanish flu is said to have lasted from 1918 to 1919, but some sources put the date of the end of the pandemic in 1920.

Does the Spanish flu still exist?

The Spanish flu pandemic is over, but similar influenza viruses are still active.

What are the differences and similarities between the Spanish flu and COVID-19?

The Spanish flu and COVID-19 viruses aren't the same. They are similar in that they're both respiratory viruses spread through breathing in infected respiratory droplets. In addition, they both did and can cause acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). They are also similar in the ways that governments tried to fight them:

Avoiding delays in diagnosis.

Efforts to develop medication.

Isolation/lockdown.

Protective clothing like masks and gloves.

Hygiene practices like thorough hand washing.

COVID-19 has killed as many people in the U.S. as the Spanish flu did. But the population of the U.S. is now three times more than it was in 1918, so Spanish flu killed a larger percentage of Americans than COVID-19 has to date. If we look at the cause of death, people who had Spanish flu generally died from pneumonia and people who had COVID-19 died from multiple organ failure. Even in the case of people who developed ARDS after infection by each virus, the fatality rate was 100% for Spanish flu, as compared to 53.4% for COVID-19 because there were no treatments for infected individuals. The Spanish flu was also more deadly to healthy younger people, while COVID-19 has mostly affected people who are 65 years or older who have other diseases until the delta variant, which is infecting younger and healthier people more than prior COVID-19 variants.
A note from Cleveland Clinic
The recent COVID-19 pandemic brought many comparisons to the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918. In some ways the comparison was fair. It's important that we apply the lessons that we learned from both of these public health crises to help us prevent another one.

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Spanish Flu: What Is It, Causes, Symptoms & Pandemic

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The Spanish flu pandemic of 1918 infected about 500 million people worldwide and resulted in 5o million deaths. It mainly affected the lungs.

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This source provides a detailed definition of what a pandemic is and the causes of pandemics. It describes pandemics in general.

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Epidemic, Endemic, Pandemic: What are the Differences?

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Since the emergence of COVID-19, the public has been bombarded with scientific language. Visit our site to learn the differences between types of diseases.

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This article goes into more detail about what marine biologists do, qualifications needed, and all the skills you need to become a marine biologist.

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What Does a Marine Biologist Do? | New Scientist Jobs

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What Does a Marine Biologist Do? - read this article along with other careers information, tips and advice on New Scientist Jobs

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This article describes flu prevention measures, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of flu; (also) describes flu activity.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

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SmartFind Flu ChatBot

Influenza Updates:

Flu activity remains elevated nationally but is decreasing.

CDC continues to recommend vaccination as long as flu viruses are spreading.

There are antiviral drugs to treat flu illness.

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Technical Update: Summary Analysis of Genetic Sequences of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Viruses in Texas

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What you need to know about influenza (flu) from CDC

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Everything you need to know about flu viruses and flu illness, including symptoms, treatment and prevention.

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This shows the history of movie production and how they made movies.

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Origins

The illusion of films is based on the optical phenomena known as persistence of vision and the phi phenomenon. The first of these causes the brain to retain images cast upon the retina of the eye for a fraction of a second beyond their disappearance from the field of sight, while the latter creates apparent movement between images when they succeed one another rapidly. Together these phenomena permit the succession of still frames on a film strip to represent continuous movement when projected at the proper speed (traditionally 16 frames per second for silent films and 24 frames per second for sound films). Before the invention of photography, a variety of optical toys exploited this effect by mounting successive phase drawings of things in motion on the face of a twirling disk (the phenakistoscope, c. 1832) or inside a rotating drum (the zoetrope, c. 1834). Then, in 1839, Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre, a French painter, perfected the positive photographic process known as daguerreotype, and that same year the English scientist William Henry Fox Talbot successfully demonstrated a negative photographic process that theoretically allowed unlimited positive prints to be produced from each negative. As photography was innovated and refined over the next few decades, it became possible to replace the phase drawings in the early optical toys and devices with individually posed phase photographs, a practice that was widely and popularly carried out.

There would be no true motion pictures, however, until live action could be photographed spontaneously and simultaneously. This required a reduction in exposure time from the hour or so necessary for the pioneer photographic processes to the one-hundredth (and, ultimately, one-thousandth) of a second achieved in 1870. It also required the development of the technology of series photography by the British American photographer Eadweard Muybridge between 1872 and 1877. During that time, Muybridge was employed by Gov. Leland Stanford of California, a zealous racehorse breeder, to prove that at some point in its gallop a running horse lifts all four hooves off the ground at once. Conventions of 19th-century illustration suggested otherwise, and the movement itself occurred too rapidly for perception by the naked eye, so Muybridge experimented with multiple cameras to take successive photographs of horses in motion. Finally, in 1877, he set up a battery of 12 cameras along a Sacramento racecourse with wires stretched across the track to operate their shutters. As a horse strode down the track, its hooves tripped each shutter individually to expose a successive photograph of the gallop, confirming Stanford's belief. When Muybridge later mounted these images on a rotating disk and projected them on a screen through a magic lantern, they produced a "moving picture" of the horse at full gallop as it had actually occurred in life.

The French physiologist Étienne-Jules Marey took the first series photographs with a single instrument in 1882; once again the impetus was the analysis of motion too rapid for perception by the human eye. Marey invented the chronophotographic gun, a camera shaped like a rifle that recorded 12 successive photographs per second, in order to study the movement of birds in flight. These images were imprinted on a rotating glass plate (later, paper roll film), and Marey subsequently attempted to project them. Like Muybridge, however, Marey was interested in deconstructing movement rather than synthesizing it, and he did not carry his experiments much beyond the realm of high-speed, or instantaneous, series photography. Muybridge and Marey, in fact, conducted their work in the spirit of scientific inquiry; they both extended and elaborated existing technologies in order to probe and analyze events that occurred beyond the threshold of human perception. Those who came after would return their discoveries to the realm of normal human vision and exploit them for profit.

In 1887 in Newark, New Jersey, an Episcopalian minister named Hannibal Goodwin developed the idea of using celluloid as a base for photographic emulsions. The inventor and industrialist George Eastman, who had earlier experimented with sensitized paper rolls for still photography, began manufacturing celluloid roll film in 1889 at his plant in Rochester, New York. This event was crucial to the development of cinematography: series photography such as Marey's chronophotography could employ glass plates or paper strip film because it recorded events of short duration in a relatively small number of images, but cinematography would inevitably find its subjects in longer, more complicated events, requiring thousands of images and therefore just the kind of flexible but durable recording medium represented by celluloid. It remained for someone to combine the principles embodied in the apparatuses of Muybridge and Marey with celluloid strip film to arrive at a viable motion-picture camera.

Such a device was created by French-born inventor Louis Le Prince in the late 1880s. He shot several short films in Leeds, England, in 1888, and the following year he began using the newly invented celluloid film. He was scheduled to show his work in New York City in 1890, but he disappeared while traveling in France. The exhibition never occurred, and Le Prince's contribution to cinema remained little known for decades. Instead it was William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, working in the West Orange, New Jersey, laboratories of the Edison Company, who created what was widely regarded as the first motion-picture camera.

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History of film | Summary, Industry, History, & Facts

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History of film, history of cinema from the 19th century to the present. Learn about the development of the first viable motion-picture camera and other technological advances and discover directors and movies that have made key contributions to the film industry.

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This source is about the Titanic and what happened to all of the passengers.

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Home World History Accidents & Disasters
Table of Contents

in full:

Royal Mail Ship (RMS) Titanic

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Why did the Titanic sink?

How many people died when the Titanic sank?

Where is the wreck of the Titanic?

Why is the Titanic famous?

Titanic, British luxury passenger liner that sank on April 14-15, 1912, during its maiden voyage, en route to New York City from Southampton, England, killing about 1,500 ( see Researcher's Note: Titanic) passengers and ship personnel. One of the most famous tragedies in modern history, it inspired numerous stories, several films, and a musical and has been the subject of much scholarship and scientific speculation.

Origins and construction

In the early 1900s the transatlantic passenger trade was highly profitable and competitive, with ship lines vying to transport wealthy travelers and immigrants. Two of the chief lines were White Star and Cunard. By the summer of 1907, Cunard seemed poised to increase its share of the market with the debut of two new ships, the Lusitania and the Mauretania, which were scheduled to enter service later that year. The two passenger liners were garnering much attention for their expected speed; both would later set speed records crossing the Atlantic Ocean. Looking to answer his rival, White Star chairman J. Bruce Ismay reportedly met with William Pirrie, who controlled the Belfast shipbuilding firm Harland and Wolff, which constructed most of White Star's vessels. The two men devised a plan to build a class of large liners that would be known for their comfort instead of their speed. It was eventually decided that three vessels would be constructed: the Olympic, the Titanic, and the Britannic.

On March 31, 1909, some three months after work began on the Olympic, the keel was laid for the Titanic. The two ships were built side by side in a specially constructed gantry that could accommodate their unprecedented size. The sister ships were largely designed by Thomas Andrews of Harland and Wolff. In addition to ornate decorations, the Titanic featured an immense first-class dining saloon, four elevators, and a swimming pool. Its second-class accommodations were comparable to first-class features on other ships, and its third-class offerings, although modest, were still noted for their relative comfort.

Understanding the Titanic Disaster

As to safety elements, the Titanic had 16 compartments that included doors which could be closed from the bridge, so that water could be contained in the event the hull was breached. Although they were presumed to be watertight, the bulkheads were not capped at the top. The ship's builders claimed that four of the compartments could be flooded without endangering the liner's buoyancy. The system led many to claim that the Titanic was unsinkable.

Following completion of the hull and main superstructure, the Titanic was launched on May 31, 1911. It then began the fitting-out phase, as machinery was loaded into the ship and interior work began. After the Olympic's maiden voyage in June 1911, slight changes were made to the Titanic's design. In early April 1912 the Titanic underwent its sea trials, after which the ship was declared seaworthy.

As it prepared to embark on its maiden voyage, the Titanic was one of the largest and most opulent ships in the world. It had a gross registered tonnage (i.e., carrying capacity) of 46,328 tons, and when fully laden the ship displaced (weighed) more than 52,000 tons. The Titanic was approximately 882.5 feet (269 metres) long and about 92.5 feet (28.2 metres) wide at its widest point.

Maiden voyage

On April 10, 1912, the Titanic set sail on its maiden voyage, traveling from Southampton, England, to New York City. Nicknamed the "Millionaire's Special," the ship was fittingly captained by Edward J. Smith, who was known as the "Millionaire's Captain" because of his popularity with wealthy passengers. Indeed, onboard were a number of prominent people, including American businessman Benjamin Guggenheim, British journalist William Thomas Stead, and Macy's department store co-owner Isidor Straus and his wife, Ida. In addition, Ismay and Andrews were also traveling on the Titanic.

The voyage nearly began with a collision, however, when suction from the Titanic caused the docked New York to swing into the giant liner's path. After an hour of maneuverings to prevent the accident, the Titanic was under way. On the evening of April 10 the ship stopped at Cherbourg, France. The city's dock was too small to accommodate the Titanic, so passengers had to be ferried to and from the ship in tenders. Among those boarding were John Jacob Astor and his pregnant second wife, Madeleine, and Molly Brown. After some two hours the Titanic resumed its journey. On the morning of April 11 the liner made its last scheduled stop in Europe, at Queenstown ( Cobh), Ireland. At approximately 1:30 pm the ship set sail for New York City. Onboard were some 2,200 people, approximately 1,300 of whom were passengers.

Final hours

Throughout much of the voyage, the wireless radio operators on the Titanic, Jack Phillips and Harold Bride, had been receiving iceberg warnings, most of which were passed along to the bridge. The two men worked for the Marconi Company, and much of their job was relaying passengers' messages. On the evening of April 14 the Titanic began to approach an area known to have icebergs. Smith slightly altered the ship's course to head farther south. However, he maintained the ship's speed of some 22 knots. At approximately 9:40 pm the Mesaba sent a warning of an ice field. The message was never relayed to the Titanic's bridge. At 10:55 pm the nearby Leyland liner Californian sent word that it had stopped after becoming surrounded by ice. Phillips, who was handling passenger messages, scolded the Californian for interrupting him.

Two lookouts, Frederick Fleet and Reginald Lee, were stationed in the crow's nest of the Titanic. Their task was made difficult by the fact that the ocean was unusually calm that night: because there would be little water breaking at its base, an iceberg would be more difficult to spot. In addition, the crow's nest's binoculars were missing. At approximately 11:40 pm, about 400 nautical miles (740 km) south of Newfoundland, Canada, an iceberg was sighted, and the bridge was notified. First Officer William Murdoch ordered both the ship "hard-a-starboard"-a maneuver that under the order system then in place would turn the ship to port (left)-and the engines reversed. The Titanic began to turn, but it was too close to avoid a collision. The ship's starboard side scraped along the iceberg. At least five of its supposedly watertight compartments toward the bow were ruptured. After assessing the damage, Andrews determined that, as the ship's forward compartments filled with water, its bow would drop deeper into the ocean, causing water from the ruptured compartments to spill over into each succeeding compartment, thereby sealing the ship's fate. The Titanic would founder. (By reversing the engines, Murdoch actually caused the Titanic to turn slower than if it had been moving at its original speed. Most experts believe the ship would have survived if it had hit the iceberg head-on.)

Smith ordered Phillips to begin sending distress signals, one of which reached the Carpathia at approximately 12:20 am on April 15, and the Cunard ship immediately headed toward the stricken liner. However, the Carpathia was some 58 nautical miles (107 km) away when it received the signal, and it would take more than three hours to reach the Titanic. Other ships also responded, including the Olympic, but all were too far away. A vessel was spotted nearby, but the Titanic was unable to contact it. The Californian was also in the vicinity, but its wireless had been turned off for the night.

As attempts were made to contact nearby vessels, the lifeboats began to be launched, with orders of women and children first. Although the Titanic's number of lifeboats exceeded that required by the British Board of Trade, its 20 boats could carry only 1,178 people, far short of the total number of passengers. This problem was exacerbated by lifeboats being launched well below capacity, because crewmen worried that the davits would not be able to support the weight of a fully loaded boat. (The Titanic had canceled its scheduled lifeboat drill earlier in the day, and the crew was unaware that the davits had been tested in Belfast.) Lifeboat number 7, which was the first to leave the Titanic, held only about 27 people, though it had space for 65. In the end, only 705 people would be rescued in lifeboats.

As passengers waited to enter lifeboats, they were entertained by the Titanic's musicians, who initially played in the first-class lounge before eventually moving to the ship's deck. Sources differ on how long they performed, some reporting that it was until shortly before the ship sank. Speculation also surrounded the last song they performed-likely either Autumn or Nearer My God to Thee. None of the musicians survived the sinking.

By 1:00 am water was seen at the base (E deck) of the Grand Staircase. Amid the growing panic, several male passengers tried to board lifeboat number 14, causing Fifth Officer Harold Lowe to fire his gun three times. Around this time, Phillips's distress calls reflected a growing desperation as one noted that the ship "cannot last much longer."

As the Titanic's bow continued to sink, the stern began to rise out of the water, placing incredible strain on the midsection. At about 2:00 am the stern's propellers were clearly visible above the water, and the only lifeboats that remained on the ship were three collapsible boats. Smith released the crew, saying that "it's every man for himself." (He was reportedly last seen in the bridge, and his body was never found.) At approximately 2:18 am the lights on the Titanic went out. It then broke in two, with the bow going underwater. Reports later speculated that it took some six minutes for that section, likely traveling at approximately 30 miles (48 km) per hour, to reach the ocean bottom. The stern momentarily settled back in the water before rising again, eventually becoming vertical. It briefly remained in that position before beginning its final plunge. At 2:20 am the ship foundered as the stern also disappeared beneath the Atlantic. Water pressure allegedly caused that section, which still had air inside, to implode as it sank.

Hundreds of passengers and crew went into the icy water. Fearful of being swamped, those in the lifeboats delayed returning to pick up survivors. By the time they rowed back, almost all the people in the water had died from exposure. In the end, more than 1,500 perished. Aside from the crew, which had about 700 fatalities, third class suffered the greatest loss: of approximately 710, only some 174 survived. (Subsequent claims that passengers in steerage were prevented from boarding boats, however, were largely dispelled. Given Smith's failure to sound a general alarm, some third-class passengers did not realize the direness of the situation until it was too late. Many women also refused to leave their husbands and sons, while the difficulty of simply navigating the complex Titanic from the lower levels caused some to reach the top deck after most of the lifeboats had been launched.)
Read our timeline of the Titanic's final hours.

Rescue

The Carpathia arrived in the area at approximately 3:30 am, more than an hour after the Titanic sank. Lifeboat number 2 was the first to reach the liner. Over the next several hours the Carpathia picked up all survivors. White Star chairman Ismay wrote a message to be sent to the White Star Line's offices: "Deeply regret advise you Titanic sank this morning fifteenth after collision iceberg, resulting serious loss life; further particulars later." At approximately 8:30 am the Californian arrived, having heard the news some three hours earlier. Shortly before 9:00 am the Carpathia headed for New York City, where it arrived to massive crowds on April 18.

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Titanic | History, Sinking, Rescue, Survivors, Movies, & Facts

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Titanic, British luxury passenger liner that sank on April 14-15, 1912, during its maiden voyage, en route to New York City from Southampton, England, killing about 1,500 people. One of the most famous tragedies in modern history, it inspired numerous works of art and has been the subject of much scholarship.

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This article explains the history of track

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Ancient History

Track and field has been around since the start of the Olympics in Ancient Greece in 776 B.C. It was created alongside religious events and celebrations for the Greek gods where men (no women were allowed) could show off their athletic abilities. From there it spread to the Romans who continued the games until the Christian Emperor Theodosius I banned them in 394 A.D. because of their ties to pagan beliefs.

While it has grown since its inception, the first games included categories such as sprint races, long jump, discus, shot put and javelin. The track and field events in these ancient times still remain in today's sport. Victors were praised and celebrated by their home cities for their success in these games.

Modern Age

While track and field has a long and storied history, it did not gain great popularity and take off until the 1860s. In 1866, England held its first championships for men amateurs. No financial compensation was provided to the winners, setting precedent for the modern-day Olympics and basis for the sport.

Momentum behind track and field started to grow in England and later traveled to the United States. The Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) was founded in the U.S. in 1887 and has been the governing body for the sport since. Just shy of 10 years later, the modern Olympics began in 1896 with track and field amongst the list of participating sports.

Track Events

Specific track events include indoor and outdoor sprints. Indoor sprints range from 50 yards to 500 meters and outdoor sprints are either 100, 200, or 400 meters. Middle distance races range from 800 to 2,000 meters and long distances range from 3,000 to 30,000 meters.

In addition to the sprints, there are also hurdles and relay teams. Hurdles are placed on the track and the athlete must run while jumping over the barriers. Men must cross 10 hurdles in either the 110 or 400-meter race and women must cross eight hurdles at 100 or 400 meters. Relay teams are composed of four athletes who each run separate distances or legs of the race. The 4x100m and 4x400m are most common.

Field Events

Today's field events include high jump, pole vault, long jump, triple jump, shot put, discus, javelin, and hammer. Vertical jump competitions include the high jump and pole vault. These events are scored by the height at which each athlete reaches without knocking down the pole/marker. Horizontal jump competitions include the long and triple jump. Both of these are measured by how far an athlete can jump forward, with the winner jumping the farthest into a sandpit from a runway. The triple jump has specific components of a hop, step, and jump. Throwing competitions include shot put, discus, javelin, and hammer. The winner of these events succeeds by throwing the object the farthest.

In some cases, these competitions held once by Greek and Roman warriors could be considered the birthplace of true sport. Track and field has grown to one of the most participated and popular sports around the world. Whether you are an avid all-year fan or just catch the highlights every four years watching the Olympics, track and field has been a part of history since ancient times and will continue to be for many years to come.

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The History Of Track And Field - FloTrack

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Track and field has been around since the start of the Olympics in Ancient Greece in 776 B.C. It was created alongside religious events and celebrations for the Greek gods where men (no women were allowed) could show off their athletic abilities.

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A massive summary over ancient egypt.

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Predynastic Period (c. 5000-3100 B.C.)

Few written records or artifacts have been found from the Predynastic Period, which encompassed at least 2,000 years of gradual development of the Egyptian civilization.

Did you know? During the rule of Akhenaton, his wife Nefertiti played an important political and religious role in the monotheistic cult of the sun god Aton. Images and sculptures of Nefertiti depict her famous beauty and role as a living goddess of fertility.

Neolithic (late Stone Age) communities in northeastern Africa exchanged hunting for agriculture and made early advances that paved the way for the later development of Egyptian arts and crafts, technology, politics and religion (including a great reverence for the dead and possibly a belief in life after death).

Around 3400 B.C., two separate kingdoms were established near the Fertile Crescent, an area home to some of the world's oldest civilizations: the Red Land to the north, based in the Nile River Delta and extending along the Nile perhaps to Atfih; and the White Land in the south, stretching from Atfih to Gebel es-Silsila. A southern king, Scorpion, made the first attempts to conquer the northern kingdom around 3200 B.C. A century later, King Menes would subdue the north and unify the country, becoming the first king of the first dynasty.

Archaic (Early Dynastic) Period (c. 3100-2686 B.C.)

King Menes founded the capital of ancient Egypt at White Walls (later known as Memphis), in the north, near the apex of the Nile River delta. The capital would grow into a great metropolis that dominated Egyptian society during the Old Kingdom period. The Archaic Period saw the development of the foundations of Egyptian society, including the all-important ideology of kingship. To the ancient Egyptians, the king was a godlike being, closely identified with the all-powerful god Horus. The earliest known hieroglyphic writing also dates to this period.

In the Archaic Period, as in all other periods, most ancient Egyptians were farmers living in small villages, and agriculture (largely wheat and barley) formed the economic base of the Egyptian state. The annual flooding of the great Nile River provided the necessary irrigation and fertilization each year; farmers sowed the wheat after the flooding receded and harvested it before the season of high temperatures and drought returned.

Old Kingdom: Age of the Pyramid Builders (c. 2686-2181 B.C.)

The Old Kingdom began with the third dynasty of pharaohs. Around 2630 B.C., the third dynasty's King Djoser asked Imhotep, an architect, priest and healer, to design a funerary monument for him; the result was the world's first major stone building, the Step-Pyramid at Saqqara, near Memphis. Egyptian pyramid-building reached its zenith with the construction of the Great Pyramid at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Built for Khufu (or Cheops, in Greek), who ruled from 2589 to 2566 B.C., the pyramid was later named by classical historians as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus estimated that it took 100,000 men 20 years to build it. Two other pyramids were built at Giza for Khufu's successors Khafra (2558-2532 B.C) and Menkaura (2532-2503 B.C.).

During the third and fourth dynasties, Egypt enjoyed a golden age of peace and prosperity. The pharaohs held absolute power and provided a stable central government; the kingdom faced no serious threats from abroad; and successful military campaigns in foreign countries like Nubia and Libya added to its considerable economic prosperity. Over the course of the fifth and sixth dynasties, the king's wealth was steadily depleted, partially due to the huge expense of pyramid-building, and his absolute power faltered in the face of the growing influence of the nobility and the priesthood that grew up around the sun god Ra (Re). After the death of the sixth dynasty's King Pepy II, who ruled for some 94 years, the Old Kingdom period ended in chaos.

On the heels of the Old Kingdom's collapse, the seventh and eighth dynasties consisted of a rapid succession of Memphis-based rulers until about 2160 B.C., when the central authority completely dissolved, leading to civil war between provincial governors. This chaotic situation was intensified by Bedouin invasions and accompanied by famine and disease.

From this era of conflict emerged two different kingdoms: A line of 17 rulers (dynasties nine and 10) based in Heracleopolis ruled Middle Egypt between Memphis and Thebes, while another family of rulers arose in Thebes to challenge Heracleopolitan power. Around 2055 B.C., the Theban prince Mentuhotep managed to topple Heracleopolis and reunited Egypt, beginning the 11th dynasty and ending the First Intermediate Period.

Middle Kingdom: 12th Dynasty (c. 2055-1786 B.C.)

After the last ruler of the 11th dynasty, Mentuhotep IV, was assassinated, the throne passed to his vizier, or chief minister, who became King Amenemhet I, founder of dynasty 12. A new capital was established at It-towy, south of Memphis, while Thebes remained a great religious center. During the Middle Kingdom, Egypt once again flourished, as it had during the Old Kingdom. The 12th dynasty kings ensured the smooth succession of their line by making each successor co-regent, a custom that began with Amenemhet I.

Middle-Kingdom Egypt pursued an aggressive foreign policy, colonizing Nubia (with its rich supply of gold, ebony, ivory and other resources) and repelling the Bedouins who had infiltrated Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. The kingdom also built diplomatic and trade relations with Syria, Palestine and other countries; undertook building projects including military fortresses and mining quarries; and returned to pyramid-building in the tradition of the Old Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom reached its peak under Amenemhet III (1842-1797 B.C.); its decline began under Amenenhet IV (1798-1790 B.C.) and continued under his sister and regent, Queen Sobekneferu (1789-1786 B.C.), who was the first confirmed female ruler of Egypt and the last ruler of the 12th dynasty.

The 13th dynasty marked the beginning of another unsettled period in Egyptian history, during which a rapid succession of kings failed to consolidate power. As a consequence, during the Second Intermediate Period Egypt was divided into several spheres of influence. The official royal court and seat of government was relocated to Thebes, while a rival dynasty (the 14th), centered on the city of Xois in the Nile delta, seems to have existed at the same time as the 13th.

Around 1650 B.C., a line of foreign rulers known as the Hyksos took advantage of Egypt's instability to take control. The Hyksos rulers of the 15th dynasty adopted and continued many of the existing Egyptian traditions in government as well as culture. They ruled concurrently with the line of native Theban rulers of the 17th dynasty, who retained control over most of southern Egypt despite having to pay taxes to the Hyksos. (The 16th dynasty is variously believed to be Theban or Hyksos rulers.) Conflict eventually flared between the two groups, and the Thebans launched a war against the Hyksos around 1570 B.C., driving them out of Egypt.

New Kingdom (c. 1567-1085 B.C.)

Under Ahmose I, the first king of the 18th dynasty, Egypt was once again reunited. During the 18th dynasty, Egypt restored its control over Nubia and began military campaigns in Palestine, clashing with other powers in the area such as the Mitannians and the Hittites. The country went on to establish the world's first great empire, stretching from Nubia to the Euphrates River in Asia. In addition to powerful kings such as Amenhotep I (1546-1526 B.C.), Thutmose I (1525-1512 B.C.) and Amenhotep III (1417-1379 B.C.), the New Kingdom was notable for the role of royal women such as Queen Hatshepsut (1503-1482 B.C.), who began ruling as a regent for her young stepson (he later became Thutmose III, Egypt's greatest military hero), but rose to wield all the powers of a pharaoh.

The controversial Amenhotep IV (c. 1379-1362), of the late 18th dynasty, undertook a religious revolution, disbanding the priesthoods dedicated to Amon-Re (a combination of the local Theban god Amon and the sun god Re) and forcing the exclusive worship of another sun-god, Aton. Renaming himself Akhenaton ("servant of the Aton"), he built a new capital in Middle Egypt called Akhetaton, known later as Amarna. Upon Akhenaton's death, the capital returned to Thebes and Egyptians returned to worshiping a multitude of gods. The 19th and 20th dynasties, known as the Ramesside period (for the line of kings named Ramses) saw the restoration of the weakened Egyptian empire and an impressive amount of building, including great temples and cities. According to biblical chronology, the exodus of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt possibly occurred during the reign of Ramses II (1304-1237 B.C.).

All of the New Kingdom rulers (with the exception of Akhenaton) were laid to rest in deep, rock-cut tombs (not pyramids) in the Valley of the Kings, a burial site on the west bank of the Nile opposite Thebes. Most of them were raided and destroyed, with the exception of the tomb and treasure of Tutankhamen (c.1361-1352 B.C.), discovered largely intact in A.D. 1922. The splendid mortuary temple of the last great king of the 20th dynasty, Ramses III (c. 1187-1156 B.C.), was also relatively well preserved, and indicated the prosperity Egypt still enjoyed during his reign. The kings who followed Ramses III were less successful: Egypt lost its provinces in Palestine and Syria for good and suffered from foreign invasions (notably by the Libyans), while its wealth was being steadily but inevitably depleted.

The next 400 years-known as the Third Intermediate Period-saw important changes in Egyptian politics, society and culture. Centralized government under the 21st dynasty pharaohs gave way to the resurgence of local officials, while foreigners from Libya and Nubia grabbed power for themselves and left a lasting imprint on Egypt's population. The 22nd dynasty began around 945 B.C. with King Sheshonq, a descendant of Libyans who had invaded Egypt during the late 20th dynasty and settled there. Many local rulers were virtually autonomous during this period and dynasties 23-24 are poorly documented.

In the eighth century B.C., Nubian pharaohs beginning with Shabako, ruler of the Nubian kingdom of Kush, established their own dynasty-the 25th-at Thebes. Under Kushite rule, Egypt clashed with the growing Assyrian empire. In 671 B.C., the Assyrian ruler Esarhaddon drove the Kushite king Taharka out of Memphis and destroyed the city; he then appointed his own rulers out of local governors and officials loyal to the Assyrians. One of them, Necho of Sais, ruled briefly as the first king of the 26th dynasty before being killed by the Kushite leader Tanuatamun, in a final, unsuccessful grab for power.

From the Late Period to Alexander's Conquest (c.664-332 B.C.)

Beginning with Necho's son, Psammetichus, the Saite dynasty ruled a reunified Egypt for less than two centuries. In 525 B.C., Cambyses, king of Persia, defeated Psammetichus III, the last Saite king, at the Battle of Pelusium, and Egypt became part of the Persian Empire. Persian rulers such as Darius (522-485 B.C.) ruled the country largely under the same terms as native Egyptian kings: Darius supported Egypt's religious cults and undertook the building and restoration of its temples. The tyrannical rule of Xerxes (486-465 B.C.) sparked increased uprisings under him and his successors. One of these rebellions triumphed in 404 B.C., beginning one last period of Egyptian independence under native rulers (dynasties 28-30).

In the mid-fourth century B.C., the Persians again attacked Egypt, reviving their empire under Ataxerxes III in 343 B.C. Barely a decade later, in 332 B.C., Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated the armies of the Persian Empire and conquered Egypt. After Alexander's death, Egypt was ruled by a line of Macedonian kings, beginning with Alexander's general Ptolemy and continuing with his descendants. The last ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt-the legendary Cleopatra VII-surrendered Egypt to the armies of Octavian (later Augustus) in 31 B.C. Six centuries of Roman rule followed, during which Christianity became the official religion of Rome and the Roman Empire's provinces (including Egypt). The conquest of Egypt by the Arabs in the seventh century A.D. and the introduction of Islam would do away with the last outward aspects of ancient Egyptian culture and propel the country towards its modern incarnation.

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HISTORY Vault: Ancient History

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Ancient Egypt: Civilization, Empire & Culture | HISTORY

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Ancient Egypt was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean world from around 3100 B.C. to its conquest in 332 B.C.

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This is an article on the history of all sports

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From Rocks and Spears to Laser Tag

The documented history of sports goes back at least 3,000 years. In the beginning, sports often involved the preparation for war or training as a hunter, which explains why so many early games involved the throwing of spears, stakes, and rocks, and sparring one-on-one with opponents.

With the first Olympic Games in 776 BC-which included events such as foot and chariot races, wrestling, jumping, and discus and javelin throwing-the Ancient Greeks introduced formal sports to the world. The following by no means exhaustive list takes a look at the beginnings and evolution of some of today's most popular sporting pastimes.

Cricket: The game of cricket originated in south-east England sometime in the late 16th century. By the 18th century, it had become the national sport, making inroads globally in the 19th and 20th centuries. The prototype for the modern cricket bat featuring a willow blade and a cane handle layered with strips of rubber, and then tied with twine and covered with another layer of rubber to form a grip was invented around 1853. (The longest recorded game of cricket took place in 1939 and spanned a period of nine days.)

Baseball: Alexander Cartwright (1820-1892) of New York invented the baseball field as we know it in 1845. Cartwright and the members of his New York Knickerbocker Base Ball Club​ devised the first rules and regulations that became the accepted standard for the modern game of baseball.

Softball: In 1887, George Hancock, a reporter for the Chicago Board of Trade, invented softball as a form of indoor baseball that was first played on a cold winter day inside the warm Farragut Boat Club.

The first formal rules for basketball were devised in 1892. Initially, players dribbled a soccer ball up and down a court of unspecified dimensions. Points were earned by landing the ball in a peach basket. Iron hoops and a hammock-style basket were introduced in 1893. Another decade passed, however, before the innovation of open-ended nets put an end to the practice of manually retrieving the ball from the basket each time a goal was scored. The first shoes specifically designed for the game, Converse All Stars, were introduced in 1917 and were soon made famous by legendary player Chuck Taylor who became an early brand ambassador in the 1920s.

Rugby: The origins of rugby can be traced back over 2000 years to a Roman game called harpastum (from the Greek for "seize"). Unlike soccer, in which the ball was propelled by means of the foot, in this game, it was also carried in the hands. The game made its modern debut in 1749 at a newly built school in Rugby in Warwickshire, England, which boasted "every accommodation that could be required for the exercise of young gentlemen." The eight-acre plot on which the game evolved was known as "The Close." Between 1749 and 1823, rugby had few rules and the ball was kicked rather than carried to move it forward. Games could go on for five days and often more than 200 students participated. In 1823, player William Webb Ellis was the first to took pick up the ball and run with it. This was the beginning of the modern version of the sport as it's played today.

Football: American football is a descendant of rugby and soccer. While Rutgers and Princeton played what was then billed as the first college footballgame on November 6, 1869, the game did not come into its own until 1879 with rules instituted by Walter Camp, a player/coach at Yale University. On November 12, 1892, in a game that pitted the Allegheny Athletic Association football team against the Pittsburgh Athletic Club, AAA player William (Pudge) Heffelfinger was paid $500 to participate-marking him as the first-ever professional football player.

The game of Golf is descended from a game that originated in the Kingdom of Fife on the eastern coast of Scotland in during the 15th century. While there were similar games in other parts of Europe at the time that involved swatting a rock with a stick around a predetermined course, the game as we know it-including the innovation introduction of the golf hole-was invented in Scotland.

During the mid-15th century, the games of golf and soccer suffered something of a setback. As Scotland prepared to defend its borders against English invasion, the rising popularity of the games was thought to be responsible for men neglecting more useful pursuits such as archery and swordsmanship. Golf and soccer were officially banned in Scotland in 1457. The prohibition was lifted in 1502 with the signing of the Treaty of Glasgow.

In the 16th century, King Charles I popularized the golf in England and Mary Queen of Scots, who was French, introduced the game to her homeland. (In fact, it's possible that term "caddie" is derived from the name given to the French cadets who attended Mary when she played).

The first reference to golf at Scotland's most famous golf course, St Andrews, was in 1552. The clergy allowed public access to the links the following year.

The golf course at Leith (near Edinburgh) was the first to publish a set of rules for the game, and in 1682, was also the site of the first international golf match during which a team pairing the Duke of York and George Patterson playing for Scotland beat two English noblemen.

In 1754, the St Andrews Society of Golfers was formed. Its annual competition relied on the rules established at Leith.

Stroke play was introduced in 1759.

The first 18-hole course (now standard) was constructed in 1764.

In 1895, St Andrews inaugurated the first women's golf club in the world.

While the exact origin of ice hockey is unclear, the game likely evolved from the centuries' old Northern European game of field hockey. The rules of modern ice hockey were created by Canadian James Creighton. The first game was played in Montreal, Canada 1875 at Victoria Skating Rink between two nine-player teams, and featured a flat circular piece of wood that served as a prototype for what would eventually evolve into the modern hockey puck. Today, barring penalties, each team has six players on the ice at a time, including the goalie, who guards the net.

Lord Stanley of Preston, Governor-General of Canada, inaugurated the Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup-known today as the Stanley Cup-in 1892, to recognize the best team in Canada each year. The first award went to the Montreal Hockey Club in 1893. The awards were later opened to both Canadian and American league teams.

Around the 14th Century, the Dutch started using wooden platform skates with flat iron bottom runners. The skates were attached to the skater's shoes with leather straps. Poles were used to propel the skater. Around 1500, the Dutch added a narrow metal double-edged blade, making the poles a thing of the past, as the skater could now push and glide with his feet (called the "Dutch Roll").

Figure skating was introduced at the 1908 Summer Olympics and has been included at the Winter Games since 1924. Men's speed skating debuted during the 1924 Winter Olympic Games in Chamonix, France. Ice dance became a medal sport in 1976, with a team event debuting for the 2014 Olympics.

Skiing and Water Skiing

Skiing: Although the sport of skiing in America is little more than a century old, researchers have dated a rock carving of a skier, found on the Norwegian island of Rodoy as more than 4,000 years old. Skiing was so revered in Scandinavia that the Vikings worshiped Ull and Skade, the god and goddess of skiing. Skiing was introduced to the United States by Norwegian gold miners.

Water Skiing: Water skiing came about on June 28, 1922, when 18-year-old Minnesotan Ralph Samuelson proved the theory that if a person could ski on snow, a person could ski on water.

Swimming pools did not become popular until the middle of the 19th century. By 1837, six indoor pools with diving boards had been built in London, England. When the modern Olympic Games were launched in Athens, Greece, on April 5, 1896, swimming races were among the original events. Soon after, the popularity of swimming pools and the related sporting events began to spread.

Several famous 20th Century swimmers, including three-time gold medalist Johnny Weissmuller who competed in the 1924 Paris Games, two-time Olympian Buster Crabbe, and Esther Williams, an American competitive swimmer who set multiple national and regional swimming records (but did not compete in the Olympics due to the outbreak of WWII) went on to have successful careers in Hollywood.

While there's evidence to suggest that ancient Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians played some version of a game that resembled tennis, court tennis as we know it is descended from a game enjoyed by 11 th-century French monks called paume (meaning "palm"). Paume was played on a court and the ball was struck with the hand (hence the name). Paume evolved into jeu de paume ("game of the palm") in which racquets were used. By 1500, racquets constructed of wooden frames and gut strings were in play, as were balls made of cork and leather. When popular game spread to England, it was played exclusively indoors, but rather than volley the ball back and forth, players attempted to hit a ball into a netted opening in the roof of the court. In 1873, Englishman Major Walter Wingfield invented a game called Sphairistikè (Greek for "playing ball") from which modern outdoor tennis evolved.

William Morgan invented volleyball in 1895 at the Holyoke, Massachusetts, YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association) where he served as Director of Physical Education. Originally called Mintonette, after a demonstration match during which a spectator commented that the game involved a great deal of "volleying," the sport was renamed volleyball.

Surfing: The exact origins of surfing are not known, however, most research suggests the activity dates back to ancient Polynesia and was first observed by Europeans during a 1767 voyage to Tahiti. The first surfboards were made of solid wood, measuring between 10 and 10 feet, and weighing from 75 to upwards of 200 pounds. Solid boards were designed for forward-motion only and were not meant to cross waves. At the dawn of the 20th century, a Hawaiian surfer named George Freeth was the first to cut a board down to a more manageable eight-foot length. In 1926, American surfer Tom Blake invented the first hollow board and later introduced the fin. During the late 1940s through the early 1950s, inventor and surfing aficionado Bob Simmons began experimenting with curved boards. Thanks to his innovative designs, he is often referred to as the "Father of the Modern Surfboard." Later designs would aim for lighter, more maneuverable boards. Boards carved from balsa wood, then laminated with fiberglass and coated with epoxy resin became popular, but as technology advanced, balsa core boards were eventually eclipsed those constructed of foam core.

Windsurfing: Windsurfing or boardsailing is a sport that combines sailing and surfing and uses a one-person craft called a sailboard. The basic sailboard is composed of a board and a rig. In 1948, 20-year-old Newman Darby first conceived of using a handheld sail and rig mounted on a universal joint, to control a small catamaran. While Darby did not file for a patent for his design, he is recognized as the inventor of the first sailboard.

According to the Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), more than 240 million people around the world play soccer on a regular basis. The history of the game can be traced back more than 2,000 years to ancient China, where it all began with a bunch of players kicking an animal-hide ball around. While Greece, Rome, and areas of Central America claim to been seminal to the development of the game, soccer as we know it-or football as it's called in most places other than the United States-came to the fore in England during the mid-19th Century, and it's the English who can claim credit for codifying the first uniform rules for the sport-which made tripping opponents and touching the ball with the hands are forbidden. (The penalty kick was introduced in 1891.)

The earliest evidence of boxing can be traced back to Egypt circa 3000 BC. Boxing as a sport was introduced to the ancient Olympic Games in the 7th century BC, at which time, boxers' hands and forearms were bound with soft leather thongs for protection. Romans later traded in leather thongs for metal-studded gloves called cestus.

After the fall of the Roman Empire, boxing died out and did not make a comeback until the 17th century. The English officially organized amateur boxing in 1880, designating five weight classes: Bantam, not exceeding 54 kilos (119 pounds); Feather, not exceeding 57 kilos (126 pounds); Light, not exceeding 63.5 kilos (140 pounds); Middle, not exceeding 73 kilos (161 pounds); and Heavy, any weight.

When boxing made its Olympic debut at the 1904 Games in St. Louis, the USA was the only country entered, and as a result, took home all the medals. Since its initial admittance in the Olympic program, the sport has been included at all of the subsequent Games, with the exception of the 1912 Stockholm Games, since boxing was outlawed there. But Sweden wasn't the only place where fisticuffs were illegal. For a good deal the 19th century, boxing was not considered a legitimate sport in America. Bare-knuckle boxing was outlawed as a criminal activity and boxing matches were regularly raided by the police.

Gymnastics

Gymnastics began in ancient Greece as a form of exercise for both men and women that combined physical coordination, strength, and dexterity with tumbling and acrobatic skills. (The translation for the word "gymnasium" from the original Greek is "to exercise naked.") Early gymnastics exercises included running, jumping, swimming, throwing, wrestling, and weight lifting. Once the Romans conquered Greece, gymnastics became more formalized. Roman gymnasiums were mostly used to prepare their legions for the rigors of battle. With the exception of tumbling, which remained a fairly popular form of entertainment, as the Roman Empire declined, the interest in gymnastics, along with several other sports favored by gladiators and soldiers dwindled as well.

In 1774, when prominent German educational reformer Johann Bernhard Basedow added physical exercise to the realistic courses of study he advocated at his school in Dessau, Saxony, modern gymnastics-and the Germanic countries' fascination with them-took off. By the late 1700s, German Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (the "father of modern gymnastics") had introduced the sidebar, the horizontal bar, the parallel bars, the balance beam, and jumping events. German educator Johann Christoph Friedrich GutsMuths (also known as Guts Muth or Gutsmuths and the "grandfather of gymnastics") developed a more graceful form of gymnastics focusing on rhythmic movement, opening the Jahn's school in Berlin in 1811. Soon after, gymnastics clubs began to spring up in both continental Europe and Great Britain. As gymnastics evolved, the Greco-Roman events of weight lifting and wrestling were dropped. There was also a shift in emphasis from simply beating an opponent to the pursuit of excellence in form.

Dr. Dudley Allen Sargent, a pioneering Civil War-era physical education teacher, athletic proponent, lecturer, and prolific inventor of gymnastic equipment (with more than 30 pieces of apparatus to his credit) introduced the sport to the United States. Thanks to a wave of immigration at the end of the 19 th century, an increasing number of turnverein (from the German " turnen," meaning to perform gymnastic exercises + " verein," meaning club) sprang up as recently arrived Europeans sought to bring their love of the sport to their new homeland.

Men's gymnastics debuted at the Olympic Games in 1896, and have been included in all Games since 1924. An all-around women's competition arrived in 1936, followed by a competition for separate events in 1952. During early competitions, male gymnasts from Germany, Sweden, Italy, and Switzerland, dominated the competition, but by the '50s, Japan, the Soviet Union, and several Eastern European nations were turning out top male and female gymnasts. The widespread coverage of Olympic performances by the Soviet Union's Olga Korbut in the 1972 Olympics and Nadia Comaneci of Romania at the 1976 Games raised the profile gymnastics dramatically, resulting in a major promotion of the sport, particularly for women in the China and the United States.

Modern international competition has six events for men-the rings, parallel bars, horizontal bar, side or pommel-horse, long or vaulting horse, and floor (or free) exercise, and four events for women-vaulting horse, balance beam, uneven bars, and floor exercise (which is performed with musical accompaniment). Tumbling and trampoline exercises are also included in many U.S. competitions. Rhythmic gymnastics, a non-acrobatic performance of graceful choreographed moves incorporating the use of a ball, hoop, rope, or ribbons, have been an Olympic sport since 1984.

The use of swords dates to prehistoric times. The earliest known example of swordplay comes from a relief found in the temple of Medīnat Habu, near Luxor that was built in Egypt by Ramses III circa 1190 BC. In ancient Rome, swordplay was a highly systemized form of combat that both soldiers and gladiators had to learn.

After the fall of the Roman Empire and through the Middle Ages, sword training became less systematic and sword fighting took on a seedy reputation as criminals increasingly used the weapons to further their illicit pursuits. As a result, communities began outlawing fencing schools. But even in the face of such obstacles, including a 1286 London edict passed by King Edward I condemning the practice, fencing flourished.

During the 15 th century, guilds of fencing masters came to prominence throughout Europe. Henry VIII was one of the sport's earliest supporters in England. The English convention of using a cutting sword and with a buckler (a small shield worn on the free arm) was replaced by the rapier combat more prevalent in continental European countries. It was the Italians who first began using the point rather than the edge of the sword. The Italian fencing style emphasized speed and dexterity rather than force and was soon adopted throughout Europe. When the lunge was added, the art of fencing was born.

By the end of the 17th century, the changes in men's fashion dictated by the court of Louis XIV changed the face of fencing as well. The lengthy rapier gave way to the shorter court sword. Initially dismissed, the lighter court sword soon proved an effective weapon for a variety of movements impossible to achieve with earlier blades. Hits could be made with sword-point only, while the side of the blade was used for defense. It was from these innovations that modern fencing evolved.

The French school of sword fighting focused on strategy and form, and specific rules were adopted to teach it. A practice sword, known as the foil, was introduced for training. The first fencing masks were designed by French fencing master La Boëssière and infamous duelist Joseph Bologne, chevalier de Saint-Georges in the 18 th century. Basic fencing conventions were first organized codified by French fencing master Camille Prévost in the 1880s.

Men's fencing has been an Olympic event since 1896. After numerous disputes, the Fédération Internationale d'Escrime was founded in 1913 as governing body of international fencing for amateurs (both in the Olympics and in world championships) to ensure uniform enforcement of rules. Individual foil for women was introduced at the 1924 Olympic Games. The women's foil team event debuted at the 1960 Games. Women's team and individual épée arrived for 1996 Games. The women's individual saber event was added for the 2004 Games, and women's team saber followed in 2008.

Rowing has been in existence as long as people have traveled by boat, however, the first historic reference to rowing as a sport dates to an Egyptian funerary carving from the 15 th century BC. Roman poet Virgil mentions rowing in the Aeneid. In the Middle Ages, Italian oarsmen zoomed across Venice's waterways during Carnevale regatta races. Beginning in 1454, London's early water taxi drivers battled it out on the Thames River hoping to win monetary prizes and bragging rights. A race between London Bridge and Chelsea Harbor has been held annually since 1715. America's first recorded rowing event took place in New York Harbor in 1756, and not long after, the sport took hold in the athletic programs at many of the country's elite colleges.

England's Oxford University Boat Club, one of the oldest established college teams, and its perennial rival, Cambridge, held their first men's competition, known simply as the University Boat Race, in 1929. The event has been held annually since 1856. Similar rowing rivalries, most notably those between Harvard, Yale, and the U.S. service academies, soon surfaced across the pond. Yale challenged Harvard to its first intercollegiate boat race in 1852.

Rowing became an Olympic sport in 1900. The United States took gold that year, and again in 1904. The English won gold medals in 1908 and 1912, after which the United States ditched professional rowers, and instead, tapped the best college team to compete at the 1920 Games. The U.S. Naval Academy went on to beat the British team, recapturing the gold medal. The trend continued from 1920 to 1948, however, by then, the nature of American sports was changing. As the immense popularity of collegiate basketball and football grew, interest in rowing waned. While still wildly popular at some schools, rowing will likely never regain its former widespread audience.

David N. Mullany of Shelton, Connecticut invented the Wiffle ball in 1953. A Wiffle ball is a variation of a baseball that makes it easy to hit a curveball.

While Frisbees date back to 1957, the game of Ultimate Frisbee (or simply Ultimate) is a non-contact team sport that was created in 1968 by a group of students led by Joel Silver, Jonny Hines, and Buzzy Hellring at Columbia High School in Maplewood, New Jersey.

Hacky sack (a.k.a. "footbag") is a modern American sport invented in 1972 by John Stalberger and Mike Marshall of Oregon City, Oregon.

Paintball was born 1981 when a group of 12 friends playing "Capture the Flag" added the element of firing at one another with the tree-marking guns. After investing with a tree marking gun manufacturer called Nelson, the group began promoting and selling the guns for use in the new recreational sport.

In 1986, George A. Carter III became the "founder and inventor of the laser tag industry," another variation of "Capture the Flag," in which teams equipped with infrared and visible light-based guns tag each other out until one side is victorious.

As anyone writing a compendium on the history of sports can tell you, there's a staggering amount of information to sift through and only so much time. Sports is such a huge topic (with events such as horse racing, wrestling, track & field, and mixed martial arts-to name only a few-that are more than deserving of coverage), it would take an encyclopedia to do it justice. That said, the ones included in this list should give you a fair sampling of the popular athletic endeavors that continue to fascinate sporting enthusiasts around the globe.

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From Rocks and Spears to Laser Tag The documented history of sports goes back at least 3,000 years. In the beginning, sports often involved the preparation for war or training as a hunter, which explains why so many early games involved the throwing of spears, stakes, and rocks, and sparring one-on-one with opponents.

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This article is all about the artifacts and passengers that were once on the titanic.

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Dorothy Gibson-the 22-year-old silent film star- huddled in a lifeboat, dressed in only a short coat and sweater over an evening gown. She was beginning to shiver.

Ever since it had been launched, at 12:45 a.m., Lifeboat 7 had remained stationed only 20 yards away from the Titanic in case it could be used in a rescue operation. Dorothy and her mother, Pauline, who had been traveling with her, had watched as lifeboat after lifeboat left the vessel, but by just after 2 o'clock it was obvious that the vast majority of its passengers would not be able to escape from the liner. Realizing that the ship's sinking was imminent, lookout George Hogg ordered that Lifeboat 7 be rowed away from the Titanic. The risk of being sucked down was high, he thought, and so the passengers and crew manning the oars rowed as hard as they could across the pitch-black sea. Dorothy could not take her eyes off the ship, its bow now underwater, its stern rising up into the sky.

"Suddenly there was a wild coming together of voices from the ship and we noticed an unusual commotion among the people about the railing," she said. "Then the awful thing happened, the thing that will remain in my memory until the day I die."

Dorothy listened as 1,500 people cried out to be saved, a noise she described as a horrific mixture of yells, shrieks and moans. This was counterpointed by a deeper sound emanating from under the water, the noise of explosions that she likened to the terrific power of Niagara Falls. "No one can describe the frightful sounds," she remembered later.

Before stepping onto the Titanic, Dorothy Gibson had already transformed herself from an ordinary New Jersey girl into a model for the famous illustrator Harrison Fisher-whose lush images of idealized American beauty graced the covers of popular magazines-and then into a star of the silent screen.

By the spring of 1912, Dorothy was feeling so overworked that she pleaded with her employers at the Éclair studios in Fort Lee, New Jersey, to grant her a holiday. The days were long, and she realized that, in effect, there was "very little of the glamour connected with movie stars." She may have been earning $175 a week-the equivalent of nearly $4,000 today-but she was exhausted; she even went so far as to consider quitting the studio. "I was feeling very run down and everyone insisted I go away for a while," she recalled later. "So Mr. Brulatour made arrangements for me to have a wondrous holiday abroad. It seemed the ideal solution." (Her married 42-year-old lover, Éclair's Jules Brulatour, was one of the most powerful producers in the film industry.)

Dorothy and her mother sailed for Europe on March 17, 1912, with an itinerary that was to include not only the capitals of the Continent, but also Algiers and Egypt. However, when they arrived in Genoa from Venice on April 8, they received a telegram at their hotel requesting that Dorothy return to America. An emergency had arisen at the studio; she was needed to start work at once on a series of films. Although she had been away for only three weeks, she had benefited from the change of scene-she said she felt "like a new woman"-and cabled back to tell the studio of her plans. After a brief stopover in Paris, she would sail back to New York from Cherbourg on April 10.

There was silence in the lifeboat. "No one said a word," recalled Dorothy. "There was nothing to say and nothing we could do." Faced with the bitter cold and increasingly choppy seas, Dorothy had to acknowledge the possibility that she might not last the night. Had the wireless operators managed to send out a distress signal and call for the help of any nearby ships? The possibility that they could drift for miles in the middle of the harsh Atlantic for days on end was suddenly very real.

As dawn broke on April 15, the passengers in Lifeboat 7 saw a row of lights and a dark cloud of smoke in the distance."Warming ourselves as best we could in the cramped quarters of the lifeboat, we watched that streak of black smoke grow larger and larger," recalled Dorothy. "And then we were able to discern the hull of a steamship heading in our direction."

At around 6 o'clock the lifeboat carrying Dorothy Gibson drew up alongside the Carpathia. A few moments later, after she had climbed the rope ladder that had been lowered down from above, she found herself on deck. Still wearing her damp, wind-swept evening gown, Dorothy was approached by Carpathia passengers James Russell Lowell and his wife, and asked whether she would like to share their cabin. After eating breakfast, she retired to their quarters, where she slept for the next 26 hours.

As the Carpathia sailed into New York-on the stormy night of Thursday, April 18-it was surrounded by a mass of tiny vessels, all chartered by news corporations desperate to break what would be one of the biggest stories of modern times. From their tugs, reporters shouted through megaphones offering terrific sums of money for information and exclusives, but Captain Rostron said he would shoot any pressmen who dared venture aboard his ship.

However, one of his original passengers, Carlos F. Hurd, was a veteran journalist for the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, and over the course of the past four days he had spoken to many survivors, amassing enough information for a 5,000-word story. Hurd's only problem was how to get the report off the ship. He managed to send a wireless message to a friend at the New York Evening World, which, in turn, chartered a tug to sail to the Carpathia. Out of sight of the captain, Hurd stuffed his manuscript into an oilskin bag, which he then threw down to the waiting boat. The final edition of the New York Evening World, published on April 18, carried a digest of Hurd's report, which was published in full the next morning. The story-" Titanic Boilers Blew up, Breaking Her in Two After Striking Berg"-began: "Fifteen hundred lives-the figures will hardly vary in either direction by more than a few dozen-were lost in the sinking of the Titanic, which struck an iceberg at 11:45 p.m., Sunday, and was at the ocean's bottom two hours and thirty-five minutes after."

As Dorothy Gibson stood on the deck of the Carpathia, the night was so black that she could hardly make out the skyline of New York. Unknown to her, thousands of people had come out that rainy night to witness the arrival of the Carpathia. Dorothy "ran crying down the ramp" into the arms of her stepfather, soon followed by her mother. Leonard Gibson ushered his stepdaughter and wife through the crowd and into a taxi and whisked them off to a New York restaurant. But there was only one thing on Dorothy's mind-her lover, Brulatour. She realized that it would have been inappropriate for him to meet her at the pier-this would have given rise to scandal-but she desperately needed to see him. After a couple of hours, she drove to the hotel where she had arranged to meet him.

That night Brulatour presented her with an engagement ring-a cluster of diamonds worth $1,000-and a plan: to make a dramatic one-reel film of her survival. Soon, he said, she would not only be his wife, but she would be more famous than ever before. The loss of the Titanic would make both things possible.

The public's appetite for information and details-accounts of suffering, bravery, self-sacrifice and selfishness-seemed insatiable, and Brulatour at first took advantage of it by employing the relatively new medium of newsreel. His footage of the docking of the Carpathia-which was spliced together with scenes of Capt. Edward J. Smith, who had been lost in the disaster, walking on the bridge of the Titanic's sister ship, the Olympic, and shots of icebergs from the area where the liner sank, together with images of the launching of the liner-premiered in East Coast theaters on April 22. Not only was Brulatour's Animated Weekly newsreel "the first on the scene with specially chartered tugboats and an extra relay of cameramen," according to Billboard magazine, but it also showed that "the motion picture may fairly equal the press in bringing out a timely subject and one of startling interest to the public at large."

Within a few days of her arrival in New York, Dorothy had sketched out a rough outline for a story. She would play Miss Dorothy, a young woman traveling in Europe who is due to return to America on the Titanic to marry her sweetheart, Ensign Jack, in service with the U.S. Navy.

Shooting began almost immediately at the Fort Lee studio and on location on board a derelict freighter that lay in New York Harbor. She was clad in the same outfit she had worn the night she had escaped the sinking ship-a white silk evening dress, a sweater, an overcoat and black pumps.The verisimilitude of the experience was overwhelming. This wasn't so much acting, in its conventional form at least, as replaying. Dorothy drew on her memory and shaped it into a reconstruction.

When the film was released, on May 16, 1912, just a month after the sinking, it was celebrated for its technical realism and emotional power. "The startling story of the world's greatest sea disaster is the sensation of the country," stated the Moving Picture News. "Miss Dorothy Gibson, a heroine of the shipwreck and one of the most talked-of survivors, tells in this motion picture masterpiece of the enthralling tragedy among the icebergs." (The actual film no longer survives.)

"The nation and the world had been profoundly grieved by the sinking of the Titanic," she said, "and I had the opportunity to pay tribute to those who gave their lives on that awful night. That is all I tried to do." In truth, the experience had left her feeling hollow, disassociated from her reality. Soon after the release of Saved from the Titanic, Dorothy walked out of her dressing room at the Fort Lee studios and turned her back on the movie business. She was, she stated, "dissatisfied."

At some point during the summer or autumn of 1912-just as Brulatour was forming, with Carl Laemmle, the Universal Film Manufacturing Company, later to become Universal Pictures-Brulatour's wife, Clara, finally decided to bring the farce that was her marriage to an end. After scandalous and protracted divorce proceedings, Gibson married Brulatour on July 6, 1917, in New York. It soon became obvious that whatever spark they had between them had been kept alive by the illicit nature of the relationship. The couple divorced in 1923.

Dorothy fled to Europe, where her mother had already settled. Ensconced in Paris, she had enough money from her alimony for everyday luxuries such as cocktails and champagne and entertained a wide range of bohemian friends including the writers Colette, H.G. Wells and James Joyce. "Oh my, what a time I am having!" she told a journalist in 1934. "I never cared much for motion pictures, you see, and I am too glad to be free of that work. I tell you it was an immense burden. I have had my share of troubles, as you know, but since coming to France, I have recovered from that and feel happy at last. Who could not be deliriously happy in this country? I have such fun. But I fear it cannot go on like this always. I have had my dream life, and am sure that someday a dark cloud will come and wash it all away!"

The shadow she feared would destroy her dream life was World War II. In May 1940, Dorothy was in Florence to collect her mother and bring her back to France when Germany invaded Holland and Belgium. It would still have been possible for the two women to return to America. The reason they didn't? Certainly their experience on the Titanic was a factor. "I must say I never wanted to make the Ocean trip to America at this time," said Dorothy later in an affidavit, "as my mother and I were most timid on the ocean-we had been in a shipwreck-but I also never wanted to stay in Italy, but we just waited in Italy always hoping things would be better to travel."

Trying to make sense of Dorothy's life from this point onward is a difficult task. In the spring of 1944, while still in Florence with her mother, she was informed by the questura, the Italian police, that she would be taken to the German-controlled Fossoli internment center. She tried to escape, but on April 16 was arrested and taken to a Nazi concentration camp. After being moved around various camps, she was imprisoned at San Vittore, which she described as a "living death." It's most likely that Gibson would have died in this camp had it not been for the machinations of a double agent, Ugo Luca Osteria, known as Dr. Ugo, who wanted to infiltrate Allied intelligence in Switzerland (something he subsequently failed to do). Gibson was smuggled out of the camp under the pretense that she was a Nazi sympathizer and spy. Although the plan worked-she did escape and crossed into Switzerland-the experience left her understandably drained. After interrogation in Zurich, where she gave an affidavit to James G. Bell, vice consul of the American consulate general, she was judged too stupid to have been a genuine spy. In Bell's words, Dorothy "hardly seems bright enough to be useful in such capacity."

Dorothy tried to resume a normal life after this episode, but the trauma of her survival-first the Titanic, then a concentration camp-took its toll. After the war ended in 1945, she returned to Paris and enjoyed a few months at the Ritz, where, on February 17, 1946, she died in her suite, probably from a heart attack, at age 56.

The sinking of the world's most famous ship generated three waves of Titanic mania. The first, as we have seen, hit popular consciousness immediately after the disaster, resulting in Brulatour's newsreel, Dorothy Gibson's film Saved from the Titanic, a clutch of books written by survivors, poems like Edwin Drew's "The Chief Incidents of the Titanic Wreck" (published in May 1912) and Thomas Hardy's "The Convergence of the Twain" (June 1912), and a flurry of songs (112 different pieces of music inspired by the loss of the Titanic were copyrighted in America in 1912 alone).

The First World War, and then the Second quieted the Titanic storm; the loss of hundreds of thousands of men on the battlefields of Europe, the whole-scale destruction of cities and communities around the world, and Hitler's single-minded plan to wipe out an entire race of people, together with other "undesirables," placed the sinking of the ship, with its death toll of 1,500, toward the bottom end of the league of global tragedies.

The mid-1950s is generally considered to represent the second wave of Titanic fever. In the midst of the cold war-when there was a perceived threat that, at any moment, the world could end in nuclear Armageddon-the Titanic represented a containable, understandable tragedy. A mist of nostalgia hung over the disaster-nostalgia for a society that maintained fixed roles, in which each man and woman knew his or her place; for a certain gentility, or at least an imagined gentility, by which people behaved according to a strict set of rules; for a tragedy that gave its participants time to consider their fates.

The first full-scale movie representation of the disaster in the '50s was a melodrama called simply Titanic, starring one of the ruling queens of the "woman's picture," Barbara Stanwyck. She plays Julia Sturges, a woman in the midst of an emotional crisis. Trapped in an unhappy marriage to a cold but wealthy husband, Richard (Clifton Webb), she boards the Titanic with the intention of stealing their two children away from him.

The film, directed by Jean Negulesco, was not so much about the loss of the liner as the loss, and subsequent rekindling, of love. If the scenario-a broken marriage, a devious plan to separate children from their father, a revelation surrounding true parenthood-wasn't melodramatic enough, the charged emotional setting of the Titanic was used to heighten the sentiment.

It would be easy to assume that the plotline of the abducted children in producer and screenwriter Charles Brackett's Titanic was nothing more than the product of a Hollywood screenwriter's overheated imagination. Yet the story had its roots in real life. Immediately after the Carpathia docked in New York, it came to light that on board the liner were two young French boys-Lolo (Michel) and Momon (Edmond)-who had been kidnapped by their father (traveling on the Titanic under the assumed name Louis Hoffman). Fellow second-class passenger Madeleine Mellenger, who was 13 at the time, remembered the two dark-haired boys, one aged nearly 4, the other 2. "They sat at our table . . . and we wondered where their mamma was," she said. "It turned out that he [the father] was taking them away from 'mamma' to America." In an interview later in his life, Michel recalled the majesty of the Titanic. "A magnificent ship!" he said. "I remember looking down the length of the hull-the ship looked splendid. My brother and I played on the forward deck and were thrilled to be there. One morning, my father, my brother, and I were eating eggs in the second-class dining room. The sea was stunning. My feeling was one of total and utter well-being." On the night of the sinking, he remembered his father entering their cabin and gently awakening the two boys. "He dressed me very warmly and took me in his arms," he said. "A stranger did the same for my brother. When I think of it now, I am very moved. They knew they were going to die."

Despite this, the man calling himself Louis Hoffman-real name Michel Navratil-did everything in his power to help fellow passengers safely into the boats. "The last kindness . . . [he] did was to put my new shoes on and tie them for me," recalled Madeleine. She escaped to safety with her mother in Lifeboat 14, leaving the sinking ship at 1:30 a.m., but Michel Navratil had to wait until 2:05 a.m. to place his sons in Collapsible D, the last boat to be lowered. Witnesses recall seeing the man they knew as Hoffman crouching on his knees, ensuring that each of his boys was wrapped up warmly.

As he handed his elder son over to Second Officer Charles Herbert Lightoller, who was responsible for loading the boat, Michel stepped back, raised his hand in a salute and disappeared into the crowd on the port side of the ship. His son Michel later recalled the feel of the lifeboat hitting the water. "I remember the sound of the splash, and the sensation of shock, as the little boat shivered in its attempt to right itself after its irregular descent," he said.

After the Carpathia docked in New York, the two boys became instantly famous. Journalists dubbed the boys the "Orphans of the Deep" or the "Waifs of the Titanic " and within days their pictures were featured in every newspaper in America. Back in Nice, Marcelle Navratil, desperate to know about the fate of her children, appealed to the British and French consulates. She showed the envoys a photograph of Michel, and when it was learned that Thomas Cook and Sons in Monte Carlo had sold a second-class ticket to a Louis Hoffman-a name Navratil had borrowed from one of their neighbors in Nice-she began to understand what her estranged husband had done.

The White Star Line promptly offered their mother a complimentary passage to New York on the Oceanic, leaving Cherbourg on May 8. Only a matter of weeks later, Marcelle Navratil arrived in New York. A taxi took her to the Children's Aid Society, which had been besieged by photographers and reporters. According to a New York Times account, "The windows of the building opposite were lined with interested groups of shopworkers who had got wind of what was happening across the way and who were craning their necks and gesticulating wildly toward a window on the fifth floor where the children were believed to be." The young mother was allowed to greet her boys alone. She found Michel sitting in a corner of the room, in the window seat, turning the pages of an illustrated alphabet book. Edmond was on the floor, playing with the pieces of a puzzle.

When she entered, the boys looked anxious, but then, as they recognized their mother, a "growing wonder spread over the face of the bigger boy, while the smaller one stared in amazement at the figure in the doorway. He let out one long-drawn and lusty wail and ran blubbering into the outstretched arms of his mother. The mother was trembling with sobs and her eyes were dim with tears as she ran forward and seized both youngsters."

Although he passed away on January 30, 2001, at the age of 92, the last male survivor of the Titanic disaster, Michel always said, "I died at 4. Since then I have been a fare-dodger of life. A gleaner of time."

One of the most forthright and determined of the real Titanic voices belonged to Edith Russell, the then 32-year-old first-class passenger who had managed to get aboard one of the lifeboats, still clutching a possession she regarded as her lucky talisman-a toy musical pig that played the pop tune "La Maxixe."

Edith, a fashion buyer, journalist and stylist, had contacted producer Charles Brackett when she had first learned that the Barbara Stanwyck film was going to be made, outlining her experiences and offering her services. The letter elicited no response, as Brackett had decided not to speak to any individual survivors. The filmmakers were more interested in constructing their own story, one that would meet all the criteria of melodrama without getting bogged down by the real-life experiences of people like Edith.

The production team did, however, invite her-and a number of other survivors-to a preview of Titanic in New York in April 1953. It was an emotional experience for many of them, not least third-class passengers Leah Aks, who had been 18 at the time of the disaster, and her son, Philip, who had been only 10 months old. Edith recalled how, in the panic, the baby Philip had been torn out of his mother's arms and thrown into her lifeboat. Leah tried to push her way into this vessel, but was directed into the next lifeboat to leave the ship. Edith had done her best to comfort the baby during that long, cold night in the middle of the Atlantic-repeatedly playing the tune of "La Maxixe" by twisting the tail of her toy pig-before they were rescued.

The reunion brought all these memories back. "The baby, amongst other babies, for whom I played my little pig music box to the tune of 'Maxixe' was there," said Edith of the screening. "He [Philip] is forty-one years old, is a rich steel magnate from Norfolk, Virginia."

Edith enjoyed the event, she said, and had the opportunity of showing off the little musical pig, together with the dress she had worn on the night of the disaster. Edith congratulated Brackett on the film, yet, as a survivor, she said she had noticed some obvious errors. "There was a rather glaring inadequacy letting people take seats in the lifeboat as most of them had to get up on the rail and jump into the boat which swung clear of the side of the boat," she said. "The boat also went down with the most awful rapidity. It fairly shot into the water whereas yours gracefully slid into the water." Despite these points, she thought the film was "splendid"-she conceded he had done a "good job"-and, above all, it brought the night alive once more. "It gave me a heartache and I could still see the sailors changing the watches, crunching over the ice and going down to stoke those engines from where they never returned," she said.

After the melodrama of the Titanic film-the movie won an Academy Award in 1953 for its screenplay-the public wanted to know more about the doomed liner. The demand was satisfied by Walter Lord, a bespectacled advertising copywriter who worked for J. Walter Thompson in New York. As a boy, Lord, the son of a Baltimore lawyer, had sailed on the Titanic's sister ship, the Olympic. With an almost military precision-Lord had worked as both a code clerk in Washington and as an intelligence analyst in London during World War II-he amassed a mountain of material about the ship, and, most important, managed to locate, and interview, more than 60 survivors. The resulting book, A Night to Remember, is a masterpiece of restraint and concision, a work of narrative nonfiction that captures the full drama of the sinking. On its publication in the winter of 1955, the book was an immediate success-entering the New York Times best-seller list at Number 12 in the week of December 11-and since then has never been out of print. "In the creation of the Titanic myth there were two defining moments," wrote one commentator, "1912, of course, and 1955."

Madeleine Mellenger wrote to Lord himself, telling him of her emotions when the Carpathia pulled into New York. "The noise, commotion and searchlights terrified me," she said. "I stood on the deck directly under the rigging on which Captain Arthur Rostron climbed to yell orders thru' a megaphone....I live it all over again and shall walk around in a daze for a few days." Memories of the experience came back in flashes-the generosity of an American couple, honeymooners on board the Carpathia, who gave her mother, who was shoeless, a pair of beautiful French bedroom slippers, which were knitted and topped with big pink satin bows; and the horror of being forced to spend what seemed like an eternity in a cabin with a woman, Jane Laver Herman, who had lost her husband in the sinking.

Walter Lord became a receptacle into which survivors could spill their memories and fears. He, in turn, collected survivors' tales, and memorabilia such as buttons, menus, tickets and silver spoons, with a near-obsessive passion, hoarding information about the Titanic 's passengers long after he had sent his book off to the publishers.

There was a rush to transfer Lord's book to the screen, first in an American TV drama made by Kraft Television Theatre, which had an audience of 28 million when it aired in March 1956, and then in a big-budget British movie, which would be released in 1958. The rights to the book were bought by William MacQuitty, an Irish-born producer who, like Walter Lord, had been fascinated by the Titanic since he was a boy. As a child, growing up in Belfast, he remembered teams of 20 draft horses pulling the liner's enormous anchors through the cobbled streets of the city, from the foundry to the Harland and Wolff shipyard.

MacQuitty chose Roy Baker as director, Eric Ambler as scriptwriter and Walter Lord as a consultant on the project. The overall effect MacQuitty wanted to achieve was one of near-documentary realism. Art director Alex Vetchinsky employed his obsessive eye for detail to recreate the Titanic itself. Working from original blueprints of the ship, Vetchinsky built the center third of the liner, including two funnels and four lifeboats, an undertaking that required 4,000 tons of steel. This was constructed above a concrete platform, which had to be strong enough to support the "ship" and the surging mass of hundreds of passengers who were shown clinging to the rails to the very last.

Survivor Edith Russell still felt possessive of the Titanic story-she believed it was hers alone to tell-and she wanted to exploit it for all it was worth. She and Lord met in March 1957 at a lunch given by MacQuitty at a Hungarian restaurant in London. The gentleman writer and the grand lady of fashion hit it off immediately, drawn together by a shared passion for the Titanic and a sense of nostalgia, a longing for an era that had died somewhere between the sinking of the majestic liner and the beginning of World War I. Driven by an equally obsessive interest in the subject, Lord fueled Edith's compulsion, and over the course of the next few years he sent her a regular supply of information, articles and gossip regarding the ship and its passengers.

Edith made regular visits to Pinewood, the film studio near London, to check on the production's progress. Even though Edith was not employed on the project, MacQuitty was wise enough to realize there was little point in making an enemy of her.

In the years after A Night to Remember, the storm that had gathered around the Titanic seemed to abate, despite the best efforts of the Titanic Enthusiasts of America, the organization formed in 1963 with the purpose of "investigating and perpetuating the history and memory of the White Star liners, Olympic, Titanic, and Britannic." The group, which later renamed itself the Titanic Historical Society, produced a quarterly newsletter, the Titanic Commutator, which over the years was transformed into a glossy journal. Yet, at this time, the membership comprised a relatively small group of specialists, maritime history buffs and a clutch of survivors. By September 1973, when the group held its tenth anniversary meeting, the society had a membership of only 250. The celebration, held in Greenwich, Connecticut, was attended by 88-year-old Edwina Mackenzie, who had sailed on the Titanic as 27-year-old second-class passenger Edwina Troutt. After more than 60 years she still remembered seeing the liner sink, "one row of lighted portholes after another, gently like a lady," she said.

Many people assumed that, after 50 years, the liner, and the myths surrounding it, would finally be allowed to rest in peace. But in the early hours of September 1, 1985, oceanographer and underwater archaeologist Robert Ballard from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution-together with French explorer Jean-Louis Michel from the French organization Ifremer-discovered the wreck of the Titanic lying at a depth of roughly two and half miles, and around 370 miles southeast of Mistaken Point, Newfoundland. "The Titanic lies now in 13,000 feet of water on a gently sloping Alpine-looking countryside overlooking a small canyon below," said Ballard, on returning to America a number of days later. "Its bow faces north. The ship sits upright on its bottom with its mighty stacks pointed upward. There is no light at this great depth and little life can be found. It is a quiet and peaceful place-and a fitting place for the remains of this greatest of sea tragedies to rest. Forever may it remain that way. And may God bless these now-found souls."

The world went Titanic-crazy once more, a frenzy that was even more intense than the previous bouts of fever. There was something almost supernatural about the resulting pictures and films, as if a photographer had managed to capture images of a ghost for the first time.

Within a couple of years of Ballard's discovery, wealthy tourists could pay thousands of dollars to descend to the site of the wreck and see the Titanic for themselves, an experience that many likened to stepping into another world. Journalist William F. Buckley Jr. was one of the first observers outside the French and American exploratory teams to witness the ship at close quarters. "We descend slowly to what looks like a yellow-white sandy beach, sprinkled with black rocklike objects," he wrote in the New York Times. "These, it transpires, are pieces of coal. There must be 100,000 of them in the area we survey, between the bow of the ship and the stern, a half-mile back. On my left is a man's outdoor shoe. Left shoe. Made, I would say, of suede of some sort. I cannot quite tell whether it is laced up. And then, just off to the right a few feet, a snow-white teacup. Just sitting there...on the sand. I liken the sheer neatness of the tableau to a display that might have been prepared for a painting by Salvador Dali."

Over the course of the next few years, around 6,000 artifacts were recovered from the wreck, sent to a specialist laboratory in France and subsequently exhibited. The shows-the first of which was held at the National Maritime Museum in London in 1994- proved to be enormous crowd-pleasers. Touring exhibitions such as "Titanic Honour and Glory" and "Titanic: The Artifact Exhibition" have been seen by millions of people all around the world. Items on display include a silver pocket watch, its hands stopped at 2:28 a.m., the time the Titanic was sinking into the ice-cold waters of the Atlantic; the Steiff teddy bear belonging to senior engineer William Moyes, who went down with the ship; the perfume vials belonging to Adolphe Saalfeld, a Manchester perfumer, who survived the disaster and who would have been astonished to learn that it was still possible to smell the scent of orange blossom and lavender nearly 100 years later. There were cut-crystal decanters etched with the swallowtail flag of the White Star Line; the white jacket of Athol Broome, a 30-year-old steward who did not survive; children's marbles scooped up from the seafloor; brass buttons bearing the White Star insignia; a selection of silver serving plates and gratin dishes; a pair of spectacles; and a gentleman's shaving kit. These objects of everyday life brought the great ship-and its passengers-back to life as never before.

After returning to Britain, Millvina grew up to lead what, at first sight, seems to be an uneventful life. Then, Ballard made his discovery. "Nobody knew about me and the Titanic, to be honest, nobody took any interest, so I took no interest either," she said. "But then they found the wreck, and after they found the wreck, they found me."

This was followed in 1997 by the release of James Cameron's blockbuster film, Titanic, starring Kate Winslet and Leonardo DiCaprio as two lovers from vastly different backgrounds who meet on board the doomed ship. Suddenly, in old age, Millvina was famous once more. "The telephone rang all day long," she told me. "I think I spoke to every radio station in England. Everybody wanted interviews. Then I wished I had never been on the Titanic, it became too much at times."

In the same way, Millvina was often asked to repeat her story of that night, but her account was secondhand, most of it pieced together from what her mother had told her, along with fragments from newspapers and magazines.

The Titanic came to represent a ship of dreams for Millvina, a vessel that would take her on a surreal journey. She transformed herself not only into a celebrity but also, as she freely admitted, into a piece of "living history." "For many people I somehow represent the Titanic," she said.

After a short illness, Millvina died on May 31, 2009; at 97, she had been the last survivor of the Titanic.

A few weeks after the Titanic disaster, Thomas Hardy wrote "The Convergence of the Twain," his famous poem about the conjunction between the sublime iceberg and the majestic liner. First published in Fortnightly Review in June 1912, it articulates the "intimate wedding" between a natural phenomenon and a symbol of the machine age. The marriage of the "shape of ice" and the "smart ship" is described as a "consummation," a grotesque union that "jars two hemispheres." One hundred years after the sinking we are still feeling the aftershocks of the wreck as the "twin halves" of this "august event" continue to fascinate and disturb us in equal measure.

Indeed, the disaster has become so invested with mythical status-it's been said that the name Titanic is the third most widely recognized word in the world, after "God" and "Coca-Cola"-that it almost seems to be a constant, an event that repeats itself on a never-ending loop.

Andrew Wilson, based in London, drew on unpublished sources and archival research for his new book on the Titanic saga.

Copyright © 2012 by Andrew Wilson. From the forthcoming book Shadow of the Titanic by Andrew Wilson to be published by Atria Books, a Division of Simon & Schuster, Inc. Printed by permission.

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Dorothy Gibson-the 22-year-old silent film star- huddled in a lifeboat, dressed in only a short coat and sweater over an evening gown. She was beginning to shiver. Ever since it had been launched, at 12:45 a.m., Lifeboat 7 had remained stationed only 20 yards away from the Titanic in case it could be used in a rescue operation.

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Water polo: Water polo, sport played in a swimming pool by teams of seven with a buoyant ball resembling an association football (soccer ball). The game was originally called "football-in-the-water," and indeed it is more like association football and basketball than polo, the name of the sport coming from an

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This article shows information and history of curling.

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Curling has been described as the 'Roarin' Game', with the 'roar' coming from the noise of a granite stone as it travels over the ice. The exact origins of the game, however, are unclear, but curling is widely believed to be one of the world's oldest team sports.

Paintings by a 16th century Flemish artist, Pieter Bruegel (1530-1569) portrayed an activity similar to curling being played on frozen ponds. The first written evidence appeared in Latin, when in 1540, John McQuhin, a notary in Paisley, Scotland, recorded in his protocol book a challenge between John Sclater, a monk in Paisley Abbey and Gavin Hamilton, a representative of the Abbot. The report indicated that Sclater threw a stone along the ice three times and asserted that he was ready for the agreed contest.

What is clear, however, is that what may have started as an enjoyable pastime of throwing stones over ice during a harsh Northern European winter, has evolved into a popular modern sport with its own world championships, which attract fans and large television audiences.

Curling in its early days was played on frozen lochs and ponds. When the weather permits, the game is still enjoyed outside in some countries, but all national and international competitive curling competitions now take place in indoor rinks with the condition and temperature of the ice carefully controlled.

The first recognised curling clubs were formed in Scotland, and during the 19th century the game was exported wherever Scots settled around the world in cold climates, most notably at that time in Canada, United States, Sweden, Switzerland, Norway and New Zealand.

The first Rules were drawn up in Scotland, and they were formally adopted as the "Rules in Curling" by the Grand Caledonian Curling Club, which was formed in Edinburgh in 1838 and became the sport's governing body. Four years later, following a demonstration of curling on the ballroom floor of Scone Palace near Perth by the Earl of Mansfield during a visit by Queen Victoria, the Queen was so fascinated by the game that in 1843 she gave permission for the Club's name to be changed to the Royal Caledonian Curling Club.

It is recorded that international curling events were staged in the 19th century in Europe and North America, but it was not until the first Olympic Winter Games in 1924, in Chamonix, France that any form of official international competition took place for men's teams. Great Britain defeated Sweden and France in what was retroactively accepted in 2006 by the International Olympic Committee as curling's Olympic debut, with medals awarded.

In 1932 at Lake Placid, United States, curling again was listed but this time as a demonstration sport at the 1932 Olympic Winter Games. Canada was the winner over United States in a two-country competition where each nation entered four men's teams.

Another 25 years passed before a meeting was held in Edinburgh in 1957 to consider the formation of an international organisation which would be required in order to apply for Olympic medal status. No progress was documented, but two years later, in 1959, Scotland and Canada reached a major milestone by launching the Scotch Cup series between their national men's curling champions.

Interest in other countries was generated, and the United States (1961), Sweden (1962), Norway, Switzerland (both 1964), France (1966) and Germany (1967) expanded the Scotch Cup entry. The 1959-1967 results are now recognised in the curling history of the men's world championship.

The success of the Scotch Cup series led to another attempt, in March 1965, to create a global administration. The Royal Caledonian Curling Club (Scotland) convened a meeting in Perth, Scotland, and six countries - Scotland, Canada, United States, Sweden, Norway and Switzerland - agreed to a proposal to form an international committee of the Royal Caledonian Curling Club, to be called the International Curling Federation.

The following year, in March, 1966, in Vancouver, Canada, a draft constitution for the International Curling Federation was considered by seven countries - France was added to the original six - and the Federation was declared to be established as of 1 April 1966. Though in attendance at these meetings, the United States opted to be there in an observational capacity only and therefore didn't become a member of the International Curling Federation until 1967.

The constitution was approved in March 1967, at Perth, and a set of rules for international competition was proposed. At the Federation's annual meeting in 1968 in Pointe-Claire, Quebec, Canada, these rules were adopted, but are subject to amendment and revision each year.

Also, in 1968, the Air Canada Silver Broom replaced the Scotch Cup, and it was sanctioned as the World Curling Championship. In 1975, the Federation endorsed the World Junior Men's Curling Championship; in 1979 the Ladies' Curling Championship; and in 1988, the World Junior Ladies' Curling Championship. The four events were combined into two in 1989 at Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States and Markham, Ontario, Canada and became known as the World Curling Championships and the World Junior Curling Championships.

The Constitution had a significant adjustment in 1982, when the Federation was declared an independent entity and approved as the governing body for curling in the world, while the Royal Caledonian Curling Club was acknowledged as the 'Mother Club of Curling'.

In 1990, the name of the Federation was changed to the World Curling Federation.

Curling was a demonstration sport for second and third times at the 1988 Olympic Winter Games (Calgary) and the 1992 Games (Albertville) for women's and men's teams.

On 21 July 1992, at its session in Barcelona, Spain, the International Olympic Committee granted official medal status to women's and men's curling, to take effect no later than the Olympic Winter Games 2002, with an option for inclusion in 1998 at Nagano, Japan. During the meeting of the International Olympic Committee Executive Board held between 22 and 23 June 1993, in Lausanne, the Organising Committee of the Nagano Olympic Winter Games officially agreed to include curling in the programme of the XVIII Olympic Winter Games in 1998. Eight teams for women and men participated in Nagano, and this was increased to ten from the Olympic Winter Games Salt Lake City 2002 onwards.

At the Semi-Annual General Assembly of the Federation in Leukerbad, Switzerland, in December 1993, a revised Constitution was adopted. This included changes to the management structure. The revised structure became operational following the election of the Executive Board at the Annual General Assembly in Oberstdorf, Germany, in April 1994.

From 1966 to 1994, the administration of the International Curling Federation and the World Curling Federation was the responsibility of employees of the Royal Caledonian Curling Club. Following the adoption of the revised Constitution, the World Curling Federation set up its own head office and secretariat in Edinburgh, Scotland in 1994.

At the Semi-Annual General Assembly of the Federation in Grindelwald, Switzerland in December 1995, a completely re-written Constitution was adopted in order to comply with Swiss law following the Federation's registration in that country.

In May 2000, the World Curling Federation Secretariat moved from Edinburgh to Perth, Scotland.

Wheelchair curling was introduced during the 2000 World Handi Ski Championship in Crans Montana Switzerland. Switzerland and Sweden were the only countries competing. During a seminar on wheelchair curling held at that time, discussions on the format of the discipline took place and it was decided that the game should be played as close to the regular game as possible.

The following year the first International Wheelchair Curling Bonspiel took place in Sursee Switzerland. This proved to be a test event for the first World Wheelchair Curling Championship held in January 2002, with the home team winning the inaugural title.

In March 2002 the International Paralympic Committee granted official medal status to wheelchair curling for mixed gender teams. The organising committee of the Torino Paralympic Winter Games in 2006 agreed to include wheelchair curling in their programme.

Other international events introduced in 2002 included World Senior Curling Championships for women and men.

In 2005, the World Men's and Women's Championships were separated once again, and held in different parts of the world. Also, that year, the European Youth Olympic Festival introduced a curling competition for junior women and men between 15 and 18 years of age. Curling also became part of the inaugural Youth Olympic Winter Games in Innsbruck, Austria in 2012.

The growth of the sport in Asia was recognised with the first World Women's Curling Championship being held in Aomori, Japan, in 2007 and the first World Men's Curling Championship to be held in Asia taking place in Beijing, China, in 2014.

In 2008, the first World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship was staged in Vierumaaki, Finland. Mixed doubles curling marks a break from traditional curling, as teams are comprised of two players - one female and one male. In 2015, the discipline was accepted as an additional event for the Olympic Winter Games PyeongChang 2018, in South Korea - where eight teams competed for medals.

In 2015, the International Paralympic Committee also confirmed that the wheelchair curling event in PyeongChang in 2018 would be expanded from 10 to 12 teams. Mixed doubles was increased, from eight to ten teams, for the Olympic Winter Games Beijing 2022, in China

Also, in season 2014-2015, 'Curling: Pure Emotion', a sculpture by curler Bjorn Zyrd was unveiled, by President Kate Caithness, at the Olympic Museum Park in Lausanne, Switzerland. This was the first Olympic Winter sport to have such an artefact at the museum.

In 2016, the World Curling Federation celebrated its 50th anniversary. That year a Sweeping Summit was arranged near Ottawa, Canada to address the rules of sweeping. This resulted in one of the sport's most significant set of rule changes to date, following a season that challenged the conventions of how stones should be swept and what types of fabrics should be used on brushes.

In 2018 the Curling World Cup had its debut as a new four leg series where women's, men's and mixed doubles teams competed for money while representing their Member Associations.

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History of curling - World Curling Federation

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Curling has been described as the 'Roarin' Game', with the 'roar' coming from the noise of a granite stone as it travels over the ice. The exact origins of the game, however, are unclear, but curling is widely believed to be one of the world's oldest team sports.

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This source answers many questions that different people have about 9/11.

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A summary of many Egyptian Gods and Goddesses.

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The early stages of ancient Egyptian history and mythology were presumably influenced by the natural surroundings and events affecting ancient Egypt itself. For example, the cyclic pattern of the sun and the seasonal pattern of Nile floods (that enriched the soil) played crucial roles in establishing the water and the sun as symbols of life. The very geographical core of the ancient Egyptian civilization - the fertile Nile Delta, was surrounded by arid lands and deserts (populated by fringe groups of raiders and nomads).

Inspired by these factors, the people of ancient Egypt regarded their land as a tranquil haven. Their stable land was fenced by swathes of lawless tribal realms. This essentially created the trichotomy of order, chaos, and renewal; themes that are integral to the ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses.

On the other hand, historical events also played their part in 'shaping' the Egyptian gods and goddesses by the end of the Predynastic Period, circa 3100 BC. This was the age when Egyptian pharaohs united both the Upper and Lower realms. This in turn made such kings the focus of adulation in the religious context.

Furthermore, the progression of history and mythology is not linear, and as such many of the Egyptian deities evolved (and merged) into other entities and aspects. Some of these changes mirrored the preference of the ruling classes of the said period. Taking these factors into consideration, here are the twenty major ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses you should know about.

Nun: The Primeval God - Associated with a Deep Watery Mass

Every mythology tends to start with primordial origins, and in Egyptian mythology, that scope is covered by the ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses - and Naunet (the feminine form).

In essence, the ancient Egyptians perceived Nun as the watery abyss that basically held the universe by which the sphere of life was borne. This watery mass had enigmatic characteristics - with its depth embodying both nothingness and infinity. It also served as the source of all aspects of divine and earthly existence.

So in many ways, Nun, like Tiamat - the Mesopotamian primordial goddess of the oceans, was associated, albeit neutrally, with the forces of chaos. Physically, Nun was often represented as a bearded man with blue or green skin (thus suggesting his connection with the watery mass of the Nile and fertility).
Interesting Fact About Nun:
He was also depicted as a frog or a frog-headed man (as part of the Ogdoad or Eight Primordial Gods system practiced at Khmunu or Hermopolis) or even a hermaphrodite with discernable breasts.

Atum: The Creator God - Deity of the Setting Sun

According to the Heliopolitan creation myth, Atum was the very first god - essentially the first creator (or Self-Created One) who emerged from the chaotic abyss of Nun to give form and genders to other gods. Some stories mention how he came out of the primordial egg (or a blue lotus), while other myths suggest that Atum was 'self-born' on the mound that came out from the waters of Nun.

Atum was responsible for 'birthing' Shu - the primordial god of air (and wind) and Tefnut - the primordial goddess of moisture (and rain). These two elemental deities, in turn, gave birth to the sky ( Nut) and the earth ( Geb) - the gods responsible for creating the powerful deities like Osiris, Isis, and Set (discussed later in the article).
Interesting Fact About Atum:
It should be noted that on occasions, Atum was also visualized as an aged man associated with the setting sun - thus making him a sun god who regenerated during the night (and emerged as Khepri during dawn and Ra during the afternoon).

Amun, Ra, and Amun-Ra: The Ancient Egyptian gods of Sun and Wind

was the divine entity that represented the air and the sun - and was often considered one of the most important ancient Egyptian gods. Sometimes portrayed as the king of Egyptian gods and goddesses, Amun was also the patron deity of Thebes, the royal capital during the impressive New Kingdom era of Egypt, circa 16th century BC to 11th century BC.

Ra - the sun god (when the sun was at its peak), on the other hand, was considered among the most powerful ancient Egyptian deities. He was associated with the Pharaoh - so much so, that by Fifth Dynasty, almost every ruler was symbolically hailed as the son of Ra.

This composite sun god was hailed as the "Lord of truth, father of the gods, maker of men, creator of all animals, Lord of things that are, creator of the staff of life." According to many scholars, Amun-Ra symbolized the combination of the invisible force (of wind) with the visible majesty (of the life-giving sun). This establishes an all-encompassing deity that covered most aspects of creation.
Interesting Fact About Ra:
Mut: The Mother Goddess or The Queen of Gods

(also called Maut or Mwt) was often regarded as the wife and consort of Amun during the Middle Kingdom phase of ancient Egypt. She was venerated as the ancient Mother Goddess of Thebes (or Waset, pertaining to present-day Luxor).

This triad consisted of Amun, Mut, and their adopted son Khonsu - the moon god (discussed in the next entry). Consequently, when Amun was merged with Ra, Mut was referred to as the 'Eye of the Ra' - an honorific title held by many successive major Egyptian goddesses.

The very name 'Mut' was associated with 'mother', while Mwt also referred to vultures. To that end, it is probable that the ancient Egyptians perceived vultures as nurturing creatures, which alludes to their 'motherly' nature. In that regard, Mut, as the Queen of Gods, was depicted as a woman with wings wearing a crown or royal headdress (or sometimes a vulture headdress).

She was also represented as a vulture in various hieroglyphs. Interestingly, the mother goddess Mut worshipped at the Temple of Amun, was extolled with the epithet - "Mut, Who Giveth Birth, But Was Herself Not Born of Any".
Interesting Fact About Mut:
Mut was even depicted on occasions as a male. This perhaps had to do with how Egyptians thought there were no male vultures in existence since the two genders are similar in appearance to the human eye.

Khonsu: The Youthful God - The Deity of the Moon

was regarded as the adopted son of Amun and Mut - and their triad gained prominence at Thebes, the capital of Egypt during various ages. He was also worshiped as the Egyptian god of the moon (and also time and even healing). Quite intriguingly, while Khonsu was venerated as the amiable scion of Amun during the New Kingdom era, his origins rather alluded to the darker side of affairs during the earlier periods.

To that end, in the Old Kingdom era, Khonsu was described as a 'bloodthirsty deity' (as mentioned in the Pyramid Texts) and 'Khonsu who lives on hearts', with one mythical narrative suggesting how he, helped by dead kings, feasted on the hearts of other gods.

Reverting to his more genial persona, as perceived during the New Kingdom, Khonsu was depicted as a young man (mostly in a mummy pose) with a sidelock (or braid) and a curved beard - features that hinted at both his youthful and godly nature.

The very name 'Khonsu' was possibly derived from the word khenes ( h ns), which means 'to cross' (alluding to his journey across the sky), thus suggesting his association with the moon.

To that end, Khonsu embodied the crescent moon's light and was further represented as an imposing bull during the full moon. Khonsu, the protector, was possibly also venerated as a deity of love, fertility, menstrual cycles, and lifespans (often worshiped along with Ptah - the creator god, discussed later in the article).
Interesting Fact About Khonsu:
Although related to popular culture, the Moon Knight (the eponymous character from the Marvel comics and TV series Moon Knight) was devised as the avatar or champion of Khonsu.

Hathor: The Cow Goddess - The Motherly Deity

As for her name referring to the 'Domain of Horus', Hathor possibly comes from the Egyptian myth of Horus - one of the prominent Egyptian gods (discussed later in the article), and how he entered her mouth to rest and then again come back at dawn.

Considering these aspects, suffice it to say, Hathor was regarded as a protective and benevolent deity who often personified kindness. She was also the patron goddess associated with matters of womanly love and health, so much so that many women beheld her as the counterpart to Osiris in the afterlife. In fact, by circa 1st millennium BC, many women in Ancient Egypt hoped for their assimilation with Hathor in the afterlife.
Interesting Fact About Hathor:
In the earliest myths of Hathor, she was a vengeful goddess sent by Ra to destroy mankind for its sins. However, dismayed by the approaching extinction of humans, the other gods implored Ra to stop Hathor. Heeding their plea, the sun god tricked the blood-thirsty Hathor into drinking red-dyed beer which resembled the blood of humans. Consequently, the ancient goddess fell asleep and then woke up as a benevolent deity of womanhood.

Bastet/Sekhmet: The Feline Goddesses - Deities of Love and War

To that end, cats were uniquely sacred in Egypt - so much so that the punishment for killing a cat was death by stabbing. According to Herodotus, Egyptians were so fond of their cats that they preferred to save their cats instead of themselves when trapped inside a burning building. Some cats were also known to be mummified in a ceremonious manner with jewelry - as was the case with many noble people.

Interestingly enough, according to a legend, the Persians took advantage of this seemingly unhealthy feline fascination of the Egyptians by positioning many such animals and Bastet images (painted on their shields) in the front lines at the Battle of Pelusium, circa 525 BC.

The adorable critters ranging from cats, and dogs to even sheep, dissuaded the animal-loving Egyptians from firing their arrows - thus allowing the Persians to take the initiative and win the battle.

And with all the talk about battles, it should be noted that Egyptians also venerated the protective goddess Bastet in the form of her 'alter-ego' Sekhmet - the warrior lioness. The lion headed goddess was often given the epithet of 'Sekhmet the Powerful' and represented as the fiercest hunter in all of Egypt whose very breath formed the desert.
Interesting Fact About Sekhmet:
She was also associated with the eye of Ra - the destructive force of the Sun God. Given such regal characteristics, it doesn't really come as a surprise that many Pharaohs regarded the lion headed goddess as their protector in battles.

Maat: The Goddess of Order - The Deity of Truth and Justice

(or ma-yet) was the Egyptian goddess of truth, justice, and, the cosmic order (alluding to the Egyptian concept of ma'at), who was responsible for regulating both the stars and the seasons. Venerated as an important deity during the Old Kingdom period (circa 27th century - 22nd century BC), she was considered the daughter of Atum (or Ra), and as such implied the superiority of order, justice, and even harmony.

Thus the concept of ma'at was seen as a guideline for human behavior that would conform to the will of the gods, thus in the process of establishing a universal order. This cosmic balance was also reflected in the studies of the ancient Egyptian astronomers who charted the Earth's orbit with the celestial paths of the stars and other planets.

Simply put, this nature of balance was perceived as a principle that was to be adopted by thein their daily lives, which in turn established the virtues of truth, family life, and the belief system centered around the various deities. Consequently, the monstrous serpent god Atep (associated with chaos) was perceived as the opposite force to the very nature of ma'at.

And when it comes to her physical appearance, Maat was often depicted as a winged woman with an ostrich feather on her head. This apparel had symbolic significance since the feather of Maat was the instrumental object in the Weighing of the Heart ceremony in the afterlife.
Interesting Fact About Maat:
The Egyptians believed that after their death, the heart of their soul was to be weighed against the feather of Maat in a 'scale of justice', which would allow the sections of their spirits (or life force) to be ultimately released to Akh (the composite soul).

Ptah: The Creator God - The Deity of Life and Crafts

was the personification of creation. He was also one of the gods of ancient Egypt who formed the triad of Memphis (along with his spouse Sekhmet and daughter Nefertum), In essence, Ptah was perceived as the ultimate creator who not only fashioned the universe but also breathed life into the entities populating the world.
Interesting Fact About Ptah:
Suffice it to say, Ptah was a major god in ancient Egypt. In fact, the very name Egypt derived from Greek Aigyptos, was originally borrowed from Hikuptah, corresponding to Egyptian Ha(t)-ka-ptah or 'temple of the soul of Ptah'. Inside this religious sanctuary in Memphis. Ptah was the head of the triad of gods worshipped.

Nut: The 'Starry' Goddess - The Deity of the Sky

The daughter of Shu (God of Air) and Tefnut (Goddess of Moisture and Rain), (or Nwt - pronounced 'newt') embodied the sky, stars, and the larger cosmos. In that regard, she was often represented with an overarching body over the Earth - which, in turn, was personified by Nut's brother and husband Geb (the Earth god).

Nut was considered one of the oldest gods of Egypt, with her lore harking back to the founding story of Heliopolis, a city (corresponding to a present-day Cairo suburb) that had been inhabited since the Predynastic Period, circa 3100 BC. One hypothesis relates to how she was initially regarded as the goddess of the nighttime sky but later embodied the entire 'heavenly' sky.

Mythical narratives from ancient Egypt pertain to how Nut (as the Sky goddess) mates with her husband Geb (the god of the Earth) to give birth to a host of powerful gods like Osiris, Isis, and Set. But the birthings had to be hidden from Ra (embodying the Sun), who decreed that Nut couldn't use any days of the year for giving birth. That is because he feared that his throne might be usurped by the successive generation born out of the union of the sky and the earth.

However, the god Thoth appeared and came to Nut's rescue by 'adding' five more epagomenal days in a year (which originally comprised 360 days). He achieved the feat by tricking Khonsu, the God of Moon, and thus the births are given for five days illuminated by the moonlight instead of the sun. Nut was usually depicted wearing a water-pot headdress with the water-pot sign ( nw) signifying her very name.
Interesting Fact About Nut:
The goddess was often associated with the coffin or sarcophagi because it was believed that Nut was the protector of the dead on their journey to the afterlife.

Isis: The Egyptian Goddess Associated with Royalty and Magic

This narrative of the Osiris myth was symbolically mirrored in the affairs of the ancient Egyptian state, with the very name Isis being derived from Egyptian Eset, ('the seat'), which refers to the throne. In essence, the Egyptian goddess, as the mother of Horus, was perceived as the divine mother of the kings. Consequently, Horus (discussed later in the article) was associated with the Pharaohs themselves.

This analogy of the throne was also prevalent in the very depiction of Isis, with her original headdress carrying an empty throne that signified the seat of her slain husband.
Interesting Fact About Isis:
The worship of Isis also reached beyond the traditional boundaries of ancient Egypt, to account for a persistent cult that was spread across the later Greco-Roman world. For example, there were temples dedicated to Isis in both Pompeii and Tivoli in Italy.

Osiris: The Dead God - The Deity of the Underworld

was one of the major gods of ancient Egypt during and after the Old Kingdom period (and one of the main characters of the Osiris myth). He was the husband of Isis, the father of Horus, and the brother of Set, and was often perceived as the king of the underworld.

Furthermore, Osiris also fulfilled his duty as the Judge of the Dead. Consequently, he was the central funerary god who decided the deceased's fate after the aforementioned Weighing of the Heart ceremony (see the Maat entry).

Interestingly enough, in such cases, we can understand the pragmatic nature of the gods of Egypt and religion. For example, as opposed to advocating puritan morality, the deceased was only expected to live a 'balanced' former life.
Interesting Fact About Osiris:
While Osiris is often associated with regeneration, he was never believed to have resurrected - because Egyptians didn't believe in the resurrection of the dead (even for gods). Thus the regeneration might have related to the continuation of the life cycle through our descendants on earth.

Horus: The Falcon God - The Deity of War and Kingship

Horus emerged victorious in this clash, thereby uniting the two lands of Egypt, albeit after losing one of his eyes. In essence, the avenging Egyptian deity was also perceived as a war god whose name was frequently invoked before actual battles by the rulers and commanders.
Interesting Fact About Horus:
Quite intriguingly, the Ptolemaic dynasty favored another cupid-like form of Horus known as Harpocrates (or 'Horus the Child'), who was depicted as a winged child with a finger on his lips - suggesting the virtue of silence and keeping secrets. Interestingly, Harpocrates was perceived as the child of Hatmehit - the fish goddess (later absorbed by Isis) and Banebdjedet - the ram god (later possibly associated with Osiris).

Set: The Antagonist God - The Deity of Chaos

And interestingly enough, Nubt served as the gateway to the eastern desert and its gold deposits, which possibly explains the association of Set with the deserts of Egypt.

In any case, Set was originally regarded as a more-or-less benevolent and esteemed entity who sometimes served as an ally of Ra, and was tasked with the protection of oases in the deserts. But over time, he was also associated with peculiar and frightening phenomena like eclipses, storms, and thunders - thus suggesting a dark side to his personification.

Other historians have hypothesized that the battle between Set and Horus, as opposed to a confrontation between good and evil, was rather a symbolic representation of the struggle to unite Egypt under one ruler.

Lastly, the 'strange' nature of Set as one of the dualistic gods is also manifested in his depictions. They often showcase a strange creature that is simply known as the Set animal, which could be a composite of an aardvark, a donkey, and a jackal (or a fennec fox).
Interesting Fact About Set:
A few scholars have argued that the Set animal possibly represents a giraffe, though ancient Egyptians seem to have differentiated between giraffes and the enigmatic hybrid creature. And the Late Egyptian period (post 664 BC) artists tended to depict Set exclusively with a donkey head.

Min: 'The Lord of the Eastern Desert' - The Deity of Fertility

It is entirely possible that the cults of the early era tended to worship objects like the barbed arrow as a symbol of the god. Over time, he was endowed with a human form and often represented through the double-headed arrow resembling Min Standard.

In the centuries leading up to the Middle Kingdom (circa pre-20th century BC), Min was regarded as the deity of the Orion constellation and was often associated with both thunder and rain. The Pyramid Texts also refer to Min as a patron of traveling caravans, traders, and miners, thereby making him the protector and Lord of the Eastern Desert.

By the Middle Kingdom era (circa 20th - 17th century BC), Min was increasingly perceived as a deity of fertility and male sexuality. During this period, the long-leafed lettuce was the symbol of Min, possibly because it was considered to be an aphrodisiac. The association with fertility was also mirrored by agriculture and verdancy - and thus harvests were celebrated with games and processions in his honor.

By the New Kingdom era, the rituals of Min possibly alluded to the metaphorical male seed in the form of plant seeds that had to be sowed by the Pharaoh to prove his virility. Furthermore, Min was perhaps also venerated as an aspect of Osiris, along with his worship as the composite god Ptah-Min.
Interesting Fact About Min:
Min was often depicted with black skin - which probably symbolized the very fertile soil of the Nile river.

Anubis: The Jackal God - The Guide of Souls

And like many contemporary Egyptian gods, Anubis did have other aspects, but his core attributes were seemingly always related to the matters of death. For example, even during the 1st Dynasty period (circa 3100 BC), Anubis was perceived as a protector of graves - possibly to endow a positive aspect to the propensity of jackals who tended to dig up shallow graves.

To that end, Anubis was one of the rare gods, who in spite of his ancient legacy, was not venerated in dedicated precincts and temples (at least according to archaeological evidence or lack thereof). On the contrary, the tombs and mastabas of the dead were seen as his places of worship, including a particular shrine at Anubeion which contained the mummified remains of dogs and jackals.

Now in spite of his visually striking features and frequent ancient artistic depictions - that as we mentioned before, consisted of a black jackal's head, Anubis played almost no part in the actual Egyptian mythology. And while the color black itself symbolized both desolation and rebirth, Anubis was possibly also associated with the god Upuaut (or Wepwawet), another deity with canine (or dog) features but with grey fur.
Interesting Fact About Anubis:
Since Anubis was associated with embalming rites, his daughter Kabechet was the deification of the very embalming liquid used for mummification. In Egyptian myths, Kabechat, the celestial serpent deity, was venerated as the one who brought refreshing cool water to the souls of the dead.

Thoth: The Ibis God - The Patron God of Writing and Wisdom

Credit: Vladimiraz / Dreamstime.com

Later origin myths established Thoth as one of the characters of the Osiris saga, wherein the deity was oddly born when Set accidentally swallowed Horus' seed. In any case, given his stature as one of the major Egyptian gods of balance, Thoth equally healed and aided both the parties Horus and Set in their epic battle.

As for his physical attributes, Thoth was often depicted as a man with the head of an ibis. And considering his academic qualities, Thoth was widely perceived as the patron god of scribes, astronomers, priests, and some rulers (like Thutmose meaning 'Born of Thoth'). He was also credited as the inventor of the alphabet, mathematics, surveying, geometry, and even botany.
Interesting Fact About Thoth:
Thoth was sometimes also depicted as a dog-faced baboon or even a seated man with a baboon's head. This was associated with his aspect of A'an, the god of equilibrium.

Sobek: The Crocodile God - The Deity of the Nile

To that end, Sobek was regarded as one of the creator Egyptian gods who rose from the obscure 'Dark Water' of Nun (discussed earlier) to create the Nile from his very sweat. Another myth notes how he laid eggs in the primordial waters of Nun to create the very world Egyptians lived in.

Historically, Sobek, the god of the Nile, was mentioned in the Pyramid Texts dating from the Old Kingdom period. But the crocodile god worshipped during the Twelfth Dynasty (circa 18th century BC) reached prominence, especially in the Faiiyum region of Egypt after the construction of a pyramid by Pharaoh Senusret II.

Incredibly enough, Sobekneferu ('Beauty of Sobek'), possibly the first female ruler of Egypt, hailed from the very same dynasty. As for the scope of veneration, it is entirely possible that even live crocodiles were worshipped in some parts of Egypt as embodiments of Sobek. A hypothesis mentions how Sobek was revered as a form of appeasing the Nile, thereby alluding to his origins as a 'dark' god.

As for his depiction, Sobek was often represented as a man with the head of a crocodile that was further adorned with a plumed headdress and the Atef crown.
Interesting Fact About Sobek:
Archaeologists have found mummified crocodiles of both adult and infant varieties in ancient Egyptian tombs, which rather alludes to the popularity of Sobek as one of the major Egyptian gods. In fact, Sobek as a deity was venerated even during the Greco-Roman times.

Taweret: The Hippo Goddess - The Deity of Protection

(meaning 'she who is great') was the patron deity and protective goddess of women and children - and thus was regarded as the ancient Egyptian goddess of childbirth. And interestingly enough, her veneration by the ancient Egyptians was possibly inspired by the ecology of Egypt before the Early Dynastic Period (pre 3000 BC), when the locals observed how the female hippopotami staunchly defended their young offspring from harm.

Over time, Taweret was also worshipped as an apotropaic god who had the power to ward off evil influences. To that end, it is known that Egyptian mothers carried amulets that were carved with the symbols or images of Taweret to invoke her protection. By the time of the New Kingdom, her likeness was also designed on objects related to feminity, like cosmetic applicators, jewelry, headrests, and vessels.

The physical attributes of Taweret were certainly inspired by the observance of hippopotamus behavior in ancient Egypt. Consequently, the Egyptian hippopotamus goddess was often depicted as a hippopotamus who was pregnant and carried the protective sa sign. However, her limbs were strikingly feline in nature, while her backside curiously resembled a Nile crocodile.
Interesting Fact About Tawaret:
The Minoan Genius, a mythological creature (with the head of a hippo) from ancient Crete was probably derived from the Egyptian hippopotamus goddess Tawaret. However, the Minoan Genius was venerated as a 'demon' or lesser-deity (albeit good-natured) in the Minoan religion, and its worship even spread to the Mycenaeans (Bronze Age Greeks).

Aten: The 'Controversial' God - The Personification of the Sun

personified the solar disk as visible from the earth - originally considered as an aspect of other ancient Egyptian gods, namely Ra. And like other aspects following the likeness of the main deities, Aten (originally a sun deity) was usually worshipped as a falcon-headed god, thus mirroring the image of Ra. On occasions, Aten was also hailed as the silver disc, thus suggesting its aspect of the moon.

However, during the reign of Pharaoh Amenhotep IV - who was later known as , the Pharaoh proclaimed that Aten, as a solar deity, was to be venerated above the other Egyptian gods. Simply put, Akhenaten declared a monotheistic (or possibly henotheistic) mode of religion across all of Egypt, with the worship centered around Aten. Such radical ideas from the ruler had deep-reaching effects on ancient Egypt's society and culture.

But such measures ultimately resulted in reactionary counter-implementations of the traditional pantheon system - with the legacy of Akhenaten and Aten being intentionally wiped out by his successors after the defiant pharaoh's death. Even the royal city of Amarna, the cult center of Aten, was razed by the later 'traditionalists'; although some structural segments did survive to provide a historical glimpse into the royal city (watch the reconstruction here).

Interesting Fact About Aten:

The royal city of Amarna boasted revolutionary architecture centered around the worship of Aten - the solar disk. For example, most of the temples were constructed without any roofing, thus symbolically allowing the unobstructed passage of the effulgent rays of the solar deity on the worshipers inside.

Khepri: The Beetle God - Associated with the Morning Sun

This connection was derived from the action of scarab beetles when they rolled balls of dung across the rigorous desert surface - while the young beetles emerged from inside the dung, from the eggs laid by the parent. This is in fact related to the Egyptian word kheper, which roughly translates to - 'to change' or 'to create'.

In any case, Khepri was also considered as being subordinate to the more exalted sun god Ra, which on occasions also translated to Khepri being one of the aspects of Ra. For example, Khepri was perceived as the personification of the morning sun, while Ra was seen as the more effulgent midday sun.
Interesting Fact About Khepri:
The people of ancient Egypt also regarded Khepri as one of the Egyptian gods of rebirth. This was possible because the Egyptians believed beetles appeared out of nowhere and yet were able to procreate.

The Family Tree of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses -

Summary of the Ancient Egyptian Gods

1. Nun - The primordial Egyptian god associated with the watery mass that is the source of all aspects of divine and earthly existence.

2. Atum - The very first god - essentially the first creator (or Self-Created One) who emerged from the chaotic abyss of Nun to form other gods.

3. Amun-Ra - The combination of two Egyptian deities Amun and Ra, thereby symbolizing the invisible force of wind and the visible majesty of the sun.

4. Mut - The Mother Goddess, sometimes venerated as the Queen of the Egyptian pantheon (as the later wife of Amun).

5. Khonsu - The Egyptian god of the moon associated with time, healing, and even youthfulness.

6. Hathor - The benevolent Egyptian 'Cow' goddess associated with matters of womanly love and health.

7. Bastet/Sekhmet - Bastet was venerated as the benevolent Egyptian 'Cat' goddess of love, fertility, joy, dance, women, and secrets. Sekhmet, her alter-ego, was invoked as the warrior lioness deity who protected the Pharaohs.

8. Maat - The Egyptian goddess of truth, justice, and, the cosmic order.

9. Ptah - The Egyptian creator god with his life-giving ability - regarded as the patron deity of sculptors, painters, builders, and other artisans.

10. Nut - The Egyptian goddess of the sky who gave birth to Osiris, Isis, and Set, after the union with Geb, the god of Earth.

11. Isis - The Egyptian goddess venerated as the divine mother of the kings and often associated with magic.

12. Osiris - The Egyptian 'Dead' god regarded as the lord and judge of the underworld.

13. Horus - The Egyptian 'Falcon' god associated with the sky and warfare.

14. Set - The Egyptian deity representing darkness, often associated with eclipses, storms, and thunder.

15. Min - The Egyptian god of fertility and sexuality, also associated with agriculture and the growth of crops.

16. Anubis - The Egyptian 'Jackal' God, regarded as the protector of graves, guide of souls in the afterlife, and patron deity of embalmers.

17. Thoth - The Egyptian 'Ibis' god associated with writing, magic, wisdom, and the moon.

18. Sobek - The Egyptian 'Crocodile' god associated with the life-giving scope of the Nile river.

19. Taweret - The Egyptian 'Hippo' goddess regarded as the divine protector of women and children and associated with childbirth.

20. Aten - An Egyptian monotheistic god personifying the disc of the sun.

Honorable Mention: Khepri - The Egyptian 'Beetle' god is often perceived as the personification of the morning sun.
*Note - The article was updated on 11th October 2019. And in case we have not attributed or misattributed any image, artwork or photograph, we apologize in advance. Please let us know via the 'Contact Us' link, provided both above the top bar and at the bottom bar of the page.

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20 Fascinating Ancient Egyptian Gods and Goddesses

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The early stages of ancient Egyptian history and mythology were presumably influenced by the natural surroundings and events affecting ancient Egypt itself. For example, the cyclic pattern of the sun and the seasonal pattern of Nile floods (that enriched the soil) played crucial roles in establishing the water and the sun as symbols of life.

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We learned about the Proboscis monkey, Dugong, and the Axolotl. Here is a source for the Axolotl, Axolotl Article.  This article talks about everything that relates to axolotls, it talks about where they live, what color they are, and where their names came from. Here is our next article about the Proboscis monkey. Proboscis Article. The source shows multiple facts about the Proboscis Monkey, such as dietary information, environment, physical characteristics, and other important details. Here is our Text Feature, it is a video about Proboscis monkeys. Finally, last but not least is the Dugong. Dugong Animal is the article we use. This article is about where they live and what the dugongs look like. It also talks about how they are on the verge of extinction.

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This article explains what happened during 9/11 and what happened after.

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Todd Heisler for The New York Times

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In his mind, Michael Regan should have been down there. He should have had the guts.

A longtime New York City employee who became first deputy fire commissioner after the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001, Mr. Regan coordinated scores of funerals and memorial services and helped hundreds of shattered families. Still, he could not shake the guilt. He should have been there, down at the World Trade Center.

After a couple of months, Mr. Regan finally shared his remorse with a stunned Fire Department colleague, who told him that he had been there. He had helped transport the bodies of the first deputy fire commissioner, Bill Feehan, and the chief of department, Peter Ganci, to the morgue on First Avenue.

Don't you remember?

Looking back, Mr. Regan said his mental block must have been a way to cope with the instant loss of thousands, including many close friends. "It was a safety mechanism," he said. "I saw horrible things that day, and I didn't want to think about those things."

Twenty years later, the command to "Never Forget" retains its power, jolting us into the past whenever we see it on a hat or flag or the back of a passing car on the Belt Parkway. For all its slogan-like simplicity, these twinned words seem freighted with the complexities of guilt, obligation and even presumption - as if we could ever forget.

But now that an entire generation has been born since the day, versions of the question posed to Mr. Regan might be asked of all of us who lived it in some way. Two planes hijacked by Al Qaeda piercing the north and south towers of the World Trade Center. A third slamming into the Pentagon in Arlington, Va. A fourth crashing in an open field outside Shanksville, Pa. All in less than 90 minutes.

What, exactly, do you remember? What stories do you tell when a casual conversation morphs into a therapy session? What stories do you keep to yourself? And what instantly transports you back to that deceptively sunny Tuesday morning?

For Nikki Stern, a writer, it might be the waft of cigar smoke. Her husband, Jim Potorti, a vice president at Marsh & McLennan who worked on the 96th floor of the north tower, enjoyed the occasional cigar. Or it might be the sight of a bicycle. Just a bicycle. Jim used to cycle. ...

"I compartmentalize," Ms. Stern said. "But there's a permanent leak in the compartment."

For James Luongo, a former deputy chief of the New York Police Department, it's driving past the now-closed Fresh Kills landfill on Staten Island. He spent nearly a year on that mound, supervising a pop-up base camp where 1.8 million tons of Trade Center debris were sifted for human remains and personal effects.

The problem is: Mr. Luongo lives on Staten Island.

"You've got to put it where it needs to be," he said of the memories. "And not open the door more than you have to."

Never Forget.

"When I hear 'Never Forget' for 9/11, my next question is: 'Never forget what?'" said Charles B. Stone, an associate professor of psychology at John Jay College of Criminal Justice.

Never forget the international dynamics that set the stage? The homeland insecurities that followed, including the harassment of American citizens simply because they were Muslim? The months of seemingly nonstop funerals? The two decades of war and bloodshed?

"Probably the closest answer is: Never forget that it occurred," Mr. Stone said. "But it's the little details that will be forgotten."

I remember.
The stillness as another body was pulled from the rubble and carted away to salutes and construction helmets held over hearts. The hum of the refrigerated trucks outside the morgue. The acrid smell of loss drifting uptown through the newsroom's open windows. The landfill. The funerals. The dust.

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"It's the little details that will be forgotten," said Charles B. Stone, an associate professor of psychology at John Jay College of Criminal Justice. Credit... Gabriela Bhaskar/The New York Times

Of course, the call to Never Forget can also be interpreted as another honorable attempt to preserve some faint sense of the day's many emotions. Honorable, but perhaps futile against the ceaseless rub of the passing years, the vagaries of memory.

In the first days after the Sept. 11 attacks, a team of scholars around the country set out to capture the moment's "flashbulb" memories: the vivid, enduring mental snapshots formed at the instant of historical import, such as the bombing of Pearl Harbor or the assassination of John F. Kennedy. They asked more than 3,000 people a few questions, including: Where were you when you learned about the terrorist attacks?

In New York, graduate students working on the study set up tables and handed out surveys at Union Square and Washington Square, where thousands had gathered in the days and weeks after the attacks just to be with one another, moments of communal mourning also now slipping from memory.

A year later, the researchers asked the same questions of many of the same people, only to find that 40 percent of the memories had changed. A man now saying that he was in the office when he learned of the attacks might previously have said that he had been on a train.

These altered recollections were consistent with similar studies done in connection with other historical events, according to Elizabeth A. Phelps, a professor of neuroscience at Harvard University who worked on the 9/11 memory study. What distinguished the memories of Sept. 11, when compared with ordinary autobiographical memories, was the extreme confidence that people had developed in their altered remembrances, which by the first anniversary had begun to concretize.

"You have your story and you're sticking to it," Dr. Phelps said.

William Hirst, a professor of psychology at the New School for Social Research, who also worked on the study, agreed. "I think what happens is they develop a narrative about their flashbulb memory," he said. "It becomes their story."

Dr. Hirst wonders whether the changes in memory are somehow linked to a sense of identity. After all, what would it say about you as a New Yorker - as an American - if you didn't know how you first heard about the Sept. 11 attacks? Aligning your personal narrative with a consequential moment in history may be a way of asserting that you are a part of the affected community, that you belong.

Inevitably, someday there will be no one alive with a personal narrative of Sept. 11. Inevitably, the emotional impact of the day will fade a little bit, and then a little bit more, as time transforms a visceral lived experience into a dry history lesson. This transformation has already begun; ask any high school history teacher.

But for now, for many, Sept. 11 remains a lived experience. We have our stories - our possibly altered memories - to share, or not to share, on the anniversary or any day of the year.

We might tell our stories to hold back the inevitable erasure of time. We might tell them to help us process the moment, or to explain why we grow quiet whenever we hear Bruce Springsteen's "The Rising."

Then again, we might keep our stories locked in some leaky compartment, for fear of being perceived as another 9/11 narcissist, the hero of our own narrative. Or maybe we keep them to ourselves out of simple reverence.

The names of the dead at the 9/11 Memorial & Museum in Lower Manhattan. Credit... Todd Heisler/The New York Times

Mr. Regan, the man who momentarily forgot, is now 64 and an executive with J.P. Morgan Chase. He has his memories, his stories. Some are funny, in that dark Irish way of coping. Some are so sobering that silence is the only response.

He avoids the anniversaries, the annual recitation of the names of the dead, and all the documentaries and books and essays the day continues to inspire. He will never visit the 9/11 Memorial & Museum, he said. "I don't need to go back."

Mr. Luongo, now 63, retired in March after 40 years with the N.Y.P.D., a career distinguished in part by those many months on the Staten Island landfill. More than 4,200 human remains were recovered, as well as nearly 60,000 personal items, including photographs and identification cards.

What he supervised was a village built on tragedy and aglow at night, with office trailers, a decontamination center, a mess hall, and conveyor belts waiting to receive the debris barged from Lower Manhattan. Looming stacks of crushed vehicles, including police cars and fire engines, arranged in neat, horrific rows.

All gone, like Brigadoon. Was it even real? Or is this, too, a trick of memory?

"I remember," Mr. Luongo said. "So you get up in the morning, light a candle, say a prayer - and move on."

Ms. Stern, who went on to write two nonfiction books and four novels, also remembers. How could she not?

Shopping for eggs in a SuperFresh market near her home in Princeton, N.J., planning to make chocolate chip cookies for her husband - "I made the best ones in the world" - when someone shouted something like: The World Trade Center has been hit!

Being notified six months later that a quarter-size piece of Jim had been identified. Writing and writing and writing every night through her grief, more than 150,000 words that no one else will ever see.

Ms. Stern has spent the last 20 years trying to get past the "uniquely suffering kind of thing," as she puts it, and work toward building something constructive. Her involvement with the nonprofit peace-building organization Search for Common Ground is another form of remembering.

"I don't want anyone to go through this," Ms. Stern said. "But I also don't want to go through life saying, 'You can't understand what I went through.' What's the point? Why should they?"

The smell of a cigar. A bicycle. A drive on the Staten Island Expressway. The anniversary.

The dust.

I remember camping out with the National Guard in Battery Park several days after the terrorist attacks. I remember wearing a construction helmet, carrying a clipboard and walking around as if I belonged at the restricted World Trade Center site, then known as "the Pile" and as much a burial ground as a crime scene.

I remember the messages of grief, anger and faint hope scrawled in the dust that had settled on the surrounding buildings. Scrawled with the tips of fingers. I remember being determined to chronicle these messages before the power washers came.

"The Towers Will Rise Again"

"Vernon Cherry Call Home"

"God Be With You Dana - Love, Mom"

I remember not wanting to think too hard about what comprised the dust, and not thinking at all about how harmful the dust might be for rescue and recovery workers to inhale.

I remember the dust being the color of vanilla, although my notes say it was gray. But I am certain of this: The dust was everywhere. The world was covered in it.

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Todd Heisler for The New York Times To hear more audio stories from publications like The New York Times, download Audm for iPhone or Android . In his mind, Michael Regan should have been down there. He should have had the guts.

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This article talks about how the rights of colored and not of color women have drastically changed from 1776 - January of 2021. When the first woman and first woman of color was sworn in as the vice president of the United States.

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Women's history is full of trailblazers in the fight for equality in the United States. From Abigail Adams imploring her husband to "remember the ladies" when envisioning a government for the American colonies, to suffragists like Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton fighting for women's right to vote, to the rise of feminism and Hillary Clinton becoming the first female nominee for president by a major political party, American women have long fought for equal footing throughout the nation's history.

And while some glass ceilings have been shattered (see: Title IX), others remain. But progress continues to be made. As Clinton said while accepting her nomination, "When there are no ceilings, the sky's the limit."

Below is a timeline of notable events in U.S. women's history.

Abigail Adams, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Sojourner Truth

March 31, 1776: In a letter to her husband, Founding Father John Adams, future first lady Abigail Adams makes a plea to him and the Continental Congress to "remember the ladies and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the husbands. Remember, all men would be tyrants if they could. If particular care and attention is not paid to the ladies, we are determined to foment a rebellion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any laws in which we have no voice or representation."

July 19-20, 1848: In the first women's rights convention organized by women, the Seneca Falls Convention is held in New York, with 300 attendees, including organizers Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. Sixty-eight women and 32 men (including Frederick Douglass) sign the Declaration of Sentiments, which sparked decades of activism, eventually leading to the passage of the 19th Amendment granting women the right to vote.
READ MORE: Why the 19th Amendment Did Not Guarantee All Women the Right to Vote
January 23, 1849: Elizabeth Blackwell becomes the first woman to graduate from medical school and become a doctor in the United States. Born in Bristol, England, she graduated from Geneva College in New York with the highest grades in her entire class.

May 29, 1851: A formerly enslaved worker turned abolitionist and women's rights activist, Sojourner Truth delivers her famous "Ain't I a Woman?" speech at the Women's Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio. "And ain't I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain't I a woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a man-when I could get it-and bear the lash as well! And ain't I a woman? I have borne 13 children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother's grief, none but Jesus heard me! And ain't I a woman?"

Contemporaneous reports of Truth's speech did not include this slogan, and quoted Truth in standard English. In later years, this slogan was further distorted to "Ain't I a Woman?", reflecting the false belief that as a formerly enslaved woman, Truth would have had a Southern accent. Truth was, in fact, a New Yorker.
READ MORE: Early Women's Rights Activists Wanted Much More than Suffrage
Suffrage Movement, 19th Amendment

May 15, 1869: Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton found the National Woman Suffrage Association, which coordinated the national suffrage movement. In 1890, the group teamed with the American Woman Suffrage Association to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association.

October 16, 1916: Margaret Sanger opens the first birth control clinic in the United States. Located in Brownsville, Brooklyn, her clinic was deemed illegal under the "Comstock Laws" forbidding birth control, and the clinic was raided on October 26, 1916. When she had to close two additional times due to legal threats, she closed the clinic and eventually founded the American Birth Control League in 1921-the precursor to today's Planned Parenthood.

April 2, 1917: Jeannette Rankin of Montana, a longtime activist with the National Woman Suffrage Association, is sworn in as the first woman elected to Congress as a member of the House of Representatives.

Aug. 18, 1920: Ratification of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is completed, declaring "the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex." It is nicknamed "The Susan B. Anthony Amendment" in honor of her work on behalf of women's suffrage.

February 16, 1945: The Alaska Equal Rights Act is signed into law. The act is the first state or territorial anti-discrimination law enacted in the United States in the 20th century. Elizabeth Peratrovich, a Tlingit woman who was Grand President of the Alaska Native Sisterhood, spearheaded the effort to end discrimination against Alaska Natives and other non-white residents.

Rosa Parks, Civil Rights, Equal Pay

May 9, 1960: The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves the first commercially produced birth control pill in the world, allowing women to control when and if they have children. Margaret Sanger initially commissioned " the pill " with funding from heiress Katherine McCormick.

July 2, 1964: President Lyndon B. Johnson, signs the Civil Rights Act into law; Title VII bans employment discrimination based on race, religion, national origin or sex.

June 30, 1966: Betty Friedan, author of 1963's The Feminine Mystique, helps found the National Organization for Women (NOW), using, as the organization now states, "grassroots activism to promote feminist ideals, lead societal change, eliminate discrimination, and achieve and protect the equal rights of all women and girls in all aspects of social, political, and economic life."
READ MORE: Six Unsung Heroines of the Civil Rights Movement
Title IX, Battle of the Sexes

Jan. 22, 1973: In its landmark 7-2 decision, the U.S. Supreme Court declares that the Constitution protects a woman's legal right to an abortion. In June 2022, the Supreme Court overturned the ruling.

Sandra Day O'Connor, Sally Ride

July 7, 1981: Sandra Day O'Connor is sworn in by President Ronald Reagan as the first woman to serve on the U.S. Supreme Court. She retires in 2006, after serving for 24 years.

June 18 1983: Flying on the Space Shuttle Challenger, Sally Ride becomes the first American woman in space.

March 12, 1993: Nominated by President Bill Clinton, Janet Reno is sworn in as the first female attorney general of the United States.

Sept. 13, 1994: Clinton signs the Violence Against Women Act as part of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, providing funding for programs that help victims of domestic violence, rape, sexual assault, stalking and other gender-related violence.

Nancy Pelosi, Hillary Clinton, Kamala Harris

The daughter of Jamaican and Indian immigrants, Harris served as California's first Black female attorney general and won election to the U.S. Senate in 2016. She made her own unsuccessful presidential bid before being selected by former vice president Joe Biden as his running mate.
READ MORE: 7 Women Leaders That Were Elected to Highest Office
Sources

Timeline of Legal History of Women in the United States, National Women's History Alliance

Seneca Falls Convention, Library of Congress

Sojourner Truth's "Ain't I A Woman?" Sojourner Truth Memorial

Woman Suffrage, National Geographic Society

Suffragists Unite: National American Woman Suffrage Association, National Women's History Museum

A record number of women will be serving in the new Congress. PEWResearch.org.

A List of Firsts for Women In This Year's Midterm Elections. NPR.org.

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

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From a plea to a founding father, to the suffragists to Title IX, to the first female political figures, women have blazed a steady trail towards equality in the United States. Explore famous firsts and figures in women's history with this timeline.

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Global History of Women's Rights. (Short Video)

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Global History of Women's Rights. (Short Video)

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A global history of women’s rights, in 3 minutes

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This talks about how the population in Pakistan has increased in people, how the population is now mainly men, and how this affects women in Pakistan. This also talks about how there are national commitments to give empowerment to woman and to stop discrimination against women in Pakistan.

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Pakistan is the fifth most populous country in the world, with a population of nearly 227 million people (49.2 per cent female; 50.8 per cent male). Sixty-four per cent of the population of Pakistan is below the age of 30, making it one of the largest young populations in the world. Gender inequality is of significant concern in Pakistan. According to the Global Gender Gap Index Report 2022, Pakistan ranks 145/156 for economic participation and opportunity, 135/156 for educational attainment, 143/156 for health and survival, and 95/156 for political empowerment. Furthermore, Pakistan ranks 130/139 countries on the Rule of Law Index of the World Justice Project. The World Economic Forum's Global Gender Gap 2022, ranks Pakistan higher on political participation at 95/146 as more women than ever before are participating in political activity. Women, however, continue to remain underrepresented in leadership roles and are restricted from taking up positions in the political/public sphere due to systemic challenges arising from patriarchal notions. According to the Election Commission of Pakistan (ECP), there is a gender gap of around 12.5 million in Pakistan's electoral rolls. According to UN Women's calculations, at the current rate of progress, gender parity in national legislatures will not be achieved before 2063. Given recurrent natural catastrophes such as floods, droughts, heatwaves, and cyclones, Pakistan has been ranked as one of the top ten countries most affected (currently ranked 8th) by climate change in the past 20 years, with women being affected the most.

Despite these challenges, Pakistan has taken progressive steps towards protection of human rights by ratifying most international human rights conventions and introducing pro-women legislation, including the National Gender Policy Framework (2022), Anti-Rape (Investigation and Trial) Ordinance (2020) and the Domestic Violence against Women (Prevention and Protection) Act in all four provinces of Pakistan. However, while laws for women's empowerment and protection from violence are in place at national and sub-national levels, their implementation remains weak.

As per the 5th CEDAW periodic review of Pakistan, one of the biggest challenges faced is the lack of consistent data on violence against women (VAW) to support the development of appropriate policy responses, which has led to ineffective and weak policy reforms. From the reported data, violence against women is widespread - 34 per cent of ever-married women have experienced spousal physical, sexual, or emotional violence, and 56 per cent of ever-married women who reported experiencing physical or sexual violence have neither sought help to stop the violence nor told anyone. Factors that impede speedy and efficient delivery of justice to women include a low level of understanding of laws among staff of justice sector institutions, the absence of technological solutions to collect data and evidence, patriarchal mindsets and cultural norms that privilege or ascribe higher status to men and lower status to women.

On the economic front, women account for a mere 22.63 per cent of the labor force while men make up 84.79 per cent of the labor force. On average, a Pakistani woman's income is 16.3 per cent of a man's income. Of the 5.26 million working in the informal sector in Pakistan, 81 per cent are women. Even though this contribution accounts for 65 per cent of the PKR 400 billion (USD 2.8 billion) in the informal economy of Pakistan, women earn just PKR 3,000-4,000 (USD 15-20) per month and as a result face multidimensional vulnerabilities including low-income security, poor nutrition, occupational health issues, absence of social protection and high economic vulnerability in times of crisis. The Global Wage Report 2019-20 by International Labor Organization explains the gender pay gap variation between men and women between countries and for Pakistan it is 34 per cent. The overarching constraints that restrict economically active women in maximizing their income include cultural constraints of free mobility, restricted access to and acquisition of skills pertaining to business management and expansion, and lack of direct access to markets and technology.

The Government of Pakistan remains committed to the cause of women empowerment. This is reflected in the medium and long term strategic vision documents, the pro-women laws enacted, and the policies of various institutions and ministries to mainstream gender into their planning and service delivery. The Pakistan Vision 2025, which aligns with the United Nations Sustainable Development Cooperation Framework (UNSDCF) 2023-2027 for Pakistan, also prioritizes basic rights and gender equality as central tenants of the country's development agenda, focusing on the need for gender responsive planning, engagement of vulnerable and marginalized groups, and increased reporting of violence against women (VAW) and related cases. In its first National Security Policy (2022-2026), the Government of Pakistan recognizes 'gender security' as a key pillar and aims to "ensure integration of gender equity into national security narratives through full and meaningful participation of women in decision-making, law enforcement, the justice sector, and peacekeeping."

The peace and security landscape in Pakistan also exacerbates issues for women, and stems from regional instability as well as growing divisions between communities on the basis of religious, sectarian and ethnic lines. Ethnicity is deeply rooted in communal, historical, and political backgrounds and is visible where clusters of people are contiguous and interact regularly. Pakistan is not a signatory to the UNSCR 1325 Women, Peace and Security (WPS) Agenda or its complementary Youth Peace and Security (YPS), but has voiced its commitment to the framework that views women and youth as the cornerstone of peacebuilding. The country remains one of the sixth largest contributors to UN peacekeeping, including female engagement teams and troop contribution. Challenges remain in translating Pakistan's commitments into actions, as the peace and security domain remains securitized. From a regional perspective, the takeover of Afghanistan by the Taliban in August 2021 resulted in increasing refugees and asylum-seekers (mostly women, children and adolescents) in the border areas of Pakistan, making it the third-largest host country of refugees in the world.

Pakistani communities, especially women, are becoming more vulnerable to disaster-driven displacement. Gender-sensitive resilience measures and relief policies must become part of the national discourse. In Pakistan, climate migration has become a growing reality. Pakistan alone is expected to have around 2 million climate migrants by 2050, not including those who will be displaced due to the sudden onset of climate disasters, such as floods and cyclones

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UN Women in Pakistan provides technical advisory and support to the delivery and implementation of gender equality and women's empowerment agenda. UN Women is uniquely positioned to support initiatives of the Government and Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) leading towards a full realization of gender equality and women's empowerment commitments in line with the national and international gender equality and human rights commitment.

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This article talks about many different marine animals and how they hunt, what they eat, what predators attack them, and where they live.

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Marine Mammals

Dolphins, whales, sea otters and other marine mammals capture the imagination and demand the affections of people around the world. Many of these marine animals adhere to complex social systems and exhibit remarkable intelligence.

Learn fun facts and how you can help protect your favorite dolphins, whales, sea otter and other marine mammals by clicking a species below.

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Marine Mammals Dolphins, whales, sea otters and other marine mammals capture the imagination and demand the affections of people around the world. Many of these marine animals adhere to complex social systems and exhibit remarkable intelligence. Learn fun facts and how you can help protect your favorite dolphins, whales, sea otter and other marine mammals by clicking a species below.

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The history of the last true pharaoh of egypt

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This site describes all the zodiacs, their symbols, their names, and more.

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The word is used in astronomy and astrology to refer to the band of sky over which the sun, moon, and planets move-as seen from Earth, at least. The zodiac contains a number of constellations, and the sun (or other celestial body) is said to be "in" a constellation when it moves into the portion of the zodiac that includes that constellation. The zodiac can be traced back to ancient civilizations, such as the ancient Greeks and Romans, who believed the position of heavenly bodies could be used to predict the future. For them, astronomy and astrology were one and the same-which is definitely not the case anymore!

In astrology, a sign of the zodiac refers to one of 12 specific constellations of the zodiac that the sun passes through. A person's particular sign of the zodiac is the one that the sun was in when they were born. It is a belief in astrology that a person's personality can be predicted using their sign of the zodiac. According to astrology, it is also possible to predict the future by looking at the position of the sun, moon, and planets in comparison to the zodiac constellations. An astrological map of the planets and zodiac signs is called a horoscope; the word horoscope is also used to refer to a prediction of the future using such a map.

If this all sounds interesting to you, you're in luck! We have gazed at the stars and charted the 12 different signs of the zodiac typically used in astrology. As a bonus, we will list the 2022 dates associated with each one, explain a little bit about the symbol of each sign, and give some astrological info about what each sign says about a person's personality.

Please note, these dates may vary slightly from year to year due to the timing of the spring equinox each year. Consult an official chart to see where the dates land each year.

Chart your linguistic stars by taking a closer look at the meaning and history of the term zodiac.

2022 Dates: The dates of Capricorn begin in December and end in January. This means that the 2021-2022 Capricorn season was December 21, 2021 until January 19, 2022. The 2022-2023 Capricorn season begins on December 21 and continues into 2023.

Symbol: ♑ The symbol of Capricorn is said to represent a sea goat, a mythical creature said to be half-goat and half-fish.

Characteristics: On the plus side, Capricorns are said to be tenacious and pragmatic. At the same time, Capricorns are said to be sticklers for the rules and ferocious when upset.

During the Capricorn and Aquarius season of 2022, the planet Mercury will experience its first of four retrogrades, a period during which Mercury appears to move backwards in the sky. According to astrology, the Mercury retrograde is a time of great frustration and confusion when it is hard to get anything done. The first retrograde will last from January 13 until February 3. Interestingly, the last 2022 retrograde will also happen during the time of Capricorn, when it begins on December 28.

Aquarius | the Water Bearer

2022 Dates: Begins January 20 and ends February 17.

Symbol: ♒ The squiggly lines of the Aquarius symbol are said to represent water.

Characteristics: Aquarians are said to be assertive and creative. Aquarians are also said to be impulsive loners.

You can fish up more info about Pisces by checking out our definition of and our in-depth look at the sign of Pisces, and a guide to how people use the Pis c es emoji.

There's no reason to be sheepish when it comes to learning about Aries because we have a great definition of and an in-depth look at the sign of Aries.

The second Mercury retrograde begins in Taurus season on May 10 and lasts until June 2. Additionally, the first of two total lunar eclipses in 2022 will occur on May 15. In astrology, a lunar eclipse is a sign of great change or major events.

If you want to learn a lot more about Taurus, take the bull by the horns and check out our definition of and our in-depth look at the sign of Taurus.

2022 Dates: Begins May 21 and ends June 20.

Symbol: ♊ The symbol of Gemini is the Roman numeral for the number two, representing the Gemini twins (two people).

Characteristics: People rocking the twins are said to be highly intelligent and sociable. On the other hand, they are also said to be superficial and indecisive.

For a double helping of Gemini info, check out our definition of , our in-depth look at the sign of Gemini, and our guide to how people use the Gemini emoji.

2022 Dates: Begins July 22 and ends August 22.

Symbol: ♌ The symbol of Leo is thought to depict a simplified drawing of a lion.

Characteristics: Leo lions are said to be proud and brave while sometimes getting a little too arrogant or competitive.

We'd be lyin' if we said we didn't know anything about Leo because we have an awesome definition of , an in-depth look at the sign of Leo, and a guide to how people use the Leo emoji.

2022 Dates: Begins August 23 and ends September 22.

Symbol: ♍ The curly M of Virgo has many theories behind it. Some common guesses are that the symbol is an M for maiden, represents a virgin with crossed legs, or depicts human intestines.

Characteristics: Virgos are said to be diligent and organized. At the same time, Virgos are said to be overly critical perfectionists who tend to worry a lot.

Virgo season will see our third Mercury retrograde of 2202 that begins on September 9 and ends on October 1.

If you want to learn a lot more about Virgo, you need to Vir- go check out our definition of , our in-depth look at the sign of Virgo, and our guide to how people use the Virgo emoji.

2022 Dates: Begins October 23 and ends November 21.

Symbol: ♏ The symbol of Scorpio is said to represent a scorpion.

Characteristics: The scorpions of Scorpio are said to be magnetic thrill-seekers. Scorpios are also often said to be envious and fascinated by the macabre.

Scorpio will host the second lunar eclipse of 2022, which occurs on November 7.

You don't need to brave a den of scorpions to learn about Scorpio. All you need to do is check out our definition of , our in-depth look at the sign of Scorpio, and our guide to how people use the Scorpio emoji.

Ophiuchus | the Serpent-Bearer

is an astrological constellation known as "the Serpent-Bearer." Like many other constellations, Ophiuchus isn't typically considered to be one of the signs of the zodiac. However, a few astrologers do consider Ophiuchus to be a 13th sign of the zodiac as the sun does pass through it during the year. If it is considered part of the zodiac, it would be placed before Sagittarius as the sun typically passes through Ophiuchus from late November until mid December. If you'd like to know more about Ophiuchus and how NASA once accidentally caused an astrological controversy about it, you can check out our profile of Ophiuchus.

Has this review of the zodiac signs left you seeing stars? Then visit our Zodiac Word List where you can test your knowledge of these words with flashcards and more. Or, if your horoscope says there is a bright challenge in your future, head over to our quiz on the zodiac!

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What Does Each Zodiac Sign Mean? Learn The Names, Symbols, And More!

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The word is used in astronomy and astrology to refer to the band of sky over which the sun, moon, and planets move-as seen from Earth, at least. The zodiac contains a number of constellations, and the sun (or other celestial body) is said to be "in" a constellation when it moves into the portion of the zodiac that includes that constellation.

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This shows things about the holocausts and the Nazi's

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Historical Anti-Semitism

Anti-Semitism in Europe did not begin with Adolf Hitler. Though use of the term itself dates only to the 1870s, there is evidence of hostility toward Jews long before the Holocaust-even as far back as the ancient world, when Roman authorities destroyed the Jewish temple in Jerusalem and forced Jews to leave Palestine.

The Enlightenment, during the 17th and 18th centuries, emphasized religious tolerance, and in the 19th century Napoleon Bonaparte and other European rulers enacted legislation that ended long-standing restrictions on Jews. Anti-Semitic feeling endured, however, in many cases taking on a racial character rather than a religious one.

Did you know? Even in the early 21st century, the legacy of the Holocaust endures. Swiss government and banking institutions have in recent years acknowledged their complicity with the Nazis and established funds to aid Holocaust survivors and other victims of human rights abuses, genocide or other catastrophes.

Hitler's Rise to Power

The roots of Adolf Hitler's particularly virulent brand of anti-Semitism are unclear. Born in Austria in 1889, he served in the German army during World War I. Like many anti-Semites in Germany, he blamed the Jews for the country's defeat in 1918.

Soon after World War I ended, Hitler joined the National German Workers' Party, which became the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), known to English speakers as the Nazis. While imprisoned for treason for his role in the Beer Hall Putsch of 1923, Hitler wrote the memoir and propaganda tract " Mein Kampf " (or "my struggle"), in which he predicted a general European war that would result in "the extermination of the Jewish race in Germany."

Hitler was obsessed with the idea of the superiority of the "pure" German race, which he called "Aryan," and with the need for "Lebensraum," or living space, for that race to expand. In the decade after he was released from prison, Hitler took advantage of the weakness of his rivals to enhance his party's status and rise from obscurity to power.

On January 30, 1933, he was named chancellor of Germany. After the death of President Paul von Hindenburg in 1934, Hitler anointed himself Fuhrer, becoming Germany's supreme ruler.

Concentration Camps

The twin goals of racial purity and territorial expansion were the core of Hitler's worldview, and from 1933 onward they would combine to form the driving force behind his foreign and domestic policy.

At first, the Nazis reserved their harshest persecution for political opponents such as Communists or Social Democrats. The first official concentration camp opened at Dachau (near Munich) in March 1933, and many of the first prisoners sent there were Communists.

Like the network of concentration camps that followed, becoming the killing grounds of the Holocaust, Dachau was under the control of Heinrich Himmler, head of the elite Nazi guard, the Schutzstaffel (SS) and later chief of the German police.

By July 1933, German concentration camps ( Konzentrationslager in German, or KZ) held some 27,000 people in "protective custody." Huge Nazi rallies and symbolic acts such as the public burning of books by Jews, Communists, liberals and foreigners helped drive home the desired message of party strength and unity.

In 1933, Jews in Germany numbered around 525,000-just one percent of the total German population. During the next six years, Nazis undertook an "Aryanization" of Germany, dismissing non-Aryans from civil service, liquidating Jewish-owned businesses and stripping Jewish lawyers and doctors of their clients.

Nuremberg Laws

Under the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, anyone with three or four Jewish grandparents was considered a Jew, while those with two Jewish grandparents were designated Mischlinge (half-breeds).

Under the Nuremberg Laws, Jews became routine targets for stigmatization and persecution. This culminated in Kristallnacht, or the "Night of Broken Glass" in November 1938, when German synagogues were burned and windows in Jewish home and shops were smashed; some 100 Jews were killed and thousands more arrested.

From 1933 to 1939, hundreds of thousands of Jews who were able to leave Germany did, while those who remained lived in a constant state of uncertainty and fear.

Euthanasia Program

In September 1939, Germany invaded the western half of Poland, starting World War II. German police soon forced tens of thousands of Polish Jews from their homes and into ghettoes, giving their confiscated properties to ethnic Germans (non-Jews outside Germany who identified as German), Germans from the Reich or Polish gentiles.

Surrounded by high walls and barbed wire, the Jewish ghettoes in Poland functioned like captive city-states, governed by Jewish Councils. In addition to widespread unemployment, poverty and hunger, overpopulation and poor sanitation made the ghettoes breeding grounds for disease such as typhus.

Meanwhile, beginning in the fall of 1939, Nazi officials selected around 70,000 Germans institutionalized for mental illness or physical disabilities to be gassed to death in the so-called Euthanasia Program.

After prominent German religious leaders protested, Hitler put an end to the program in August 1941, though killings of the disabled continued in secrecy, and by 1945 some 275,000 people deemed handicapped from all over Europe had been killed. In hindsight, it seems clear that the Euthanasia Program functioned as a pilot for the Holocaust.

'Final Solution'

Throughout the spring and summer of 1940, the German army expanded Hitler's empire in Europe, conquering Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and France. Beginning in 1941, Jews from all over the continent, as well as hundreds of thousands of European Romani people, were transported to Polish ghettoes.

The German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 marked a new level of brutality in warfare. Mobile killing units of Himmler's SS called Einsatzgruppen would murder more than 500,000 Soviet Jews and others (usually by shooting) over the course of the German occupation.

A memorandum dated July 31, 1941, from Hitler's top commander Hermann Goering to Reinhard Heydrich, chief of the SD (the security service of the SS), referred to the need for an Endlösung ( Final Solution) to "the Jewish question."

Yellow Stars

Beginning in September 1941, every person designated as a Jew in German-held territory was marked with a yellow, six-pointed star, making them open targets. Tens of thousands were soon being deported to the Polish ghettoes and German-occupied cities in the USSR.

Since June 1941, experiments with mass killing methods had been ongoing at the concentration camp of Auschwitz, near Krakow, Poland. That August, 500 officials gassed 500 Soviet POWs to death with the pesticide Zyklon-B. The SS soon placed a huge order for the gas with a German pest-control firm, an ominous indicator of the coming Holocaust.

Holocaust Death Camps

Beginning in late 1941, the Germans began mass transports from the ghettoes in Poland to the concentration camps, starting with those people viewed as the least useful: the sick, old and weak and the very young.

The first mass gassings began at the camp of Belzec, near Lublin, on March 17, 1942. Five more mass killing centers were built at camps in occupied Poland, including Chelmno, Sobibor, Treblinka, Majdanek and the largest of all, Auschwitz.

From 1942 to 1945, Jews were deported to the camps from all over Europe, including German-controlled territory as well as those countries allied with Germany. The heaviest deportations took place during the summer and fall of 1942, when more than 300,000 people were deported from the Warsaw ghetto alone.

Warsaw Ghetto Uprising

Amid the deportations, disease and constant hunger, incarcerated people in the Warsaw Ghetto rose up in armed revolt.

The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising from April 19-May 16, 1943, ended in the death of 7,000 Jews, with 50,000 survivors sent to extermination camps. But the resistance fighters had held off the Nazis for almost a month, and their revolt inspired revolts at camps and ghettos across German-occupied Europe.

Though the Nazis tried to keep operation of the camps secret, the scale of the killing made this virtually impossible. Eyewitnesses brought reports of Nazi atrocities in Poland to the Allied governments, who were harshly criticized after the war for their failure to respond, or to publicize news of the mass slaughter.

This lack of action was likely mostly due to the Allied focus on winning the war at hand, but was also partly a result of the general incomprehension with which news of the Holocaust was met and the denial and disbelief that such atrocities could be occurring on such a scale.

'Angel of Death'

At Auschwitz alone, more than 2 million people were murdered in a process resembling a large-scale industrial operation. A large population of Jewish and non-Jewish inmates worked in the labor camp there; though only Jews were gassed, thousands of others died of starvation or disease.

In 1943, eugenics advocate Josef Mengele arrived in Auschwitz to begin his infamous experiments on Jewish prisoners. His special area of focus was conducting medical experiments on twins, injecting them with everything from petrol to chloroform under the guise of giving them medical treatment. His actions earned him the nickname "the Angel of Death."

Nazi Rule Ends

By the spring of 1945, German leadership was dissolving amid internal dissent, with Goering and Himmler both seeking to distance themselves from Hitler and take power.

In his last will and political testament, dictated in a German bunker that April 29, Hitler blamed the war on "International Jewry and its helpers" and urged the German leaders and people to follow "the strict observance of the racial laws and with merciless resistance against the universal poisoners of all peoples"-the Jews.

The following day, Hitler died by suicide. Germany's formal surrender in World War II came barely a week later, on May 8, 1945.

German forces had begun evacuating many of the death camps in the fall of 1944, sending inmates under guard to march further from the advancing enemy's front line. These so-called "death marches" continued all the way up to the German surrender, resulting in the deaths of some 250,000 to 375,000 people.

In his classic book Survival in Auschwitz, the Italian-Jewish author Primo Levi described his own state of mind, as well as that of his fellow inmates in Auschwitz on the day before Soviet troops liberated the camp in January 1945: "We lay in a world of death and phantoms. The last trace of civilization had vanished around and inside us. The work of bestial degradation, begun by the victorious Germans, had been carried to conclusion by the Germans in defeat."

Legacy of the Holocaust

The wounds of the Holocaust-known in Hebrew as "Shoah," or catastrophe-were slow to heal. Survivors of the camps found it nearly impossible to return home, as in many cases they had lost their entire family and been denounced by their non-Jewish neighbors. As a result, the late 1940s saw an unprecedented number of refugees, POWs and other displaced populations moving across Europe.

In an effort to punish the villains of the Holocaust, the Allies held the Nuremberg Trials of 1945-46, which brought Nazi atrocities to horrifying light. Increasing pressure on the Allied powers to create a homeland for Jewish survivors of the Holocaust would lead to a mandate for the creation of Israel in 1948.

Over the decades that followed, ordinary Germans struggled with the Holocaust's bitter legacy, as survivors and the families of victims sought restitution of wealth and property confiscated during the Nazi years.

Beginning in 1953, the German government made payments to individual Jews and to the Jewish people as a way of acknowledging the German people's responsibility for the crimes committed in their name.
Sources
The Holocaust. The National WWII Museum.
What Was The Holocaust? Imperial War Museums.
Introduction to the Holocaust. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
Holocaust Remembrance. Council of Europe.
Outreach Programme on the Holocaust. United Nations.

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Holocaust: Definition, Remembrance & Meaning - HISTORY

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The Holocaust was the persecution and murder of millions of Jews, Romani people, political dissidents and homosexuals by the German Nazi regime from 1933-1945.

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This video is a simplified overview of WW2

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WWII Article- explains stuff about world war 2 and how it started and ended.

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Very useful information about egyptian mummification.

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The methods of embalming, or treating the dead body, that the ancient Egyptians used is called mummification. Using special processes, the Egyptians removed all moisture from the body, leaving only a dried form that would not easily decay. It was important in their religion to preserve the dead body in as life-like a manner as possible. So successful were they that today we can view the mummified body of an Egyptian and have a good idea of what he or she looked like in life, 3,000 years ago.

Mummification was practiced throughout most of early Egyptian history. The earliest mummies from prehistoric times probably were accidental. By chance, dry sand and air (since Egypt has almost no measurable rainfall) preserved some bodies buried in shallow pits dug into the sand. About 2600 BCE, during the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties, Egyptians probably began to mummify the dead intentionally. The practice continued and developed for well over 2,000 years, into the Roman Period (ca. 30 BCE-CE 364). Within any one period the quality of the mummification varied, depending on the price paid for it. The best prepared and preserved mummies are from the Eighteenth through the Twentieth Dynasties of the New Kingdom (ca. 1570-1075 BCE) and include those of Tutankhamen and other well-known pharaohs. It is the general process of this period that shall be described here.

Mummification Process

The mummification process took seventy days. Special priests worked as embalmers, treating and wrapping the body. Beyond knowing the correct rituals and prayers to be performed at various stages, the priests also needed a detailed knowledge of human anatomy. The first step in the process was the removal of all internal parts that might decay rapidly. The brain was removed by carefully inserting special hooked instruments up through the nostrils in order to pull out bits of brain tissue. It was a delicate operation, one which could easily disfigure the face. The embalmers then removed the organs of the abdomen and chest through a cut usually made on the left side of the abdomen. They left only the heart in place, believing it to be the center of a person's being and intelligence. The other organs were preserved separately, with the stomach, liver, lungs, and intestines placed in special boxes or jars today called canopic jars. These were buried with the mummy. In later mummies, the organs were treated, wrapped, and replaced within the body. Even so, unused canopic jars continued to be part of the burial ritual.

The embalmers next removed all moisture from the body. This they did by covering the body with natron, a type of salt which has great drying properties, and by placing additional natron packets inside the body. When the body had dried out completely, embalmers removed the internal packets and lightly washed the natron off the body. The result was a very dried-out but recognizable human form. To make the mummy seem even more life-like, sunken areas of the body were filled out with linen and other materials and false eyes were added.

Next the wrapping began. Each mummy needed hundreds of yards of linen. The priests carefully wound the long strips of linen around the body, sometimes even wrapping each finger and toe separately before wrapping the entire hand or foot. In order to protect the dead from mishap, amulets were placed among the wrappings and prayers and magical words written on some of the linen strips. Often the priests placed a mask of the person's face between the layers of head bandages. At several stages the form was coated with warm resin and the wrapping resumed once again. At last, the priests wrapped the final cloth or shroud in place and secured it with linen strips. The mummy was complete. The priests preparing the mummy were not the only ones busy during this time. Although the tomb preparation usually had begun long before the person's actual death, now there was a deadline, and craftsmen, workers, and artists worked quickly. There was much to be placed in the tomb that a person would need in the Afterlife. Furniture and statuettes were readied; wall paintings of religious or daily scenes were prepared; and lists of food or prayers finished. Through a magical process, these models, pictures, and lists would become the real thing when needed in the Afterlife. Everything was now ready for the funeral.

As part of the funeral, priests performed special religious rites at the tomb's entrance. The most important part of the ceremony was called the "Opening of the Mouth." A priest touched various parts of the mummy with a special instrument to "open" those parts of the body to the senses enjoyed in life and needed in the Afterlife. By touching the instrument to the mouth, the dead person could now speak and eat. He was now ready for his journey to the Afterlife. The mummy was placed in his coffin, or coffins, in the burial chamber and the entrance sealed up.

Such elaborate burial practices might suggest that the Egyptians were preoccupied with thoughts of death. On the contrary, they began early to make plans for their death because of their great love of life. They could think of no life better than the present, and they wanted to be sure it would continue after death.

But why preserve the body? The Egyptians believed that the mummified body was the home for this soul or spirit. If the body was destroyed, the spirit might be lost. The idea of "spirit" was complex involving really three spirits: the ka, ba, and akh. The ka, a "double" of the person, would remain in the tomb and needed the offerings and objects there. The ba, or "soul", was free to fly out of the tomb and return to it. And it was the akh, perhaps translated as "spirit", which had to travel through the Underworld to the Final Judgment and entrance to the Afterlife. To the Egyptian, all three were essential.

Who Was Mummified

After death, the pharaohs of Egypt usually were mummified and buried in elaborate tombs. Members of the nobility and officials also often received the same treatment, and occasionally, common people. However, the process was an expensive one, beyond the means of many.

For religious reasons, some animals were also mummified. The sacred bulls from the early dynasties had their own cemetery at Sakkara. Baboons, cats, birds, and crocodiles, which also had great religious significance, were sometimes mummified, especially in the later dynasties.

The Study of Mummies Today

Ancient writers, modern scientists, and the mummies themselves all help us better understand the Egyptian mummification process and the culture in which it existed. Much of what we know about the actual process is based on the writings of early historians such as Herodotus who carefully recorded the process during his travels to Egypt around 450 BCE. Present-day archaeologists and other specialists are adding to this knowledge. The development of x-rays now makes it possible to x-ray mummies without destroying the elaborate outer wrappings. By studying the x-rays or performing autopsies on unwrapped bodies, experts are learning more about diseases suffered by the Egyptians and their medical treatment. A better idea of average height and life span comes from studying the bones. By learning their age at death, the order and dates of the Egyptian kings becomes a little clearer. Even ties of kinship in the royal line can be suggested by the striking similarities or dissimilarities in the skulls of pharaohs that followed one another. Dead now for thousands of years, the mummy continues to speak to us.
Websites and Books on Ancient Egypt, 2012 (PDF)
Anthropology Outreach Office, Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History

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Egyptian Mummies | Smithsonian Institution

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The methods of embalming, or treating the dead body, that the ancient Egyptians used is called mummification.... Learn more

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World War II: Holocaust, The Extermination of European Jews | Eisenhower Presidential Library - 

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World War II: Holocaust, The Extermination of European Jews | Eisenhower Presidential Library - 

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The Holocaust was a deliberate and systematic extermination of European Jews during World War II. As the Allied Powers fought Nazi Germany's domination of Europe, Adolf Hitler's henchmen were carrying out a mass annihilation of the Jews in Europe at their numerous concentration camps. The total number of Jews murdered during this genocide has been estimated to be nearly 6 million. Besides European Jews, there were many other groups targeted for destruction. They included the handicapped, mentally ill, Gypsies, Jehovah's Witnesses, homosexuals and political dissidents.

Report, "Economic Life in Poland" (report covering period from January 1st to April 30th, 1942) which includes a 13-page description of various concentration camps, July 1942 (35 pages) [Paul Sturman Papers, Box 3, Poland (3); NAID #7330178]

"Investigation Report on the Life in a German Extermination Camp (Kz Natzweiler) and the Atrocities Committed There. 1941-1944" (23 pages; there is no page #22) [C.D. Jackson Papers, Box 2, Atrocities - Paris (1); NAID #12005699]

Report, "Report on Atrocities Committed by the Germans Against the Civilian Population of Belgium, February 1945, by Hq. 21 Army Group" (78 pages) [C.D. Jackson Papers, Box 2, Atrocities - Paris (4); NAID #12005700]

Letter, General Eisenhower to General Marshall concerning his visit to a Germany internment camp near Gotha (Ohrdruf), April 15, 1945 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Pre-Presidential Papers, Principal File, Box 80, Marshall George C. (6); NAID #12005711]

Letter, General Patton to General Eisenhower concerning a prisoner/guard who showed them the camp at Ohrdruf and another camp at Weimar, April 15, 1945 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Pre-Presidential Papers, Principal File, Box 91, Patton George S. Jr. (1); NAID #12007734]

Report, "Inspection of German concentration camp for political prisoners located at Buckenwald [sic] on the north edge of Weimar - made by Brig. Gen. Eric F. Wood, Lt. Col. Chas. H. Ott, and CWO. S.M. Dye, on the morning of 16th April 1945." [Walter Bedell Smith Collection of WWII Documents, Box 36, Inspection of German Concentration Camp at Buchenwald 4/16/45; NAID #12007803]

Letter, General Eisenhower to General Patton in response, April 18, 1945 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Pre-Presidential Papers, Principal File, Box 91, Patton George S. Jr. (1); NAID #12007733]

Cable, General Eisenhower to General Marshall concerning Nazi horrors; requests visit by members of Congress and the media, April 19, 1945 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Pre-Presidential Papers, Principal File, Box 134, Cables Off (GCM/DDE 19 Apr - 10 Nov 45 (4); NAID #12007738]

G-2 Report No. 307, "The Hasag Panzerfaust Factory and Concentration Camp," April 28, 1945 [U.S. Army: Unit Records, Box 759, G-2 Periodic Reports April 1945; NAID #17368741]

Cable, General Marshall to General Eisenhower authorizing visits of Congress and media, April 19, 1945 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Pre-Presidential Papers, Principal File, Box 134, Cables Off (GCM/DDE) 19 Apr - 10 Nov 45 (4); NAID #12007738]

Cable, Winston Churchill to General Eisenhower regarding inspection teams to be sent to Ohrdruf Camp, April 21, 1945 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Pre-Presidential Papers, Principal File, Box 22, Churchill Winston (4); NAID #12009063]

Telegram, General Eisenhower to Winston Churchill regarding inspections teams to Ohrdruf Camp, April 23, 1945 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Pre-Presidential Papers, Principal File, Box 22, Churchill Winston (4); NAID #12009066]

Adolf Hitler's Private Will, Marriage Certificate and Political Testament, April 1945 (34 pages) [Harry S. Truman Library, HST-WWII: World War II Collection, 1932-1996, Subject Files, Documents Relating to the Last Will of Adolf Hitler (MHDC 350)]

Part II: General Intelligence, "The Discovery of Hitler's Wills," undated (This is a history of how the will, marriage certificate and political testament were found) [Harry S. Truman Library, HST-WWII: World War II Collection, 1932-1996, Subject Files, Documents Relating to the Last Will of Adolf Hitler (MHDC 350)]

Report, "Dachau," prepared by the Office of Strategic Services Section, Seventh Army, undated (71 pages) [World War II Participants and Contemporaries Papers, Hoffman Steve: Dachau, and Porter Harold: Dachau; NAID #12009126]

Letters, Harold Porter (served in World War II with the 116 Evacuation Hospital in Europe and was stationed at Dachau) to his parents detailing grim conditions found by the Allies at Dachau, May 7, 10, 13 and 15, 1945 (WARNING: contains graphic photographs) [World War II Participants and Contemporaries Papers, Porter Harold: Memorabilia; NAID #1055429, 12009096, 12009107 and 12009108]

Letter, Alexander Frieder to General Eisenhower regarding victory in Europe and the decision to allow inspections of the concentration camps, June 1, 1945 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Pre-Presidential Papers, Principal File, Box 43, Frieder Alex; NAID #12007718]

Letter, General Eisenhower to Alexander Frieder in response, June 9, 1945 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Pre-Presidential Papers, Principal File, Box 43, Frieder Alex; NAID #12007723]

Press Conference, General Eisenhower at the Pentagon, references Nazi camps on page 11, June 18, 1945 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Pre-Presidential Papers, Principal File, Box 156, Press Statements and Releases 1944-46 (1); NAID #12007716]

Report, Earl G. Harrison's "Mission to Europe to inquire into the condition and needs of those among the displaced persons in the liberated countries of Western Europe and in the SHAEF area of Germany - with particular reference to the Jewish refugees - who may possibly be stateless or non-repatriable," undated [c. August 1945] [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Pre-Presidential Papers, Box 116, Truman Harry S. (4); NAID #12007695]

Telegram, General Eisenhower to President Truman concerning the Harrison report and Jewish displaced persons, September 14, 1945 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Pre-Presidential Papers, Principal File, Box 116, Truman Harry S. (4); NAID #12007685]

Letter, General Eisenhower to President Truman concerning Jewish displaced persons, September 18, 1945 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Pre-Presidential Papers, Principal File, Box 116, Truman Harry S. (4); NAID #12007674]

Letter, General Eisenhower to President Truman concerning Jewish victims of Nazi persecution, October 8, 1945 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Pre-Presidential Papers, Principal File, Box 116, Truman Harry S. (4); NAID #12007666]

Suggested material for General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower for his speech to the United Jewish Appeal, February 23, 1947 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Pre-Presidential Papers, Principal File, Box 194, United Jewish Appeal Feb. 23, 1947; NAID #12007653]

Report, "SHAEF Evaluation and Dissemination Section, G-S (Counter-Intelligence Sub-Division), German Concentration Camps," undated (195 pages) [Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force Selected Records, Box 27, SHAEF - Evaluation and Dissemination Sections (G-2) German Concentration Camps; NAID #17368747]

Letter, Rabbi Philip S. Bernstein to Maxwell Rabb regarding the tenth anniversary of the liberation of the concentration camps, February 25, 1955 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Papers as President (WHCF), President's Personal File, Box 921, PPF 53-B-3 Jewish 1955; NAID #12007648]

Memorandum, Maxwell Rabb to Kevin McCann regarding Bernstein letter, February 28, 1955 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Papers as President (WHCF), President's Personal File, Box 921, PPF 53-B-3 Jewish 1955; NAID #12007646]

Night letter, President Eisenhower to Dr. Israel Goldstein, President of the American Jewish Congress concerning the tenth anniversary of the liberation of the concentration camps, March 21, 1955 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Papers as President (WHCF), President's Personal File, Box 921, PPF 53-B-3 Jewish 1955; NAID #12007645]

Letter, Dr. Israel Goldstein to President Eisenhower in response, April 29, 1955 [Dwight D. Eisenhower's Papers as President (WHCF), President's Personal File, Box 921, PPF 53-B-3 Jewish 1955; NAID #12007644]

Additional Information:
Holocaust Subject Guide Bibliography
Photographs:
(WARNING: contains graphic photographs)

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World War II: Holocaust, The Extermination of European Jews

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The Holocaust was a deliberate and systematic extermination of European Jews during World War II. As the Allied Powers fought Nazi Germany's domination of Europe, Adolf Hitler's henchmen were carrying out a mass annihilation of the Jews in Europe at their numerous concentration camps.

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This shows all the zodiac signs, their compatibility, their elements, and stuff like that.

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There are 12 zodiac signs, and each sign has its own strengths and weaknesses, its own specific traits, desires and attitude towards life and people. By analyzing the projection of the position of planets, and the Sun and the Moon on the Ecliptic at the moment of birth. Astrology can give us a glimpse of a person's basic characteristics, preferences, flaws and fears.

We made it simple for you to find out what your zodiac sign is, Its complete profile and it's compatibility with other zodiac signs. By selecting your sign from the detailed zodiac sign dates list you will discover everything on the character of your Sun sign, it's , traits, profile, history, myth and love compatibility.

Each of the 12 horoscope signs belongs to one of the four elements - Air, Fire, Water and Earth. These elements represent an essential type of energy that acts in each of us. aims to help us focus these energies on the positive aspects and to gain a better understanding of our potential and our positive traits and deal with negative ones.

These four elements help describe the unique personality types associated with astrological signs. The four zodiac elements exhibit profound influence on basic character traits, emotions, behavior and thinking.

Water Signs

Earth Signs

Fire: Aries, Leo, Sagittarius

Earth: Taurus, Virgo, Capricorn

Air: Gemini, Libra, Aquarius

Water: Cancer, Scorpio, Pisces

Chinese Astrology

Chinese astrology is based on the traditional astronomy. The development of Chinese astrology is tied to that of astronomy which came to flourish during the Han Dynasty. The Chinese Zodiac is one of the oldest known horoscope system in the world and consists of twelve animals that represent a certain year. According to Chinese astrology, the year of a person's birth is represented by one of these animals. The twelve animal signs or zodiac symbols are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Sheep, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Pig. Chinese astrology also has five elements of nature namely: water, wood, fire, earth and metal. According to Chinese astrology, a person's destiny can be determined by the position of the planets and the positions of the Sun and Moon at the person's time of birth. Chinese believe that our birth year can determine our attitude and potential and that animal birth signs have symbolism and represent a specific behavior.

Vedic Astrology

Jyotisha is traditional Hindu system of astrology and astronomy, which is also known as Hindu or Indian astrology or more recently Vedic astrology. Vedic astrology horoscopes are divided into three main branches: Indian astronomy, Mundane astrology and Predictive astrology. Indian astrology can reveal our character, guide our future and reveal which are our most compatible signs. One of the greatest tools that Vedic astrology has given us is the position of the Moon and Nakshatras. The Nirayana (sidereal zodiac) is a fictional belt of 360 degrees which like the tropical zodiac is divided into twelve equal parts. Unlike Western astrology which uses the moving zodiac, Vedic astrology uses the fixed zodiac. So, in the Vedic zodiac system you most likely will no longer be the same star signs you thought you were although there are some exceptions.

Mayan Astrology

Mayan astrology is based on the Mayan calendar and it's one of the most forward-thinking kinds of astrology. The Mayan calendar or Tzolkin is based on the intangible energy of the cosmos and the evolution of creation. The Tzolkin calendar consists of twenty day signs (solar tribes) and thirteen Galactic numbers, making a 260-day calendar year. Ancient Mayans believed that in order to have peace and harmony in life, you had to understand and align yourself with this universal energy. Each of these twenty signs represents a day in a Mayan calendar, thus allowing individuals of different months and years to share the same day glyph. One's Mayan day sign defines his/her personality.

Why Do We Believe in Astrology

Although astrology is not a religion, it offers comfort, faith and a deeper understanding of the world we live in. Interpretations often offer assurances of one's future, but more importantly, they are supposed to show us a way to resolve our issues and to improve our relationships with our partners, family, and friends and mainly tools to meet ourselves and discover our own inner worlds in a different light.

Astrology claims that nothing in life is coincidental and everything that happens to us happens for a particular reason. Astrology can provide us some good answers as to why these things happen to us and it guides us on our steps forward. In this way, astrology actually helps people to understand themselves and the world around them much better.

Astrology works, astrologers don't. Most of the people who visit astrologers or read their horoscopes regularly, end up with a sensation of fulfillment and satisfaction somewhat like euphoria. This does not mean that the astrologers have accurately predicted the individuals future or present based on their horoscope dates, but it means that having a horoscope cast can be actually a very fulfilling experience.

The Earth is positioned under the constellations that were known as our star signs millenniums ago. Although signs don't coincide with the constellations anymore, we are still under the influence of seasons and planetary movements in the same way as we were back then. Many people diligently follow their horoscopes and believe in their astrology signs meanings. This isn't surprising, as astrology is widely popular and everyone in the world knows which are their horoscope dates and signs. People enjoy reading their horoscope signs forecasts and this often leads to changes in personalities, behaviors and decision-making processes.

Astrology can be a real lifesaver because it lets you know of the future obstacles and problems in advance. It is up to you whether you want to believe the advice and precautions suggested in a horoscope reading and save yourself from the pain without doing much. Here is your first problem - There is no salvation "without doing much". This is the main problem with approach to chart readings - everyone has to put up a strong effort to change things in their lives.

Some People believe in astrology because others before them did and curiosity it a basic human nature, but the further drawn into astrology the more clear things become. The zodiac dates, the signs. We can associate zodiac signs to almost all aspects of our lives and we will see they are truly insightful and correct. Our horoscopes are unique and they can help us find and reveal our strengths, weaknesses as well as our natural qualities.

Astrology can also help us find, which relationships are compatible - and which are not. Horoscope compatibility can improve our relationships with other zodiac signs. By knowing about your love potential you can make the best use of opportunities and take appropriate measures leading to a happy love or married life.

Astrology takes into account two major aspects - our birth potential and the effects of the planets and the stars on our personal horoscope. It can help us choose the right career and education path in order to make a good and successful life.

Last, but not least - we believe in astrology because it's about us. My horoscope is like a blueprint of my life that got created precisely at the time I was born. That means that my birth chart is almost as unique as my fingerprints. Each planet's placement in my horoscope can reveal a lot about my personality and destiny.

Astrocartography is one method of locational astrology which claims to identify varying life conditions through differences in geographic location. Reportedly, by comparing your natal chart to different areas in the world, you can determine the area where you'll be most successful.

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12 Astrology Zodiac Signs Dates, Meanings and Compatibility | ZodiacSign.com

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There are 12 zodiac signs, and each sign has its own strengths and weaknesses, its own specific traits, desires and attitude towards life and people. By analyzing the projection of the position of planets, and the Sun and the Moon on the Ecliptic at the moment of birth.

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There are lots of numbers about things on the titanic like how many eggs they have on the boat.

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While most all other employees of the car dealership where I worked in 1997 were heading for the exits at 5:30 p.m., I was listening to Paul Harvey relate another of his "The Rest of the Story" tales on WNAX because I was slated to work until 8 p.m. that night. I was dutifully standing in the showroom listening to the radio and watching the car lot in event someone was car shopping after work.

It was then I learned a little-known fact about a huge, new ocean liner racing for New York from Southampton, England in 1912, a record-breaking voyage attempt being run in spite of six warnings about icebergs.

At launch, Titanic was 882.5 long (2.5 football fields) and about 92.5 feet wide, nine stories high, the largest man-made moving object in the world when it set sail. It took three years and three million rivets to build. Fitters used 10,000 light bulbs to illuminate all nine decks of Royal Mail Ship (RMS) Titanic. Buildout cost was $7.5 million. More than 15,000 men worked on the ship in construction in Belfast.

Those aboard Titanic consumed 14,000 gallons of potable water daily. It would have been more but 1,000 bottles of wine were also available, many consumed by those celebrating the 13 couples aboard who were on their honeymoon. Ship's stores also include 40,000 eggs for breakfast, a lot of omelets.

But folks below decks, in the holds, were fighting an insurmountable challenge even as the 2,223 first-, second- and third-class passengers and crew boarded the Titanic.

Because of the size of the ship, engineers who designed the "unsinkable" liner had built three-story tall coal bunkers below because that much coal was required to stoke the 29 colossal boilers located in six boiler rooms below.

As many as 179 "firemen" or stokers, manually shoveling coal into the boilers, were working around the clock to keep the boilers at a temperature of 400 degrees to make steam to turn the giant props.

Such information was provided by one of the "firemen" or stokers, John Priest, who survived not only the sinking of the Titanic but three other ship sinkings as well.

Reports indicate the boilers consumed 500 to 600 tons of coal each day. Google reports each modern rail car today carrying coal has a capacity of 116 tons. That means those firemen were shoveling four to six train carloads of coal into the boilers daily.

Titanic was one of the biggest ships of its time. Its propellors were just as huge. Titanic had two props, each with three blades. They were taller than the east wall of The Walnut, measuring 23 feet, six inches and weighed 38 tons each. A team of 20 horses was required to pull each of the propellers to the build site in Belfast, Ireland.

Google information about the ship. It is intriguing. Capacity of Titanic was 2,435 passengers and a crew of 892. All that coal being shoveled into the boilers could push that leviathan of a vessel to 24-26 miles per hour.

Titanic had an impressive ratio of private bathrooms to passengers, more than any other ship in 1912. Virtually all suites on B and C decks had ensuite bathrooms with flush toilets. Conversely, there were just two baths for third class. Reports that third class passengers were locked in were reported as false.

The only fortunate thing about the iceberg tearing a long gash in the side of the Titanic on April 15, 1912, was that it helped to extinguish the fires in the massive coal bins.

During an English Wreck Commissioner's inquiry in London after the sinking, firemen on board the ship confirmed there was a fire in the boiler room when Titanic set sail at Southampton. Some said the fire had started as early as three weeks before the Titanic set out for its maiden voyage.

Titanic was capable of carrying 64 lifeboats but, in fact, had just 20. Only 28 souls were on board the first lifeboat launched after the sinking, rather than the 65 the raft could carry. The ship sank in two hours and 40 minutes.

Only 31.6 % of passengers and crew survived but the number could have been 53.4 percent had all lifeboats been filled to capacity. Lives lost from the sinking of the Titanic was 1,517, 500 more than live in Tyndall.

William Edward Minahan, a doctor from Fond du Lac, Wisconsin, had his fortune read shortly before the voyage. The fortune teller predicted his death aboard the ship. She was right.

The plot of Morgan Robertson's novel "Futility" bears an uncanny resemblance to the Titanic disaster. In the book, more than half the passengers die in the North Atlantic because of a lifeboat shortage. The book was published 14 years before the Titanic sank.

Much of the latter part of the movie, "Titanic," tries to show how cold the water was in the North Atlantic.

Howard "Hod" Nielsen, former sports editor of the Press and Dakotan, told friends that he knew the North Atlantic was cold. He related the story of piloting his unarmed P-38 to take pictures of German defense and manufacturing installations in Europe during WWII. When the German pilots were chasing his plane out of Europe, he said he often purposely flew out over the North Atlantic, at which point the German pilots turned back.

He said they knew better than anyone the cold temperature of the water and they did not want to bet they had more fuel than Hod's long-range P-38. Bailing out of their plane over the North Atlantic because they were out of fuel, meant sure death for them, just as it did for those 1,517 souls who perished in the sinking of the Titanic.

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While most all other employees of the car dealership where I worked in 1997 were heading for the exits at 5:30 p.m., I was listening to Paul Harvey relate another of his "The Rest of the Story" tales on WNAX because I was slated to work until 8 p.m. that night.

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This is a map of what countries play what sports.

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NASA Science Website-Black Holes

In this article, we see how a black hole is an

An astronomical object that sucks everything in its

path and destroys everything in it.

Space. com-White Holes

This article explains the theory of a white hole, a celestial object similar to a black hole. But instead, of sucking in and destroying everything in its path like the black hole, it pushes everything in its path away.

Scientific American. com-Wormholes

This article explains the theory of how wormholes can exist, by using scientific calculations. But it also explains, how we humans can enter and leave wormholes.

By Leo Petrusca, Jack Farrell, and Logan Korek

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This is an astrology chart website that tells you about 5 different kinds of charts.

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Generally, there are five main kinds of Charts an astrologer can draw and analyze. All these charts are personal charts, being drawn with the place, date and time of birth of a specific person. The main five Astrology charts are called: Synastry, Composition, Solar and Lunar Return, Natal Chart and Transits Chart.

An experienced Astrologer would usually combine few charts, or few readings, to answer a specific concern. For example, if a person wants to know about their love life in the next year, the astrologer would usually combine a Natal Chart with transits and Solar Return Chart in the Astrology Reading. In case there is a specific romantic candidate, a Synastry and Composite charts can be drawn, too.

Every Astrologer uses their own way of reading the Astrology personal Chart they are making. Some use Western Astrology methods and tools, some use Vedic Astrology (eastern Indian old method) and some use Kabbalistic Astrology tools and interpretations. The way a specific Astrologer choose to interpret the Astrology Chart doesn't change the chart itself: same planets, houses and signs are used in all Astrology methods, except in the Chinese astrology.

Here I would like to say a few words about the most popular and powerful kinds of Astrology Charts: the Synastry, the Composition, the Solar Return, the Natal Chart and the Transits Chart.

Note: All charts require exact time, date and place of birth.
Natal Chart
The basic Chart, showing a picture of the stars and signs in the sky on the exact time you were born, as seen from the exact place you were born. This chart is the basis for all other charts and without it Astrology reading can't be accurate. It tells the persons personal planets positions, shown their dominant houses and tells one's rising sign, which leads usually to find the Chart's ruler.
Transits
a Transits Chart, and Transits Reading, tells what is going on in one's life in current days, while current can mean day-by-day, if chacking the moon transits - or it can show a period of few years, if checking Pluto or Neptune transit on the Natal Chart.
Solar and Lunar Return
the Solar Return Chart is used to predict what is going to happen within the next year from your birthday. Astrology fans draw this chart in the few days before or after their birthday, every year, to see how the year ahead is going to look like. This kind of Chart usually tells, in combination with Transits Chart, if one is going to have new love this year, start a new job, get pregnant, and so on.

Lunar Return Chart is used when there is a dominant Moon in one's Natal Chart.
Synastry
The Astrology Chart we call Synastry is actually a chart combined from 2 personal Natal Charts. Putting these 2 charts in an overlapping way shows the aspects in which the two people meet: what is it in each of them that makes the other tick, what atracts them to each other, how they affect each other, how they help each other grow or the other way around, how they hold each other back. A synastry chart is usually very accurate when knowing both persons time and place of birth, in addition to the date of birth (year, month and day of the month). A synastry couple chart can function as the relationship road map and it reveals the dynamics, the psychology, the atraction and the friction of the relationship between two people. This Chart is usually drawn for couples to show their romantic relationship but other relationships and partnerships can benefit from such reading: parents and children relationship, sisters and brothers relationships, boss and employee partnerships, atc.
Composition
Composition chart is the Astrology chart that reveals more about the essence of a relationship or partnership. It shows something like what this thing is all about and what are we here for. It is considered a more spiritual astrological drawing of the relationship, while synastry would be the kind of chart showing more of the psychological aspects of the relationship. In some ways, it shows the third entity being created when two people meet and interact: the relationship itself.

In addition to these charts, Astrology uses drawings and transitions to the natal chart in other cases and occasions:

Relocation Chart - when one is moving away from their birth place;

Event Chart - when there is a special event - then, the astrologer can create an event chart and read it in the light of the natal chart;

Horary Chart - when there is an inportant question that needs to be answered by the universe;

sometimes, when a name is being changed.
Get your personal reading now!

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Generally, there are five main kinds of Charts an astrologer can draw and analyze. All these charts are personal charts, being drawn with the place, date and time of birth of a specific person. The main five Astrology charts are called: Synastry, Composition, Solar and Lunar Return, Natal Chart and Transits Chart.

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This video is about a man who was killed saving people.

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The Man in the Red Bandana | SC Featured

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We chose these articles because they each summarize a section of egypt that is important to know if writing a book on the topic. They are all from decent sources and we believe that these are good articles.

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We chose these articles because they each summarize a section of egypt that is important to know if writing a book on the topic. They are all from decent sources and we believe that these are good articles.

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This is a short video that explains what astrology is.

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How do you become a marine biologist? | BBC Earth Explore

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History of Princess Diana.

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This talks about the composer of the year Lin Murano Munal

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Lin-Manuel Miranda is on a roll. Already a Grammy, Emmy, and Tony Award winner (among other awards), Miranda received a MacArthur Foundation Award in 2015, the same year his current musical, Hamilton, opened on Broadway to sold-out crowds. His soundtrack to the musical-a hip-hop riff on Alexander Hamilton's life-took home a Grammy in 2016, and the play continues to draw huge audiences in New York. His first musical, In the Heights, also a Grammy Award winner, took home four Tony Awards in 2008. Miranda co-wrote the music and lyrics for Bring It On: The Musical with Tom Kitt and Amanda Green, which opened in 2011. Additionally, Miranda is a co-founder and member of Freestyle Love Supreme, a popular hip-hop improv group that performs regularly in New York City. Josephine Reed talked with Miranda in New York City in February 2016 during the run of Hamilton. His thoughts on his two award-winning works, and the state of theater today, are below. The podcasts can be heard here.
WRITING ABOUT THE NEIGHBORHOOD
Rent came out when I was 17-I saw it on my 17th birthday, 1997. Suddenly, here I was seeing a musical that took place not in a far-off land, or in a far-off country, but in the West Village with people struggling whether to stay in the arts or sell out. People struggling with disease, struggling with poverty. It was the New York struggle in musical form, and it took place now. I think that tacitly gave me permission to write about what I knew. I knew I loved the musical form, but [Rent] told me, "You can write musicals. That's not something that only a few people have access to. You can write about it, too." Because Jonathan Larson [author of Rent] was writing about his friends. And that is valid. That is a valid evening in the theater.

That connects to In the Heights very directly, because my first attempt at a full-length musical was In the Heights. It was everything I'd always wanted to see in a musical. It was Latino characters. I was also empowered by the fact that I was living in a house with other Latino students at the time.

I spoke Spanish at home and English at school. In the Heights was really the first time I'd brought my culture from home to school in a very real way, to write about the neighborhood I grew up in, or at least adjacent to. I grew up north of Washington Heights. I wanted it to sound like my neighborhood. So I'm dabbling in the Latin forms that I grew up with around the house, but also playing with hip-hop and playing with musical theater, and just trying to bring all of myself to it.

When In the Heights went pro is when I met [director] Tommy Kail, who by all accounts is smarter than me and had 50 ideas of how to make the musical better. Then we found the people who could help us really bring it to life, and that was Alex Lacamoire, our music director, and crucially, Quiara Hudes, our book writer, who had the same upbringing and schism growing up in northern Philly that I did in northern Manhattan. We really doubled down on, "Okay, let's make this about our community, and a love letter to the communities we grew up in." Not about the drug dealer on the corner-that guy is on the corner, as he is in every neighborhood in America-but the hard-working local businessmen, who came from another country, who works at the store inside the corner, who makes Washington Heights unique and stand out.
THE EFFECT OF IN THE HEIGHTS
I saw what [In the Heights] did to Latinos who finally saw themselves represented on the stage in a way that wasn't holding a knife. Over the years, the show has gone to stock and amateur, and people have done high school and college productions of the show. I can't tell you how many times I've spoken at a college and I get kids-male and female-come up to me and say, "Nina Rosario is about me!" That's been unbelievably heartening and validating.

Nina is the one who went to Stanford, lost her scholarship, and has pretty much given up at the top of the show, and leaves with a resolve to go back. I don't think we tell that story a lot. You don't see, "My parents really worked hard for me to do something, and I'm going to honor that. I'm going to honor their sacrifice." As a kid of parents who both were born in Puerto Rico and came here, I was so aware of the sacrifices they were making. It's not a story that gets told a lot-at least not in mainstream culture, not in movies and plays. You see it in the news, but you don't see it in a show.
ON WRITING HAMILTON
[Alexander Hamilton] writes his way out of poverty. He writes his way into the war through just a war of ideas. He writes his way into [George] Washington's good graces. He also writes his way into trouble-at every step of the way, when cooler heads are not around him to prevail. I immediately made the leap to a hip-hop artist writing about his circumstances and transcending them. There's also that self-destructive [nature]. You see rappers who have billions of dollars getting into wars of words with other rappers. It's a part of that verbal one-upmanship. Hamilton is no different than that.

I chased the lyrical density of my favorite hip-hop albums, which you don't always get in a musical theater album, because you're worried about everyone getting everything the first time. You're telling a story first and foremost, but what I love about my favorite hip-hop albums is that I'll catch a double entendre I didn't catch the first time or some alliteration or some word play. Years later I'm still catching it, because that's the art form.

What I recognized in Hamilton, which connected me to the genre of hip-hop and the hip-hop culture, was his relentlessness. I recognize that relentlessness in people I know. Not only in my father who came here at the age of 18 to get his education and never went back home, just like Hamilton, but also so many immigrant stories I know, and friends I know who come here from another country. They know they have to work twice as hard to get half as far. That's just the deal-that's the price of admission to our country.
CASTING THE SHOW
The impulse of the piece was that you can draw a direct line between Hamilton's life and the life of the hip-hop artists I grew up revering. So to that end, why wouldn't our show look like hip-hop culture? In that initial read of the book, I was never picturing Founding Fathers. I was picturing what artist could play George Washington, what artist could play Hercules Mulligan-the guy never drafted a piece of legislation, but it's the best rapper name I've ever heard. So that was always a part of the initial inspiration.

The genre of music lends itself to this type of casting, and it's also the added sense of, "These people are like you and me." It's only amplified by the fact that we have every color represented on that stage. It eliminates distance between us and the story of our founders. It helps them feel more human to us, because it's what our country looks like now. We never threw around the terms "colorblind" or "color-conscious." That's how it shook out-it was always with an eye towards, "Let's get the best actors for these characters and these songs," and that's what we got.
WHY HAMILTON IS SUCCESSFUL
I had to make [the Founding Fathers] human for myself, and I think what is touching a nerve is other people are finding the humanity within them as well. They leave with an understanding, or at least a partial understanding, of what they were like as people in some weird way. You don't get that when you look at a statue of someone or you look at their picture on currency. Regardless of your political stripe, to be connected to your country in any meaningful way, or its country's founders-even if you leave [thinking], "Oh, Jefferson was a jerk," or "Hamilton was cheating on his wife,"-you can't dismiss them. You have to reckon with them, because we live in their country.

The other thing about the show is that the fights they have in the show-the ideological fights, anyway-are the fights we're still having. How often do we get involved in the affairs of other countries? When are we states and when are we one nation? What is the role of government in our lives? Is it big or is it small? It's not an accident that almost every character in our show dies as a result of gun violence. There are things in the foundation of our country with which we will always be grappling.
THE NEW DIVERSITY
We are, by incredible good luck, in one of the most diverse seasons in the history of Broadway. It's Allegiance, it's On Your Feet!, it's The Color Purple. I do hope that the financial success of On Your Feet!, the financial success of Hamilton, empowers producers to say, "Hey, this is actually good business. It's good business to have diverse casts. It's good business to have diverse stories," because that brings in a newer audience and engages us in a different way. That's the only thing that really works- it's got to be good business. Broadway is expensive. It's expensive to mount a show. So the fact that not only are the shows here but [are] doing well is really what gives me hope, because it means there's going to be more. Tomorrow there'll be more of us.

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Lin-Manuel Miranda is on a roll. Already a Grammy, Emmy, and Tony Award winner (among other awards), Miranda received a MacArthur Foundation Award in 2015, the same year his current musical, Hamilton, opened on Broadway to sold-out crowds.

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History of Queen Elizabeth.

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This article is about the physical health and the mental health of the women rights. Women mostly face discrimination on their gender because everyone think that women can't do what men do so that's why they give women lower pay than men, lack of education, etc. They also talk about the sexual harassment against women that has happen for years. At the end, they really talk about what women rights are, the history and what they are doing to fix it.

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If you defend human rights, you defend women’s’ rights.

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Across the globe, many women and girls still face discrimination because of their sex and gender.

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A Summary about the description sightings and research of Nessie

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In the depths of Loch Ness a monster of the ages lurks in the murky waters. With a long neck and powerful fins, Ol' Nessie manages to bring the mysteries of the past into the present. While not always visible to the public, you may get lucky should you choose to watch the Loch Ness carefully from the shore. Every now and then Nessie will peek her head above the water before slipping back underneath the murky waters of the Loch Ness.

What is the Loch Ness Monster?

Though there are many versions of the Loch Ness story, most tales will include some reference to a large dragon or dinosaur-like creature that can be spotted in the waters of the Loch Ness and sometimes in the surrounding land areas as well. However, most of these stories come to light after the 1930's or were indirectly connected to the tale of Nessie by believers who wanted to add credibility to the Loch Ness story.

The story of the Loch Ness monster begins with water bailiff Alex Campbell on May 2nd, 1933. He identified the possibility of a monster in the loch while writing for the Inverness Courier as a part-time journalist. The original sighting of Nessie, however, was reported on August 4th in 1933 by George Spicer ad his wife. According to the report, George and his wife were driving on the road near the loch when he saw a creature that looked similar to a dragon and which he assumed had to have at least a few prehistoric ties. In the report, he states that this creature was simply waddling across the road with an animal in its mouth.

After George's report was filed with the 'Courier', the news publication began receiving more and more anonymous letters claiming to have either seen the monster themselves or to know a person that had seen the monster. Some of the letters even contained family legends that had supposedly been passed down and mentioned a similar monster at least once. The media, of course, had a field day deciding on an appropriate name for the creature. They started by calling the mysterious creature a 'monster fish' before progressing to 'sea serpent ', 'dragon', and finally 'Loch Ness Monster.'

The Loch Ness Monster Changes Scotland

The news of the new cryptid spread quickly and raised many questions - namely where had it come from and where there any other accounts of the creature in history that had been overlooked? There was also a need for proof that drove tourists and cryptid hunters alike to the Loch Ness in search of a chance to be the first to provide concrete evidence of its existence.

Many changes were made with the introduction of the Loch Ness Monster. Inverness suddenly became a place of intrigue and wonder with many new possibilities for the community presenting themselves seemingly overnight. This proved to be even more true when the first photograph of the monster (taken by Hugh Gray) was published on December 6th, 1933.

Concrete evidence of the monster prompted the country to act quickly. The Secretary of State for Scotland ordered the police to prevent anyone from attacking or harming the creature. This only added to the growing curiosity of the public - after all, if the country of Scotland was willing to write legislation to protect the creature it must exist, right?

Investigations into the history of the creature were launched. It was hypothesized that a creature so large wouldn't have been able to escape history unnoticed - perhaps there was proof of the Loch Ness Monster in the past that had somehow been overlooked. Although there never was definitive proof of Nessie's existence, there was enough curiosity to put the country on the map, causing many to wonder if the whole thing hadn't just been a hoax.

History of Ol' Nessie

When historical investigations in to the possibility of the beast began, it was found that the earliest reference to Nessie may date back to the sixth century AD. This clue was found in the text, 'Life of St. Columba', which was written by Adomnán. According to the writer, the monk may have encountered a similar monster.

St. Columba Wards Off a River Monster

The Irish Monk, St. Columba, was traveling with his followers when the happened to pass by the River Ness and see locals burying a man. He questioned them as to what had happened and they explained that the man had been swimming in the river when a 'water beast' attacked him and drug him underneath the surface. His friends nearby rushed out in a boat to try to save him, but by the time they reached him in the water he was dead.

At this point, St. Columba had a devout follower swim across the river in an attempt to lure out the monster. Half way through, the beast attempted to attack the follower but St. Columba made a sign of the cross and spoke the following words:

"Go no farther. Do not touch the man. Go back at once."

Those who were watching claimed that the creature drew back as if it were being pulled by chains or ropes and retreated. Everyone there took the event as a sign from God and the townspeople thanked St. Columba for his great service to them.

There are some who claim that the link between St. Columba and the Loch Ness monster is weak at best. Additionally, they point out that another Scottish monster - the Kelpie - is a more likely candidate for the inspiration of the story.

D. Mackenzie Sights the Monster in 1871

In October of 1871, D. Mackenzie claimed that he had seen an object in the Loch Ness that he first assumed was a log or an upturned boat. However, as he continued to watch this mysterious object, it disappeared into the water with alarming speed that could have only been a living creature.

Many believers like to point to this report as proof that the monster does, indeed, exist. The problem with this narrative, however, is that Mackenzie didn't file the report until 1934 - after interest in the beast had already been made prevalent. Because of this, many disregard the story as an attempt to become famous.

George Spicer's Sighting of Nessie in 1933

It is alleged that George Spicer and his wife came face to face with the Loch Ness Monster while driving on the newly upgraded road that went by the lake on July 22nd, 1933. Their report of the creature was published in a newspaper on August 4th of the same year. They described the beast as being at least 4 feet high and 25 feet long. It had a large, wavy neck, that was at least as long as the road itself (10 to 12 feet). They couldn't make out any limbs, but watched it lumber across the road to the loch, leaving crushed undergrowth in its wake.

Many have hypothesized that the Loch Ness Monster hadn't been spotted earlier because the road wasn't often used by locals or tourists. However, due to recent upgrades, it was only a matter of time before the public would have encountered the water monster. It is also important to note that these speculations have been called wishful thinking by many - the road had been used frequently for the construction of the Caledonian Canal, making it just as unlikely that the monster had always frequented the area.

Hugh Gray's Photo in 1933

Hugh Gray's supposed photograph of the Loch Ness Monster in 1933 was essential in helping to make Nessie one of the most popular cryptids in modern day. He claimed to have taken it on November 12th, 1933. There were issues with the image from the start - it was a bit blurry and many people noted that it almost looked like the head of a dog if one was to look closely. This went a long way in discrediting the image because it was known that he had been walking his dog when he had taken the picture.

In 1963, however, the original negatives were recovered. They proved that the photograph was not simply a blurred image of Gray's dog. Unfortunately, they were also proven to be something other than the Loch Ness Monster. The original photo was an otter rolling at the surface of the loch as otters often do.

Arthur Grant Hits the Loch Ness Monster

In one of the more curious sightings, Arthur Grant claimed to have literally ran into the Loch Ness Monster on his motorcycle on January 5th, 1934. He was riding his motorcycle at about 1:00 a.m. on a moonlit night. Grant claimed to have seen the neck of the beast and when asked to sketch and describe the creature said it was something like a cross between a seal and a plesiosaur. He was so intrigued with the creature that he got off his bike to follow it into the water, but was not quick enough and only saw the ripples that were left behind.

Although Grant was certain that he had encountered the Loch Ness Monster, local zoologists determined that he had likely only seen an otter or seal. The large size difference in the beast he described and what they proposed as actuality was accounted for by claiming that the poor lighting conditions caused him to mistake the creature as being much larger than it actually was.

The Infamous 'Surgeon's Photograph' in 1934

Perhaps the most famous of all the Loch Ness Monster photographs was taken in 1934 by Robert Kenneth Wilson and published by the Daily Mail on April 21st, 1934. Wilson didn't want to have his name associated with the photo, which led to the image being associated with his profession instead. It quickly caught on as 'Surgeon's Photograph.' However, his unwillingness to be associated with the image also led to much speculation that was later proven to be true.

At first, the image seemed to be legitimate. The cropped version, which was printed in the paper, made the 'monster' seem enormous and the ripples in the water appear to be large waves. However, when the uncropped image was studied years later, there were details that didn't seem to add up. Eventually the picture was determined to be a hoax - a scheme cooked up by Christian Spurling and his friends as revenge against the Daily Mail - who happened to be his employer. Spurling had reported to find 'Nessie footprints' that were later determined to be fakes. He and his friends crafted a toy model that could be used to simulate Nessie, then took pictures and had a friend sell them to the Daily Mail.

The Lost Taylor Film

On May 29th, 1938 a tourist by the name of G. E. Taylor took a film of what he believed to be the Loch Ness Monster. The film was in color and had three minutes of recorded footage on 16 mm film. The film was sold to Maurice Burton (a popular science writer) but was not shared with other researchers. The film was largely forgotten until 1961 when Burton published a single frame from the footage in his book. Burton claims that the film was of a floating object - not an animal. However, since the original footage has never been released to the public, its unlikely that we'll ever know for sure.

Promising Sonar Readings

In December of 1954, the crew of the Rival III took sonar readings that found a large object was keeping pace with their boat from a depth of nearly 500 feet. It was detected for 800 meters before contact with the object was lost. Though this was never proven to be the Loch Ness Monster, it is one of the most valuable pieces of evidence to at that point in history that had come to light.

The Disndale Film - The Fake That Turned Into a Promising Lead

In 1960, Tim Disndale filmed a hump in the Loch Ness that left a large wake behind it. Disndale was an aeronautical engineer who had reportedly taken the footage on his last day of searching for Nessie. He said the object appeared to be reddish in color with a blotch on its side and produced 40 feet of film that he claimed could prove the existence of the Loch Ness Monster. However, when the image was enhanced, it could be seen that the hump was a boat.

The film was largely dismissed until 1993 when Discovery Communications decided to make a documentary on the Loch Ness Monster. While enhancing the Disndale film to use as part of their production, someone noticed a strange shadow in the negative that couldn't be clearly seen in the film. When the team enhanced and overlayed images to study the shadow, they discovered what appeared to be the back half of a creature under the water.

Apple Adds to the Conspiracy in 2014...

On April 19th, 2014, it was discovered that there was a large creature just below the surface of the Loch Ness on Apple Maps. The image of the creature was discovered at the north end of the loch and suggested that the creature was close to 98 feet in length. Although no tampering was found with the Apple Maps image, there are alternate explanations that skeptics have proposed instead of accepting the image as proof. The top explanations claim the image is caused by the wake of a boat that was lost in image stitching, ripples created by seals, or floating wood that just so happened to look like a 98 foot creature.

...Which Led to Google Looking to Get in On the Monster Hunt in 2015

On the 81st anniversary of the 'Surgeon's Photograph', Google celebrated with a Nessie-themed doodle and a new feature on Google Street View. This new feature allowed users to search for Nessie both above and below the waters of the Loch Ness. Google reportedly spent a week gathering images for this feature in order to gain popularity with Nessie's fans and cryptid hunters alike.

The Hunt Begins

With so much misleading and unreliable evidence, cryptid hunters and fans of Nessie took to the loch in several attempts to prove the existence of the creature once and for all. Although there has never been enough evidence from any of the expeditions to prove the existence of Nessie, the search parties have continued well into modern day.

The Edward Mountain Expedition in 1934

In 1934, Edward Mountain financed a search for the now famous Loch Ness Monster. The search party consisted of 20 men who positioned themselves around Loch Ness for 5 weeks from 9:00 am to 6:00 pm. All 20 men were given binoculars and cameras to search for evidence of the monster. At the end of the search, 21 photos had been taken. Unfortunately, none of them were considered clear enough to be used as evidence of Nessie's existence.

The supervisor of the group, James Fraser, claimed to have captured video footage of the monster on September 15th, 1934. Zoologists claimed the film contained images of a seal. Unfortunately, this footage has since been 'lost.'

The Loch Ness Phenomena Investigation Bureau

The failures of the Mountain party didn't discourage other groups from conducting their own searches. In 1962, the Loch Ness Phenomena Investigation Bureau (LNPIB) was formed by Norman Collins, R. S. R. Fitter, David James, Peter Scott, and Constance Whyte. The group tracked the Loch Ness legends for 10 years before disbanding in 1972.

D. Gordon Tucker Conducts Sonar Studies 1967-1968

In 1967, D. Gordon Tucker volunteered his services as a sonar developer as part of a larger movement that was being conducted by the LNPIB. He fixed a large sonar transducer underwater in the hopes of finding proof of the Loch Ness Monster. During a two week trial, several targets were identified. At least one has been discredited as a large shoal of fish, but others moved at speeds of up to 10 knots and did not appear to be fish or any other known aquatic lifeform in the area.

Operation Deepscan in 1987

In 1987, 24 boats were equipped with echo sounder equipment and used as part of 'Operation Deepscan' - a mission to find Nessie. The results found a large mass at the bottom of the loch. Many wrote off the reading as being a pile of debris, but motion in three of the images made this questionable. There are skeptics who claim that this motion was likely caused by seals entering the loch, but others point to the Loch Ness Monster.

The Origins of Nessie

With so many contradicting claims, it is doubtful if we will ever truly know what is actually to cause for the sightings in Inverness - the human imagination, or Nessie herself. However, there are several theories for what could be causing the strange appearances along the Loch Ness.

Eels

Because they are known to inhabit the Loch Ness, it makes sense that a giant eel could have been the cause of all the Loch Ness Monster sightings. Many propose that it could have been this creature that was responsible for leaving wakes in the water and confusing tourists.

However, there are many who doubt this theory. Eels are known to move from side to side, similar to the manner in which snakes move. This contradicts many of the reports that claim that the Loch Ness Monster was spotted moving up and down out of the water.

Still, the distance at which many of the sightings occurred do make it plausible for the Nessie sightings to have been confused with a large eel. Plus, sightings of other 'sea serpents' in Scotland have been proven to simply be large eels, lending further credibility to this theory.

The Greenland Shark

In 2013, Jeremy Wade of the 'River Monsters' TV Show theorized that the Loch Ness Monster may simply be a Greenland Shark that found its way into fresh water. This species of shark is known to be found in the North Atlantic Ocean, making it probable that it could have found its way into Scotland.

It is known to be dark in color and can grow to up to 20 feet in length, making it a viable candidate for the Loch Ness sightings. However, it has yet to be reported that this species of shark was actually found in the Loch Ness, making this notion no more than a wishful theory to date.

The Existence of A Different Monster

There are some who theorize that the Loch Ness Monster could just be a name for another one of Scotland's monsters - the Kelpie. This water horse monster has a similar M.O. to Nessie, making some wonder if the Loch Ness Monster could have developed based on the telling of older legends. Studies of Kelpie lore indicates that the Loch Ness is one of the most common lochs mentioned in the horror tales. Though this is an intriguing theory, there is no proof to back it.

A Plesiosaur in Modern Day

There were also those who realized that the Loch Ness Monster descriptions matched that of the plesiosaur almost perfectly. This created excitement over the speculation that a dinosaur species may have survived into modern day. Many arguments were made against this however, due to the cold temperatures of Loch Ness and the lack of food supply needed to support the beast.

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Loch Ness Monster - Description, Sightings and Research | Mythology.net

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The Loch Ness Monster is a huge, water-dwelling creature, perhaps over 40 feet long! She has a long, thin neck and a small, snake-like head. Her skin is dark green or black, with a slippery sheen that helps her camouflage herself in the murky water.

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Loch Ness Monster - Real vs Myth, Location & Lake - HISTORY

This website gives information about the Loch Ness monster, a monster that was found in the lake Loch Ness in Scotland.

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By: Brailey Borowski, Emma Manco, Olivia Klein, and Addisyn Ritchie

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This is an biography about Steven Spielberg including his move production, and fun facts.

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Steven Spielberg, in full Steven Allan Spielberg, (born December 18, 1946, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.), American motion-picture director and producer whose diverse films-which ranged from science-fiction fare, including such classics as Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977) and E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial (1982), to historical dramas, notably Schindler's List (1993) and Saving Private Ryan (1998)-enjoyed both unprecedented popularity and critical success.

Early life and work

Spielberg developed an interest in filmmaking as a child, and during his teens his Escape to Nowhere (1962), a 40-minute war movie, won first prize at a film festival. He next directed Firelight (1964), a feature-length science-fiction yarn, which was followed by an accomplished short about hitchhikers called Amblin' (1968). An executive at Universal Studios saw the latter film and tendered a contract to Spielberg, who began working in the studio's television division after attending California State College, Long Beach (now California State University, from which he would eventually receive a B.A. in 2002). He directed episodes of various TV series, notably Columbo, Marcus Welby, M.D., and Owen Marshall: Counselor at Law. In 1971 he made his first television movie, Duel, a taut, almost claustrophobic exercise in psychosis that was more intense than typical TV fare (it was released theatrically in Europe). Although Spielberg permitted star Dennis Weaver-who played a motorist chased by a homicidal truck driver-to register a one-note impression of sweaty terror throughout the movie, his handling of the action sequences was staged and executed with bravado. The success of Duel enabled Spielberg to make theatrically released motion pictures, beginning with The Sugarland Express (1974), a chase picture with deft accents of comedy but an inexorable movement toward tragedy; it was anchored by Goldie Hawn 's performance.

Commercial success

Spielberg's next movie, Jaws (1975), established him as a leading director, and it was one of the highest-grossing films ever. It featured Roy Scheider as the police chief of a resort town who battles a man-eating white shark. Joining him are Richard Dreyfuss as a marine biologist and Robert Shaw as a shark hunter. The highly praised thriller received an Academy Award nomination for best picture, and its ominous soundtrack by John Williams won an Oscar. The film all but created the genre of summer blockbuster-big action-packed movie released to an audience grateful to be in an air-conditioned theatre-and it established many of the touchstones of Spielberg's work: an ordinary but sympathetic main character is enlightened through a confrontation with some extraordinary being or force that gradually reveals itself as the narrative unfolds.

Richard Dreyfuss and Robert Shaw in Jaws© 1975 Universal Pictures Company, Inc.

Spielberg then directed the mystical science-fiction tale Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977), which he also wrote. Dreyfuss was cast as the lead, and he submitted one of the best performances of his career, as a telephone lineman who encounters an unidentified flying object and subsequently becomes obsessed with UFOs. For the film, Spielberg received his first Academy Award nomination for best director. Vilmos Zsigmond's cinematography earned the film's only Oscar, though the special effects were also praised. Spielberg became just the second director in history to score back-to-back $100 million grosses.

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After the disappointing 1941 (1979)-which was received as an unfunny comedy, despite the presence of John Belushi and Dan Aykroyd-Spielberg directed Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), a loving, expert (if slightly redundant) tribute to old adventure serials. The film and its sequels, which starred Harrison Ford as handsome archaeologist Indiana Jones, used rich colour cinematography, brisk editing, memorable musical soundtracks, and inventive special effects to create a cinematic experience that was typically light yet highly suspenseful. Spielberg received his second Academy Award nomination for best director; the film was also a best picture nominee.

Harrison Ford in Raiders of the Lost Ark© 1981 Lucasfilm with Paramount Pictures Corporation

Spielberg's next film was even more successful. E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial (1982) was a moving exploration of an alien encounter that cleverly eschewed the epic scale of Close Encounters for the microcosm of its effect on a single California family. Henry Thomas gave a strong performance as the boy who discovers and befriends the stranded alien, and Dee Wallace portrayed his sympathetic mom. The film also featured Drew Barrymore in one of her first roles. As with most Spielberg films to that point, the special effects were a large part of the movie's appeal-in this case, the wonderfully articulated E.T.-but it was Spielberg's mastery of human (and alien) emotion that made the movie a blockbuster. Both Spielberg and the film were nominated for Academy Awards, as were Melissa Mathison's screenplay, Allen Daviau's cinematography, and Williams's score; only the latter won.

After directing Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984), Spielberg adapted Alice Walker's Pulitzer Prize-winning novel The Color Purple (1985). The film explores an African American woman's almost unbearably harsh, yet ultimately fulfilling, life. Color was roundly criticized for downplaying the novel's lesbian element, for perpetuating stereotypes about black men, and for sentimentalizing life in the Deep South. Nevertheless, it found an audience that appreciated the cast-which included Whoopi Goldberg, Margaret Avery, and Oprah Winfrey, all of whom were nominated for Academy Awards-as well as the script (by Menno Meyjes) and the score (by coproducer Quincy Jones), both of which were also Academy Award-nominated. The film received a nomination for best picture, but Spielberg failed to earn an Oscar nod, a slight that created a small scandal at the time. More important, however, Spielberg had made one of the few commercially successful films about the experience of African Americans, paving the way for similar projects to be green-lighted.

Spielberg chose another critically acclaimed book as the basis of his next film. Empire of the Sun (1987), scripted by Tom Stoppard, was a carefully detailed re-creation of the World War II prison-camp milieu of J.G. Ballard's autobiographical novel of the same name. But where The Color Purple was able to convey emotional truth, Empire of the Sun almost let the story about its young protagonist ( Christian Bale) drown under a wave of pyrotechnics. It was a box-office failure. Spielberg closed out the 1980s with Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989) and Always (1989), an adaptation of the 1943 film A Guy Named Joe. Although Indiana Jones was a hit, Always failed to find an audience.

filming of Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade© 1989 Lucasfilm with Paramount Pictures Corporation

Spielberg's tendency toward broad storytelling may have hampered his attempts at more complex filmmaking, and The Color Purple and Empire of the Sun, in the view of many critics, lacked emotional depth or insight. Yet the aggressive commercialism and optimism of Spielberg's films became the prevailing style in Hollywood in the late 20th century. His pervasive influence was recognized in 1986 by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences when it honoured him with the Irving G. Thalberg Award, given for excellence in producing.

born

December 18, 1946 (age 73)
Cincinnati, Ohio

notable works

subjects of study

awards and honors

related facts and data

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Steven Spielberg | Biography, Movies, & Facts

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Steven Spielberg, American movie director and producer whose films-which ranged from science-fiction fare, including Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977) and E.T. (1982), to historical dramas, notably Schindler's List (1993) and Lincoln (2012)-enjoyed both unprecedented popularity and critical success.

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 Women's Rights History in America (Longer Video)

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 Women's Rights History in America (Longer Video)

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Women's Suffrage: Crash Course US History #31

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This picture is believed to be of the Loch Ness monster.

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It has a lot of dates and facts. It also is the most visited website in the UK.

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The History of the Loch Ness Monster - Historic UK

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The Great Glen in the Scottish highlands is a rift valley 60 miles long and contains three famous lochs; Lochy, Oich and Ness. The most famous of these is Loch Ness because of the monster said to 'lurk' in its deep waters.

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It explains how the search for the Loch Ness Monster started and how it is going now.

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The Real Story Behind the Loch Ness Monster | History