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This video provides background information behind assistive technology and how they tie into IEPs.

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Center on Technology and Disability (CTD)

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Intro to Assistive Technology from The Center on Technology and Disability

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Classful provides resources for teachers who need methods of assistance for students with intellectual disabilties.

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As one of the most common developmental disabilities found within mainstream schools, most teachers will work with students with an intellectual disability frequently during their careers.

As such a vast, overarching umbrella, there are many different definitions and levels of difficulty for students with ID, making it even more essential to provide excellent strategies and a suitable learning environment for children that need that extra helping hand.

Diagnosed and supported by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, or IDEA, students with ID and their educators are provided with plenty of resources and tools to ensure they receive the education they need, with the accommodations they require to succeed.

Understanding students with an intellectual disability?

A broad category that includes various skill levels, severities, and support requirements, an intellectual disability can involve problems with an individual functioning intellectually and/or adaptively.

Examples of difficulties around intellectual functioning can include problem-solving, the ability to communicate effectively, or the capacity to learn. Adaptive functioning and behavior may include specific challenges such as hygiene, routines, or even day-to-day social skills. Some of the most common causes of ID are:

Genetic conditions - most commonly caused by abnormal genes inherited from the parent or due to errors in the combination of genes during development. IDs under this category may include Down syndrome and PKU or Fragile X Syndrome.

Gestational problems - a result of the baby not developing properly inside the mother. There are many causes for ID due to problems during pregnancy. Drinking during pregnancy or contracting a serious infection can cause this.

Birth problems - in prolonged or difficult births, where the baby may not be getting enough oxygen, the child's chance of an ID is greatly increased.

Health issues - various diseases and health concerns can lead to intellectual disabilities, such as measles or whooping cough. Malnutrition, poisoning, or lack of access to prompt medical care can also result in ID due to ill health.

Intellectual disability is not classified as a disease or a mental health problem. Over 425,000 children in the US have a form of intellectual disability and require special education or other accommodations within mainstream schools to succeed and learn effectively. While there is no cure for ID, there is plenty of evidence that with extra time and patience, children and individuals with this disability can accomplish and achieve many things, both in life and academically.

Students with an intellectual disability in the classroom

For children with an intellectual disability, certain aspects of development and learning can be stressful, difficult, or otherwise inaccessible. These challenges are especially obvious in the classroom, with many students with ID struggling with learning effectively. These characteristics can lead to impaired understanding and difficulty understanding concepts or 'keeping up' with other students.

For many ID children, the following difficulties may apply:

Difficulty in developing social and communication skills

Increased time needed for cognitive processing of tasks or new learning materials

Difficulty in understanding new or different information

Difficulty understanding or comprehending concepts that are abstract

Difficulty processing information sequentially

Because ID is a blanket term - similar to autism spectrum disorder in the classroom - children with this disability can require higher support and resources or none. With intellectual disabilities understood more than ever before when it comes to the needs and support of individuals with this disability, there is ample information for teachers and parents to provide insight into what an intellectual disability is.

For students with an intellectual disability, this is often not the only reason they struggle to work in a mainstream school environment. Between 40-60% of students with ID are also on the spectrum, leading to further difficulties in effective communication and learning.

Teaching students with an intellectual disability

When offering students with ID a fulfilling, suitable, and productive learning environment, it's important to consider the accommodations and requirements the child may need to perform as well in a mainstream education setting as other students. As such, employing practical strategies can be the perfect place to start.

These strategies are more versatile than simply applying to ID; there is also a great deal of crossover with the challenges faced by students with other learning difficulties, such as ADHD or autism spectrum disorder. As such, developing the insight and techniques needed to support students with ID can benefit a range of children.

Here are just a few of the teaching methods that educators can employ to support students with an intellectual disabilities:

Using small steps

For students with an intellectual disability, breaking down each learning task into small, easy-to-digest steps can be invaluable. Teachers can modify their existing curriculum by introducing each learning task as a series of short, individual actions instead of looking at the bigger picture.

This step-wise approach is the basis of many different learning models for all kinds of students, with each step and level of investment varying according to the specific requirements of the individual student.

Modify teaching to be more hands-on

Students with ID are known to struggle with abstract concepts individually, making some traditional teaching styles incompatible with their specific challenges. Opting to go more hands-on with teaching can provide a more kinesthetic approach for students.

An example of this would be teaching gravity by demonstrating how it functions in the real world by dropping an object to illustrate the force.

Think visual

The visual world and what is directly in front of the child are important factors in teaching a student with ID. They tend to do best in environments where visual aids or support is provided, whether to learn specific subjects or map their completed progress. Using charts with ID students has proven to be highly effective, especially with direct, immediate feedback.

For more insight into these teaching methods and why they are suitable for students with ID, this article on AAC offers further information and guidance.

Five ways to incorporate intellectual disability strategies into your classroom

While there are many general strategies and suggestions surrounding ID in the classroom, implementing those opportunities, and including them in your curriculum, is a different challenge altogether. But in mainstream schools, it's essential to balance offering support to your students and providing a well-rounded teaching experience.

These five methods offer simple, effective ways to incorporate elements of ID-suitable guidelines into any classroom with minimal disruption and excellent results:

1. Use baby steps

Start by breaking each lesson down into its simplest, most vital components. These steps can be provided to ID students alongside teaching a wider class to ensure they can keep up and develop the same understanding as their peers. To reduce frustration and encourage participation, this method is highly effective.

2. Incorporate more physical learning experiences

Whether using physical items to support learning in sciences or maths or simply offering a direct way for students to connect their learning to the real world, this method can be invaluable for all your students to help them develop their knowledge more well-rounded way.

3. Start a feedback book or chart

Students with ID can greatly benefit from immediate and consistent feedback. Using a feedback book or chart can create a record of that feedback, allowing the student to look back and see their development in black and white.

4. Encourage music in the classroom

Music can be a vital part of learning and development for any student, but for those with ID, it can be an especially powerful motivator. Music alongside concepts or lessons can help them retain information and offer greater engagement in the subject.

5. Provide visual stimulus

Whether it's simply drawing the concept, you're describing on a whiteboard or providing students with video or photographic content to study. ID students find it easier to focus when visually involved in the learning process.

With an intellectual disability such a common difficulty for many students, it's vital to ensure that they receive the same level of care and attention when it comes to their education as any other student. At the same time, teachers, educators, and parents must work together to ensure they provide the best environment for every student.

How we can help you with students with an intellectual disability

Platforms like Classful provide educators with the resources they need to make their classroom the best it can be for intellectually disabled students, and have never been quicker or easier. We do all the hard work for you, and you raise the money you need to support your favorite teacher and improve the educational possibilities of students with intellectual disabilities in the classroom.

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Students with an Intellectual Disability (5 Methods to Help) - Classful

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As one of the most common developmental disabilities found in schools, most teachers will help students with an intellectual disability during their career.

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This website provides information on barriers a student with ADHD may face in an educational environment.

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ABSTRACT: The academic, social, and extracurricular challenges of the elementary and middle school years often bring to light a child's deficits in the areas of attention and self-control.

Such deficits can have a variety of causes, including learning disabilities, emotional disorders, hearing or vision problems, and social stressors-as well as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Of special concern in the digital age is that ADHD can exacerbate the negative consequences of video games, the Internet, and other media.

When attempting to discern the cause of inattention or impulsivity in a specific patient, thorough history taking is crucial. Often, the problem is multifaceted, and a child's inattention and hyperactivity cannot be explained by a single diagnosis. Numerous psychological conditions are frequent comorbidities of ADHD.

Jimmy, a 12-year-old boy, comes to your office for a well-child visit in November. His mother looks at him disapprovingly, then casts a worried look at you.

"Things are not going so well at school," she says. "So far, his grades are worse than last year. His teachers say he is always distracted and fidgety at school, and he has trouble staying organized. Even when he does his homework, he forgets to turn it in."

Jimmy says bluntly that everything is "fine," but his mother interjects, "He doesn't have many friends, and all he wants to do is play video games at home. I want to say he may have ADHD, but when I see him focusing on his video games, I don't know what to think."

This story is familiar to many pediatric providers. The long list of possible reasons for Jimmy's difficulties can be overwhelming to sort through in the primary care office.

This article discusses what's new in the understanding of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), its impact on a child's health and development across the lifespan, and pointers about how best to help patients like Jimmy.
In the Beginning ...
ADHD can begin to cause problems well before a child starts grade school. In its 2011 ADHD clinical practice guideline, ¹ the American Academy of Pediatrics recommended initiating an evaluation for ADHD in children as young as 4 years old who have symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, or impulsivity in multiple settings. Behavior is an extremely common concern about all children at this age, but it may be the first signal of ADHD for some children.

ADHD in children at this age is not "bad behavior." In the preschool years, children are actively exploring their world. They develop a strong imagination, a vehicle for playing with other children. Yet they do not fully understand actions and their consequences. A child with ADHD symptoms may be scolded frequently by his or her parents for impulsive behavior, but the child might not possess the expected capacity for self-regulation, nor the understanding of why certain behaviors are "wrong."

The developmentally appropriate need for attention may perpetuate undesirable behaviors: The child may seek the negative attention he or she is used to getting. In preschool or other structured settings, the child may be so dysregulated or disruptive that he or she has difficulty learning the social and preacademic skills necessary to prepare for kindergarten. The preschool child with ADHD may already have many disadvantages compared with unaffected peers by the time he or she reaches school age.
School's Demands Reveal Deficits
Children face many developmental challenges as they progress through the elementary school environment. Classroom expectations become increasingly more complex. Children must follow rules, listen to directions, complete tasks, and keep track of their belongings. Cognitively, elementary school students shift from thinking symbolically to reasoning about the "real" world. Counting, matching, and word recognition lay the foundations for higher-order thinking: Math extends into fractions; writing requires topic sentences; and group projects entail prioritizing, coordinating, and cooperating. At approximately 12 years of age, thinking begins to extend beyond the concrete to the abstract.

Socially, children are expected to have an increasingly better understanding of others' points of view. They learn to interpret nuances in tone of voice and facial expression, to negotiate cliques, and more often than not to cope with bullying at some level. They are expected to find and pursue activities outside of school that interest them while learning to set goals, overcome challenges, and meet expectations in order to improve their skills.

For a child with ADHD, these demands might be too much. A student's inattentive, hyperactive, and impulsive nature can make complying with the rules of the classroom difficult, resulting in much negative attention. Academic struggles may intensify. Other children may see this negative attention and struggling and may distance themselves socially. Because the child now can intuit others' point of view, he or she may begin to feel isolated, "stupid," or unpopular. Moreover, a child with ADHD is more likely to be a victim of bullying in the school setting than an unaffected child. ²⁻⁴ Problems with self-esteem and mood may arise.

Over time, difficulties accumulate, and a child's situation may cross the line from minor obstacles in achievement to serious problems in functioning.
Beyond School
We are learning more about how ADHD can impact a person's life, not only in the present but also in the future. Recent research shows that children with ADHD are at increased risk for poorer academic achievement, grade retention, and school dropout, ⁵ with more subsequent occupational problems. 6,7 Children who have ADHD are also more likely to have one or more psychiatric illnesses as adults, including major depression, anxiety, and antisocial behavior. Even graver, these children have a significantly elevated risk of attempting suicide or dying from suicide as adolescents or adults than do those without ADHD. 8,9

Researchers have found links between ADHD and a host of conditions, including obesity, injury, sleep problems, and risky sexual behavior. ⁹ ADHD also is an important risk factor for developing substance-use disorders. Children with ADHD are more likely to start smoking tobacco at an earlier age and to use alcohol and other illicit drugs when they are older.

Especially vulnerable to illicit drug dependence, however, are children with ADHD and comorbid conduct disorder, which may arise as a developmental consequence of having ADHD and the downward spiral of poor parental interaction, resistance to education, social and academic failure, and association with negatively influencing peers. 9,10
ADHD in the Digital Age
Children today grow up in a world teeming with gadgets and devices. Learning to navigate electronic devices is as natural to children as learning to flip pages in a book. Those with the dysregulation and poor impulse control of ADHD gravitate toward the stimulating world of technology, the impact of which we are beginning to understand.

Television. Studies show that children with ADHD watch more television and are twice as likely to have a television in their bedroom. ¹¹⁻¹³ It remains unclear whether ADHD leads to more hours of TV or if more hours of TV leads to ADHD. The effect of television viewing on childhood development may be a double-edged sword, with some evidence suggesting that high-quality educational programming can help children learn, ¹⁴ and others suggesting that the quick pace of many television shows can diminish a young child's ability to sustain attention. ¹⁵

While some studies suggest that television viewing is associated with attention difficulties, other research suggests that confounding factors might account for these correlations. 14,16

Video games. For children with ADHD, who have an increased drive to satisfy the reward pathways of the brain, video games may be particularly appealing but highly problematic. Video games can be engaging, fast-paced, motivating, and rewarding for many children. While no consensus exists about the definition of "problematic" video game use, a core feature is the neglect of other essential activities, such as learning, socializing, and self-care, in favor of playing. ¹⁷

Children with ADHD are significantly more likely to play video games for greater than 1 hour per day than are their unaffected peers, which corresponds to higher scores of inattention and higher scores on measures of addiction or problematic use. 13,18

Perhaps because of their motivation-seeking nature, many children with ADHD appear to focus intently on rapidly stimulating video games despite being inattentive in other settings. Parents may believe that children with ADHD immerse themselves in video games because they are good at them. Nevertheless, some research suggests that children with ADHD perform worse on video games than do unaffected children, and that their "strength" at playing video games might be relative to their weaknesses in academics or other areas. ¹⁷

With the proliferation of online multiplayer games, video games now have the potential to become an avenue for social interaction. Given the social difficulties that may come with ADHD, affected children may accept this online culture as their virtual peer group, furthering their isolation from other peers in the real world.

The Internet. Researchers have devoted much attention to the link between ADHD and Internet use, recognizing that ADHD increases the risk of addictive behavior. Internet addiction has become a very real phenomenon. In several studies, ADHD has been found to be strongly correlated with Internet addiction among adolescents, college students, and adults. 17,19,20 One study linked ADHD in elementary school children with Internet addiction. ²¹ Furthering the link between ADHD and Internet addiction is the finding that treatment with methylphenidate may reduce the "severity" of Internet video game addiction. ²²

ADHD potentially exacerbates any negative consequences of digital media. The link between ADHD and digital media still needs clarification, particularly in younger children, but clinicians and parents alike must remain vigilant of children's use of digital media, particularly if there is concern about the presence of ADHD.

With an understanding of the pervasive nature of ADHD across the lifespan, let's reconsider the case of Jimmy discussed above. He is inattentive and fidgety, is experiencing academic and social difficulties, and seems to have an unhealthy pattern of video game playing, according to his mother. It is easy to think of Jimmy as falling in line with the worrisome trajectory that many children with ADHD face. But before coming to a diagnosis, we must heed his mother's question: Is this truly ADHD, or could something else be causing or contributing to his difficulties?
Unraveling the Mystery
A thorough history is the best way to begin to investigate the nature of a child's attention difficulties. In every case, we would like to know the answers to the following questions:

* What exactly are the problems?

* When did the problems start?

* Where do the problems occur?

* Under what circumstances do these problems arise?

* Why are the parents mentioning these problems now?

Start by asking about the child's individual strengths and weaknesses, and then proceed using the biopsychosocial model to guide questioning. Ask questions about how a child relates to and functions within his or her family, peer groups, school, and community. Use validated tools to gather objective information about a child's symptoms across settings. Through these approaches, clinicians can then begin to home in on a diagnosis of ADHD-or another diagnosis that may be the cause of inattention and school difficulties.

Emotional disorders. Primary anxiety or depression in school-aged children often goes underappreciated but can manifest with ADHD-like symptoms. Depressed children can appear agitated, distracted, or irritable; worried children also have significant difficulty focusing and can be quite fidgety. When thinking about mood problems, always consider the possibility of trauma.

Parents may ask about the possibility of their child having bipolar disorder, interpreting hyperactivity and irritability as signs of pathologic mood swings. This topic is fraught with controversy. The prevalence of true bipolar disorder ranges from 0.1% in 8- to 19-year-olds to 2.5% in adolescence, depending on how bipolar disorder is defined.

Furthermore, it is unclear whether irritability in children is a symptom of depression or a manic episode. Often it is difficult to tease out whether a child has emerging bipolar disorder or severe ADHD with emotional dysregulation, or if the two conditions coexist. Longitudinal studies seem to add to the confusion, since symptoms of hyperactivity and irritability often are considered criteria for both diagnoses, inflating the rates of comorbidity between the two diagnoses.

While research suggests that treatment with medication does not worsen mood symptoms in children with both ADHD and bipolar disorder, inadequate response to treatment may be a clue that the child's clinical picture is much more complex and warrants further evaluation by a specialist. ²³

Learning disabilities. While children with learning disabilities may have some early struggles, their disabilities often are unidentified until third grade. This is when children shift from learning to read to reading to learn. Mathematics also becomes more complex, introducing multiplication, division, fractions, and even some algebra.

Children with learning disabilities can appear inattentive during tasks or activities that are difficult for them. Whereas a child with ADHD might answer math questions impulsively and make careless mistakes, a child with a mathematics learning disorder might become overwhelmed with a math task and become inattentive or disruptive.

A child with a reading disorder may have symptoms during reading activities and math word problems, further muddying the picture. These children also are prone to frustration, negative self-image, and mood problems.

Children with suspected learning problems need formal testing-usually psychological and academic testing, which may be provided through the public school system.

Executive dysfunction. Executive functions are higher-order cognitive abilities that include planning, cognitive flexibility, and self-regulation. These abilities are increasingly important to school success as children enter middle school, when students start changing classes and must balance the expectations of several different teachers. Behavioral inhibition, attention regulation, planning, organization, and working memory are among the many executive functions that students must rely on to meet these new demands. Deficits in any of these functions can lead to problems.

If grades are poor because of homework incompletion, find out in the history whether homework is completed but not turned in, whether it is never brought home in the first place, or whether it is a struggle to start. These are all problems with organization and initiation and suggest executive dysfunction. Addressing such problems effectively requires strategies specifically tailored to the observed type of dysfunction ( Table 1). Although executive dysfunction often is part of ADHD, it can be a separate profile. Medication is unlikely to treat executive dysfunction effectively.

Social stressors. Sources of stress may come from within school (such as bullying, teacher-student mismatch, or classroom changes) or from outside of school (such as family crises). Children of any age may react to dramatic family events, such as marital conflict, illness, death, or financial difficulties, with symptoms of inattention, impulsivity, or hyperactivity. Asking probing questions can help gather more information:

* Did anything change at school? Did a teacher leave, a new kid join the class?

* What was going on in your family at the time? Was anyone ill? Were there any changes in your living situation?

* When school problems started, was that upsetting to the family? What happened?

When discussing bullying with a child, talking about other children helps demystify the problem and elicit information: "Some kids I know tell me about really mean kids in school who say mean things or make them feel bad. Have you seen anything like that?"

Hearing and vision. All children with inattention should undergo hearing screening and vision screening tests. In many cases, such children had been referred previously for a hearing or vision evaluation but never completed it.

Medications and foods. Diphenhydramine for allergies, β-agonists for asthma, and highly caffeinated beverages can impact a child's level of activity and arousal during the day. Also ask about over-the-counter medications, some of which can make children tired and inattentive in school.

Many parents ask about dietary factors, dyes, and additives. One recent meta-analysis showed an effect of food color exclusion on reducing core symptoms of ADHD, but the effect size was much less than with medication. Supplementation of ω-3 fatty acids also had a small beneficial effect. ²⁴ Large studies on the topic of supplements and dietary restriction are lacking, and the current evidence is insufficient to recommend these approaches as evidence-based treatment.

Insufficient sleep. More independent at night, the school-aged child may be sleeping far less than is necessary without a parent knowing. If a child has difficulty waking for school and sleeps much later on weekends, he or she may be sleep-deprived, with inattention resulting. Ask about sleep environment, bedtime routines, and time of sleep onset and awakening. Also ask about snoring, gasping, pauses in breathing, or restlessness during sleep, since these may be signs of sleep apnea or restless legs syndrome.

Seizures. Rarely, a child with staring spells presents with concerns about inattention in school. Unlike the inattention of ADHD, seizures typically look like episodes of "zoning out" that cannot be interrupted by stimulation; absence seizures can occur midsentence, at any time of day, and are followed by complete lack of awareness of what happened.

Other medical conditions. When suggested by history or clinical course, consider thyroid abnormalities, lead poisoning, or fetal alcohol syndrome among the potential causes of ADHD symptoms.
The Complex Case
Often, a child's inattention and hyperactivity cannot be explained by a single diagnosis. In fact, many of the conditions described here are frequent comorbidities of ADHD ( Table 2).

Thinking again about Jimmy, he may have started with ADHD then developed comorbid depression or anxiety. He also may have an underlying learning disorder. We need to know about any changes in his family or social environment that have impacted his school performance. The following questions help clarify the confusing diagnostic picture:

* What came first? Was the child always "hyperactive" before developing learning problems?

* What is the biggest problem now? The more impairing problems should be treated first.

* What runs in the family?

When the diagnosis remains unclear, further evaluation by a specialist is necessary. Educational evaluations, including psychological and academic testing, often are helpful; for younger children, speech and language evaluations may unmask a language disorder that impairs learning.

Sometimes a child might have a number of minor weaknesses that do not rise to the level of a specific diagnosis but that combine to make learning and socialization difficult.

When the diagnosis includes ADHD, however, intervention is critical to reduce functional impairments. ADHD treatment should be guided by the history and should include medication as well as behavioral interventions such as parent training, school accommodations, or counseling, when indicated.

Attention to the developmental effects of ADHD at each stage of life, the new challenges that affected children face in the digital age, and possible comorbidities should help enhance the accuracy of ADHD diagnosis and success of management in the primary care office.
References:
16.
Ferguson CJ. The influence of television and video game use on attention and school problems: a multivariate analysis with other risk factors controlled. J Psychiatr Res. 2011;45(6):
808-813.
Dr Schwartz is a fellow in developmental behavioral pediatrics at the Developmental Medicine Center at Boston Children's Hospital. Dr Schonwald is the medical director of Developmental Behavioral Outreach at Boston Children's Hospital an assistant professor of pediatrics at Harvard Medical School in Boston.

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ADHD in the Elementary School Years: Dissecting a Developmental Dilemma

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ABSTRACT: The academic, social, and extracurricular challenges of the elementary and middle school years often bring to light a child's deficits in the areas of attention and self-control. Such deficits can have a variety of causes, including learning disabilities, emotional disorders, hearing or vision problems, and social stressors-as well as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

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This video provides general information about Universal Design for Learning.

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What is Universal Design for Learning (UDL)?

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This cite has great tips for how a teacher can create an inclusive classroom.

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Pull-out teaching models are falling out of use whether we agree or disagree with the change. Every year, federal and state departments of education raise the amount of time special education students are expected to spend in general education classrooms. Some states, such as Ohio, have moved to full inclusion for all special education students who do not require a self-contained classroom. Finding the best practices to set up an inclusive classroom is vital. Here are some tips you may find useful if you are faced with this rewarding challenge.

Start with the Individual Education Plans (IEPs)
While there will be some similarities among most inclusive classrooms, the finer details may be quite different. This is because teachers tailor their inclusive classrooms to meet the specific needs of their students. This process starts with a detailed review of each student's IEP. Pay close attention to students' exceptionalities, goals, provisions, and accommodations. Check the goals to see if you will need to collect data. The provisions will tell you if the student will spend any time in a special education setting or if the student receives any additional services such as speech or physical therapy. The accommodations will describe any special things you will need to do for the student, such as preferential seating or restating directions to check for understanding.

Check Your Room Arrangement
Does one of your students use a wheelchair? If so, you need to check the space between desks and tables to make sure there is adequate space for the student to maneuver. Also, check to see if classroom items are within reach. Does one of your students have low vision? He or she should be seated close to the instructor. You will also need to print everything you can in a larger font.

These are the kinds of things that will need to be considered. The good news is that a lot of this information is included in the student's IEP. Be prepared to make changes if something is not working.

Make a Logical Seating Chart
Forget the alphabetical order or random first-day seating chart that many teachers use. There are two trains of thought on how to group students in an inclusive classroom. You can intermingle at-risk students with higher achieving students. This offers an opportunity for peer tutoring. The second approach is to group the students together by their ability. This gives you the opportunity to deliver a lesson to the whole group and then offer remediation to at-risk students. Having at-risk students seated together makes re-teaching material easier.

Make a Schedule That Includes Services
If you have an inclusive classroom, one or more of your students may regularly receive speech therapy, occupational therapy, physical therapy, counseling, or social skills services. These services can make it challenging to find times for students to be away from the room without missing important content or instruction. Work with other school personnel to fit in these services during times that will cause fewer difficulties. When you have a student who is pulled out of class often, this can feel impossible, but it's worth the effort to try.

Choose the Right Materials
When you are teaching students at very different skill levels, it can feel like you have to write individual lesson plans. This is a challenge when you're trying to meet the needs of a classroom full of students. Finding the right materials to meet the needs of your students is crucial. This might be as easy as differentiating your regular classroom materials. However, sometimes you may need to use completely different materials. Find out what resources your school has available. A lot of free resources are available on the Internet, so check them out as well.

Collaborate with the Special Education Teacher
I know the things I have described sound like a lot of work. The good news is that you are not in this alone. Work with your school's special education teacher to get help setting up your classroom and meeting the needs of your special education students. The special education teacher may even have materials that you can borrow if necessary. This person should be a great resource to you as you work through the school year.

Consider Co-Teaching
If your administrator agrees and your special education teacher is available, consider co-teaching for a portion of the day. Co-teaching holds vast potential for meeting the needs of special education students in an inclusive environment. Some of the benefits of a co-taught classroom include the following:

It gives teachers the opportunity to build leadership skills.

It offers a smaller student-to-teacher ratio.

It offers expanded opportunities to differentiate instruction.

Students often enjoy the opportunity to receive more adult attention.

Final Thoughts
Depending on a given group of students' needs, inclusive classrooms can look very different from one another. Be ready to think outside the box, and do not be afraid to try creative solutions. The answers to some problems only come after a little experimentation. No idea is ever really a failure so long as it helps you know what to do differently in the future.

Andrew Hawk has worked in public education for fourteen years, starting as a teaching assistant in a special education classroom. He has taught first, second, and fifth grade as a classroom teacher, and for the past three years, has worked as a resource room teacher, providing services for fourth and fifth graders. Working as a special education teacher has given him the opportunity to work with a variety of age groups and exceptionalities. In 2011, he earned his master's degree in special education from Western Governor's University. When Andrew is not preparing for school, he enjoys spending time with his wife and daughter.

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Teaching Kids with Learning Difficulties in Today's Classroom
The Survival Guide for Kids in Special Education
The Survival Guide for Kids with Physical Disabilities & Challenges

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Creating an Inclusive Classroom for Students with Special Needs

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By Andrew Hawk Pull-out teaching models are falling out of use whether we agree or disagree with the change. Every year, federal and state departments of education raise the amount of time special education students are expected to spend in general education classrooms. Some states, such as Ohio, have moved to full inclusion for all special...

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PBIS Rewards provides tips for instruction on social skills with in person and virtual modialties.

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The Importance of Teaching Social Skills | PBIS Rewards

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Teaching social skills is a critical part of preparing students for a successful future. A PBIS initiative naturally helps with teaching social skills, since the focus is on positive behaviors.

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This is a collection made by PlayerFM to provide an accumulation of podcasts that highlight assistive technology

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Fifty Best Assistive Technology Podcasts For 2020. Latest was See how to get a free license of JAWS, ZoomText or Fusion for the Covid-19. Listen online, no signup necessary.

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This graphic organizer highlights the different types of assistive technology and the barriers they address.

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The University of Florida provides advice for teachers at the primary and secondary levels on how to create an inclusive environment in the classroom.

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Overview

Inclusive teaching refers to a variety of teaching approaches that strive to address the needs of all students. Inclusive teaching provides a learning experience that allows students from all backgrounds, learning styles and abilities to be successful. Inclusive teaching strategies contribute to an inclusive learning environment in which all students feel equally valued. Inclusivity in the classroom implies that the classroom environment is one in which all students feel that their contributions and perspectives are equally valued and respected (Cal Poly).

Strategies

Make it Personal

Provide opportunities for students to share their own experiences and perspectives. Students learn from each other and the various perspectives and existing knowledge their fellow students bring to the table. Activities such as a fishbowl activity or reverse circle discussion activity can encourage and direct these challenging conversations.

Include Various Perspectives

Provide a variety of perspectives on the topics you teach. For instance, literature that comes from only one perspective lacks depth. Varied perspectives might offer new ideas and unique views. One example would be to teach a World War II class from an American historian's perspective only. The look into that historic moment will be rather narrow. Include literature from the experiences of other groups such as concentration camp survivors, German foot soldiers, French resistance workers, and Vichy government officials. As much as possible provide content from diverse perspectives or created by individuals from differing backgrounds.

Know Your Students

Get to know your students. Invest time to focus on getting to know your students. The impact may surprise you. The simple gesture of addressing a student by their name demonstrates care and concern. You can do this through classroom icebreakers (.pdf).

Respect Diverse People

Establish respect for the values of diverse peoples by using specific examples. Examples that demonstrate a respect and appreciation for diverse peoples and cultures. Use language that is gender neutral or takes into consideration the gender identity of students.

Respect Diverse Talents

Students not only come from diverse backgrounds, ethnicities, race, and gender, but students also bring different talents and styles of learning. All students should have the opportunity to learn in a way that works for them and they should be able to showcase their talents.

References

Related Resource Library Topics

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Inclusivity in the Classroom | Center for Teaching Excellence

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Inclusivity in the classroom implies that the classroom environment is one in which all students feel that their contributions and perspectives are...

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This study found in the Journal of Special Education shares a survey of secondary-level educators and how social competence (social skills) can be viewed subjectively from teacher to teacher.

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Cerebral Palsy Guidance in this source provides information for teachers who are looking to make an inclusive classroom for students specifically have Cerebral Palsy.

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Fact Checked

Being included-in the classroom, in the family, in recreation, in social events-is important for anyone, but for children, it plays a significant role in healthy emotional, physical, and social development. For children living with a disability, like cerebral palsy, being included is more complicated than for other children. Teacher tips for inclusive classrooms are so important for making kids feel more welcome.

A child with cerebral palsy not only has every right to inclusion in school like other children, they actively need inclusion.[1] While it is great for other children to actively include those who seem different, the responsibility comes down to the adults, particularly the teachers.

Teachers need to ensure all children get a full educational experience and have every opportunity to participate, learn, and grow.

Although teachers understand this responsibility, they don't always have the knowledge or experience, especially working with particular disabilities like cerebral palsy. Every teacher can use advice and tips to help them build and create more inclusive learning experiences:

Get to know the needs of every student. Every student is a unique individual with different abilities, and teachers know this, but it is still easy to make assumptions and generalizations about students with disabilities. Cerebral palsy causes a wide and varied range of issues, and each child truly has their own limitations and abilities. When teachers are better aware of the needs of each student, inclusion is easier and more natural.

Assign seating. When children are allowed to choose their own seating positions, the classroom can become segregated. A child with a disability and low self-esteem may choose a seat in the back corner every time, next to a similarly quiet student. Pair up disabled students with more outgoing children and encourage more engagement.

Instead of asking for volunteers, call on students randomly. Asking for volunteers to participate in solving problems or discussions can lead to exclusion with only the most vocal and assertive students stepping up. Make sure all children are called upon and push each student to participate in everything.

Provide group discussion time. Teachers may find that calling on students randomly is difficult at first, and that those who don't like to speak up lack confidence. By giving students time to discuss a problem or question quietly with their desk mates, they get a chance to gather their thoughts and prepare to be called upon. Alternatively, a quiet, reflective minute for all students before answering questions can also be helpful.

Use personal response devices. Another way to get all students involved in answering questions and participating is to use response devices. These are handheld systems or apps on tablets, which students can use to input an answer that will then appear on a projection screen. The teacher can then see that everyone has input an answer.

Expose students to diversity. Many classroom lessons showcase professionals in subject areas, like scientists, athletes, or musicians. Choose a variety of people in professional fields of all races, genders, and even abilities. Representation is very powerful. When a disabled child sees an independent, successful disabled adult, it sends an encouraging message.

Vary teaching strategies. This is important for all students, not just those with disabilities who tend to be excluded more often. All children learn in different ways, so various instructional strategies, like lecturing, reading, videos, interactive apps, small group work, projects, and discussions, help include everyone.

Make classrooms physically accessible. For some students with cerebral palsy, the only disability could be a lack of mobility. Simply having enough space to get around easily can increase inclusion. Make sure there is plenty of space between desks and other obstacles so that a child with a wheelchair, walker, or other devices can move as freely as any other student.

Provide inclusive playgrounds. The most inclusive playgrounds were designed that way, and often teachers can only work with what they have. They can make existing playgrounds more inclusive, though, by providing guided activities that involve all students and in which all can participate, regardless of ability level.

Be proactive-and active-about bullying. Bullying is a greater risk for disabled children than others, and it can lead to long-term harm. In the short term, it can cause a student to become even more excluded and withdrawn. Teachers must address bullying through education, awareness, and acting when there are any signs that it is happening.

Combat discriminatory language immediately. Do not tolerate any discriminatory language against anyone by gender, sexual orientation, race or religion, or disability. Sending a clear message that this kind of negative language is not tolerated in a classroom makes it safer for all students. It also educates students who may not realize how damaging their language can be.

Provide choice in sports and recreation. Students with physical disabilities, like cerebral palsy, are routinely left out of physical activities. Even those with limitations can participate, although they may need modifications or assistive devices. The choice is important in sport. If the only offerings are baseball or football, it may be impossible for everyone to participate. Provide more options for recreation, and more students can be included.

Communicate with parents. Sometimes parents can provide insights that teachers can't get from observing students in the classroom or that students are too shy to share. Parents can tell teachers, for instance, if a child has been struggling to read the board from her seat in the room or if she feels intimidated by a particular student.

Practice collaborative teaching. Collaboration between teachers is so important in providing the best opportunities for all students, but it is not always encouraged. Whenever possible, general and special education teachers should collaborate on creating ways to make every classroom more inclusive for every student.

Inclusion in the classroom-and in school in general-is essential for every student at every age. Not being included can lead to low self-esteem, lack of confidence, lack of social engagement, and academic, emotional, and physical development deficits.

Exclusion is often not intentional, but to ensure that students who are too often left out get all the opportunities of other students, teachers have to be active participators in inclusion.

Lifelong Financial Assistance for Your Child's Birth Injury Cerebral Palsy

Get Help Now

References

A guide to disability rights laws. (2020, February). U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division Disability Rights Section
Retrieved from: https://www.ada.gov/cguide.htm

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Teacher Tips for Inclusive Classrooms | Cerebral Palsy Guidance

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Inclusion is so important for all students, but especially for those with cerebral palsy who are more likely to be excluded.

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Kids Health provides tips for teachers who are looking for information on what an IEP is and how to use it in the classroom while providing additional resources and audio functions.

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Students who require extra help and support might be eligible for special services that provide individualized education programs (IEPs) in public schools, free of charge to families. Understanding your role in educating a student with an IEP will benefit both you and the student.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) makes teachers of students with special needs responsible for planning, implementing, and monitoring educational plans to help the students succeed in school. The IEP describes the goals set for a student for the school year, and any special support needed to help reach those goals.

The IDEA requires states to provide free appropriate public education to students who are eligible for special education from ages 3 to 21, in the "least restrictive" environment. This means that kids with disabilities should learn alongside their classmates who don't have disabilities as much as possible.

Who Needs an IEP?

Students who are eligible for special education services require an IEP. Students could be eligible for many reasons, such as if they have:

Students might have a learning disability if they are consistently unable to meet standards that are normal for their age range. Some common signs of a learning disability can include:

trouble mastering tasks or applying academic skills to other tasks

trouble with communication and language processing, as well as expressive and receptive language

a lot of frustration with school and homework

having strong general knowledge, but not being able to read (dyslexia), write (dysgraphia), or do math (dyscalculia) at that level

needing ongoing, step-by-step guidance for tasks

poor grades despite a lot of effort

poor memory of spoken or written material

not being able to remember problem-solving steps if they don't understand the tasks or the logic behind them

not being able to remember skills and facts over time

How Are Services Delivered?

Usually, the services outlined in an IEP can be provided in regular education classrooms. In other cases, they might be given in separate classrooms or even separate schools, depending on the students' needs. Some students may have an IEP for one subject area only, while others may have one for all academic subjects and for social skills instruction.

Students with IEPs can participate in all subject areas, especially classes like science, social studies, art, music, library, gym, and health. It is critical for regular classroom teachers to read students' IEPs and be familiar with the services and monitoring required by the plan.

Services can also be provided in a separate supported environment within the school. In this setting, groups of students with similar needs are together for small-group instruction. A certified special education teacher is the instructor and other school personnel (aides or support teachers) help with teaching.

Students who need intense intervention, though, may be taught in a special school environment. These schools have fewer students per teacher, allowing for more individualized attention. Teachers in these schools usually have specific training in helping students with special educational needs.

How Are Students Evaluated?

The referral process generally begins when a teacher, parent, or doctor is concerned that a child may be having trouble in the classroom.

The first step is to gather specific data regarding the student's progress or academic problems. This may be done through:

a conference with parents

a conference with the student

observations of the student

analysis of the student's performance (attention, behavior, work completion, tests, classwork, homework, etc.)

This information helps teachers and school personnel decide on the next step. Strategies specific to the student could be used to help them be more successful in school prior to any formal testing. If this doesn't work, the child can receive an educational assessment, which could identify a specific learning disability or other health problem.

Note: The presence of a disability doesn't automatically guarantee a child will get services. To be eligible, the disability must affect how the child does at school.

To decide on eligibility, a team of professionals will consider their observations, as well as how the child does on standardized tests and daily work such as tests, quizzes, classwork, and homework.

Who's on the Team?

The professionals on the evaluation team can include:

classroom teachers

occupational therapist

physical therapist

psychologist

special educator

speech therapist

vision or hearing specialist

others, depending on the child's specific needs

If more testing is needed, parents will be asked to sign a permission form that details who is involved in the process and the types of tests they use. These tests might include measures of specific school skills, such as reading or math, as well as more general developmental skills, such as speech and language.

After the team members finish their assessments, a comprehensive evaluation report is developed. It includes an educational classification and outlines the skills and support the child will need.

The parents can review the report before the IEP is developed. If they disagree with it, they will have the chance to work with the school to come up with a plan that best meets the child's needs.

How Is the IEP Developed?

The next step is an IEP meeting, during which the team and parents decide what will go into the plan. Also, a regular classroom teacher should attend to offer suggestions about how the plan can help the child's progress in the standard education curriculum and how it can be used in a regular classroom setting, if that's appropriate.

At the meeting, the team will discuss a student's educational needs - as described in the evaluation report - and develop specific, measurable short-term and annual goals for each of those needs.

What Does the IEP Include?

The cover page of the IEP outlines the related services and supports students will get and how often they will be provided. These can include many different things; for example, transportation; speech-language pathology and audiology services; psychological services; physical therapy and occupational therapy; recreation, including therapeutic recreation; social work services; and medical services (for diagnostic and evaluation purposes only).

If the team recommends several services, the amount of time they take in the child's school schedule can seem overwhelming. To ease that load, a professional may talk with a child's teacher to come up with ways to help but won't offer hands-on instruction. For example, an occupational therapist may suggest accommodations for a child with fine-motor problems that affect handwriting, and the classroom teacher would incorporate these into the handwriting lessons taught to the entire class.

Other services can be delivered right in the classroom, so the child's day isn't interrupted by therapy. The child who has trouble with handwriting might work one-on-one with an occupational therapist while everyone else practices their handwriting skills. When deciding how and where services are offered, the child's comfort and dignity should be a top priority.

If a child has academic needs and is working below grade level, services may be offered outside the regular education classroom. Students might get small-group instruction in a particular subject area (usually language arts or math) by a special education teacher along with other students who have similar needs.

How Often Should the IEP Be Updated?

The IEP should be reviewed annually to update the goals and ensure the levels of service meet the student's needs. During the school year, progress monitoring is done often to make sure the student is achieving goals set in the IEP. IEPs can be changed at any time on an as-needed basis.

Specific timelines ensure that the development of an IEP moves from referral to providing services as quickly as possible. Be sure to ask about this timeframe and stay informed.

If parents disagree with any part of the evaluation report or the IEP, mediation and hearings are options.

It is important for teachers to understand the IEP process and their role in delivering instruction to students who have an IEP. Any questions related to an IEP can be directed to the team or the case manager assigned to a student.

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Individualized Education Programs (IEPs): Tips for Teachers

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IEPs make teachers of students with special needs responsible for planning, implementing, and monitoring educational plans to help the students succeed in school. This article is for educators.

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Debra Vines TEDx Talk helps parents and caregivers of people with disabilities navigate systems of social services and academic institutions.

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Parents of Children with Special Needs Have Needs, Too | Debra Vines | TEDxOakParkSalon

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This website can be used for teachers to make distinctions between what a low and high incidence disability looks like and how to address it properly.

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Low-Incidence Disabilities reflect in students that make up 20% of all students with disabilities. Friend and Bursuck (2012) say students with low-incidence disabilities: have received some type…

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Nate Network looks at assistive technology in Text-To-Speech (TTS) modalities and how it can exponentially benefit students with high incidence disabilities.

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Traditional Reading Instruction is designed to support readers' ability to decode and make the connection between the sounds heard and letters read. It leaves behind a group of students who may never achieve a level of speed, fluency, and accuracy that supports their emotional, social, cognitive, and intellectual development. And it leaves the struggling reader with little to no energy or capacity left to solve the word, make sense of it, and then do something with it (i.e., comprehend or respond) (Hirsch, 2003).

About 90% of students with learning disabilities (LD) have significant difficulties in literacy (Vaugh, Linan-Thompson, & Hickman, 2003). These students are more likely than their peers to be disengaged from the learning process (Seo, Brownell, Bishop, & Dingle, 2005).
What AT is most commonly used to support reading?
Text-to-speech (TTS) software is the most common AT used for students struggling with reading. It works very well for some, but not all. Must be tried for multiple sessions to see if it will make a difference. Programs have varying features, including reading rate, voice type, document tagging (which affects reading order), and dynamic highlighting.

There is a learning curve to using TTS, not just its operation, but how to make it work effectively for you. Some students with similar disabilities may be more skilled at decoding than others and may benefit differently from TTS. Some may have co-morbid diagnoses, such as attention deficit/hyperactive disorder, which may affect their reading performance. In addition, personality and social factors interact with each student's disability and may either facilitate or inhibit TTS use.

TTS increases vocabulary, increases reading speed, and provides exposure to correct pronunciation. Stodden, Roberts, Takahishi, Park, & Stodden (2012) found that TTS needs to be used for at least 40 minutes per week for one semester. Its use allows more room in active memory for constructing meaning and leaves students less fatigued.

Several studies show that the use of TTS increases reading comprehension and reading rate (Young, Courtad, Douglas, & Chunr, 2019, Moorman, Boon, Keller-Bell, Stagliana, & Jeffs, 2010, and Gruner, Ostberg, & Hedenius, 2017). Gruner, et. al. also found that using TTS increased the time students spent on reading.

One interesting finding is that students may feel they finish reading tasks more quickly and read more fluently even when they don't (Meyer & Bouck, 2014). This may be related to feeling less fatigued after using TTS to access text. Additionally, TTS allows students to customize viewing, interacting, and pacing of the text. These enhance student engagement, interest, and motivation (Reinking, 2005; Strangman & Dalton, 2005). Coleman, Carter, & Kildare (2011) found that a faster rate often increased comprehension, so it is worth trying different rates to see if it makes a difference.

Using TTS technology does not mean that students don't have to be skilled readers. It means that the computer has become their decoding eyes. They must then: add expression, reread with fluency, create pictures in their mind, make connections, and make sense of it all (Parr, 2013).

The Iowa Text Reader Longitudinal study of TTS found students accessed the computer passages using TTS at 160 words per minute, while they read paper probes at 79 words per minute. They alternated conditions each week on probes to eliminate bias. When using TTS, students accessed twice as much text with in the same amount of time. In the second year of the study, students were able to access twice as much information with improved comprehension, even when material became more difficult. The use of the TTS allowed students to demonstrate improved comprehension scores on factual and inferential (higher level thinking) comprehension questions and the students moved to more fluid use more quickly the second year (week 7 vs. 11). Their comprehension also improved. Teachers reported improved academic performance, better on-task behavior, and more engagement when using TTS (Hodapp & Rachow, 2010).

Wood, Moxley, Tighe, & Wagner (2017) completed a definitive meta-analysis of studies of TTS. They excluded students without identified LD. And included single subject design studies. They found the use of text-to-speech tools has a significant impact on reading comprehension scores for students with learning disabilities.
How can we decide when to try TTS?
Parr (2013) reviewed the research and found that TTS appears best for students with:

slow or inaccurate decoding that does not correlate to their cognitive and intellectual potential (i.e., less than 90% accuracy);

lower levels of fluency, typically 24 to 92 words per minute;

high levels of listening comprehension that can be activated by TTS;

low levels of confidence and/or internal motivation that lead to reader reluctance and withdrawal;

pacing and attentional difficulties that can be regulated by TTS; and

the need for multiple readings of assigned text.

Do Students need other instruction with TTS?
Although Moorman, Boon, Keller-Bell, Stagliano and Jeffs (2010) found that TTS increased reading rate and comprehension for two students with learning disabilities, TTS alone is usually not enough. Training is still needed in comprehension because students may have missed the opportunity to learn and practice comprehension skills when they were struggling to decode text. It can help them to think aloud about how to self-question and reflect during and after reading. It has also been found to help when students are actively involved in monitoring their understanding and processing text meaning (Edmonds, Vaughn, Wexler, Reutebuch, Cable, Tackett, & Schnakenberg, 2009).
Overall what does the research on TTS show?
Basically, the research on TTS is limited and results are mixed, but overall it supports the use of TTS.

It should be paired with comprehension strategy training. And must be used a long enough time for the student to become skilled in its use before expecting to see results. It is best to talk with each student about how it is working/not working for him or her.
Does experience with TTS have any impact on reading without assistance?
There has been very little research focused on whether the use of TTS has any effect when the student is reading without the assistance of TTS. One preliminary study of struggling readers (including many with a formal LD diagnosis) in the 9th grade focused on their reading performance when not using the assistance of TTS. They found significant increases in both reading vocabulary and reading comprehension (Park, Takahashi, Roberts, & Delise, 2017). One limitation of this study was that while the TTS was used for an average of 582 minutes per semester, the range of use was 52 minutes to 2175 minutes. There was no way to look at a difference in performance related to amount of TTS use.
What other AT is used to support students struggling with reading?
Graphic Organizer can help students take notes, comprehend content, make connections within and between information; and participate more in class (Hall and Strangman, 2002; Gajria, Jitendra, Sood, & Sacks, 2007).

Even the use of E-books has been shown to be beneficial for some students with disabilities because they allow changes of font size to significantly increased legibility. Siegenthaler, Wurtz, & Groner, (2011) collected eye-tracking data on the participants and found a significant decreased fixation on the text when compared to paper books, They found the decreased time of fixation represented an increase in legibility.

While some studies have found the use of audio books can improve comprehension when compared to reading (Boyle, Rosenberg, Connelly, Washburn, Brinckerhoff, & Banerjee, 2003) other studies suggest it is possibly better suited to recreational reading than text book reading. Daniel & Woody (2010) had students without disabilities listen to podcasts or read a text. Students initially reported preferring to listen, but on a test two days later the listeners scored 59% while the readers scored 81%. Student's individual preferences and abilities affect the utility and effectiveness of AT for reading.

One area where audio books may have a big impact is in vocabulary. Good readers read about 60 minutes a day and struggling readers read about 1 minute per day. This leaves struggling readers with a real deficit in what Beck, McKeown, & Kucan (2013) identify as Tier 2 vocabulary words. Those are the higher level words which are found frequently in text, but are rarely used in oral language. Their research shows that hearing text aloud can: increase comprehension and knowledge of content, increase vocabulary and improve accuracy and fluency in visual reading.

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AT for Reading for Students with High Incidence Disabilities

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Traditional Reading Instruction is designed to support readers' ability to decode and make the connection between the sounds heard and letters read. It leaves behind a group of students who may never achieve a level of speed, fluency, and accuracy that supports their emotional, social, cognitive, and intellectual development.

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This is a database by the IDEA Partnership that provides resources for teachers who have students with high-incidence disabilities and for parents who are looking for support systems. Included are Federal and IDEA Partnered supports.

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individuals with disabilities education improvement act

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Dedicated to improving outcomes for students and youth with disabilities through shared work and learning.

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This short documentary "Our Voices" looks at the life of a parent who has a child with a disability in a classroom environment.

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Our Voices: Giving a voice to parents of children with disabilities

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ProdigyGame provides information on principles of UDL and shares great examples of how they look in the classroom in a contemporary context.

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School Leaders

School Leadership

When something is universal, it applies to everyone. So, when hearing the term universal design for learning(or UDL), it makes sense to imagine it as a blanket format that covers all students.

But is that really what UDL is all about?

In this guide, you're going to learn that universal design for learning is focused on flexibility and adaptability to different types of students.

But that's not all.

By the end of this article, you'll be completely equipped to use UDL in your school, for the benefit of teachers and students' learning outcomes.

What is Universal Design for Learning?

To start, let's define universal design for learning.

While the word 'universal' may make this seem like a one-size-fits-all program, that is actually the opposite of what UDL stands for.

In everyday life, we constantly run into examples of universal design. This includes things like closed-captions, text-to-speech features on your smartphone, or other things that we normally label 'accessibility features'.

In principle, universal design for learning is the same: it is an adaptive learning program that allows equal opportunity for all students.

But, this raises a question:

Is Universal Design for Learning only applicable to students with learning and attention issues?
First, let me ask you this: have you ever used an automatic door?

Let's face it: if you have two legs and two arms that work, you're not the person that door was designed for. However, if your hands are full of groceries, or you're at the end of an exhausting day of work, an automatic door is quite useful.

The same idea applies in the classroom.

While universal design for learning (UDL) does greatly benefit students with learning and attention issues, it is also beneficial for the average student.

Each student has their own specific strengths and weaknesses. This can have absolutely nothing to do with attention disorders or learning disabilities: it is simply how their unique brain takes in and processes information most easily.

By applying universal design for learning in the classroom, all students are allowed to take in, digest, and express information in the way that is easiest for them. This improves the learning experience for everyone, and helps each individual student to expand his or her knowledge of the subject without the constraints of the traditional classroom.

Ultimately, UDL can be defined as a teaching method that aims to make learning accessible to every student's individual needs, regardless of the challenges and barriers they may face.

Basic principles of UDL

According to CAST, there are 3 key principles of UDL:

1. Engagement: The why of learning

Everything starts with how students engage with the class and the subject.

This principle encompasses the ideas of motivation, building on the interests of the students. The area of engagement also helps students to see the reasons why they should learn what they're learning, and makes it relevant to their life.

This also includes helping students become self-motivated by guiding them through rubrics that allow for self-reflection and personal goals.

The goal of engagement in UDL: To give students purpose and motivation to learn.

2. Representation: The what of learning

Allowing students to choose the methods by which they take in information allows for all types of students to thrive as they interact with subject materials.

Customization is key here. This involves providing multiple ways to assimilate subject material, such as textbooks, audio files, digital books, or images and graphs. It also implies customization and flexibility within those formats.

With this kind of flexibility, students have access to the material that best suits their needs. This is useful for children with disabilities such as dyslexia, as well as for average students who simply perform better when listening to instruction than when reading, for example.

The goal of representation in UDL: To allow students to be more resourceful and knowledgeable.

3. Action and expression: The How of learning

Once students have taken in the information, it's time for them to express and show what they've learned.

This principle of universal design for learning takes into account the differences of students' manner of expression. Flexibility is provided in the way that students show their knowledge of the subject, meaning they can choose not to perform a test and instead opt for a more adaptive expression that fits their strengths.

Action and expression also touches on the idea of goal-setting for students. Here, teachers help students set goals for learning, and guide students through monitoring their own progress.

The goal of action and expression in UDL: To help students to become more strategic and goal-directed.

Universal Design for Learning examples and guidelines

Are you ready to see what universal design for learning looks like in the classroom?

Here are 13 different guidelines for how to use universal design for learning, along with examples that show what it looks like in practice. Follow these guidelines to make universal design for learning a part of your school.

Examples of engagement in UDL

Let's first look at examples of UDL through the principle of engagement:

1. Know the strengths and weaknesses of students

In order to correctly apply universal design for learning in the classroom, it's important for teachers to be aware of the strengths and weaknesses of each student.

This can be as easy as asking each student how they want to learn that day's lesson, and offering different choices for the content used, the reward applied, the tools used for gathering information or producing results, or the order of tasks to be completed.

It also may be helpful for teachers to take note of which students excel when using certain formats, or even to involve parents in helping find their children's strengths and weaknesses in learning.

2. Give students specific learning goals

Teachers have one very obvious goal: to help students to learn. In fact, within the lesson plan they may already have goals in mind for specific information that children should know by a certain point in the school year.

To help motivate and engage students, why not include them in the goal process?

A great example of this is posting lesson goals for all the students to see in the classroom. To do this, teachers must have one clear goal for each lesson. Then, they can discuss this goal with the class at the beginning of the lesson and write it out in a visible place for the whole class to see.

That way, students know exactly what to expect from the lesson, and will feel more motivated to pay attention to complete the lesson goal.

3. Create and follow classroom routines

Helping students to feel safe in their learning environment is essential to a productive and motivated classroom. One great example of universal design for learning is creating classroom routines that help students feel secure.

While this helps adapt to students with disabilities such as autism, it's good for all students to get used to classroom routines. This means structuring class time so that each student knows what they should be doing and when.

This can still allow for flexibility in the order or time spent on subtasks, but helps students to know exactly where they are in the lesson.

4. Provide prompts that let students know it's time to ask for help

It's true that some students will have more trouble with certain aspects of a lesson than others. But, instead of simply getting frustrated and giving up, students need to know when to ask for help.

Unfortunately, not all students will recognize when it's time to ask for help.

That's where providing prompts comes in. For example, a math teacher could set a specific amount time that each student should spend on a problem. If they can't solve the problem in 2 minutes, for example, they should ask the teacher or a peer for help in understanding the problem.

This helps students to avoid unnecessary frustration and continue learning effectively.

5. Group learners with common interests or learning strengths and weaknesses

By now, teachers should be aware of which students learn better through audio descriptions, which students have specific interests or which students require a particular learning process.

When there are several students who share the same learning style or who have common interests, these can be grouped together for specific activities in the classroom.

For example, students who prefer to create a video instead of completing a written essay can be grouped together to create a video project together.

Group work can help students to reinforce skills by teaching others, it can also improve their collaborative and social-emotional learning skills too.

6. Provide flexible classrooms

Flexibility in the classroom also involves the physical space where students are learning. Try flexible seating by switching up the furniture arrangements to make students feel more comfortable (which, in turn, makes them more productive).

This could mean getting some bean-bag chairs or exercise balls, or even standing desks, mats for the floor, or stools with high-top tables. Flexible seating helps students who have trouble sitting in one place, and gives all students the ability to choose their best workspace.

Examples of representation in UDL

7. Display Information in a Flexible Format

Following the information above, teachers should now be aware of how their students learn best.

So, it's time to provide flexible ways of learning.

This could involve a number of different formats, including:

Traditional paper books

Digital books

Text-to-speech

Images or charts

Learning games

Videos

Music

Ideally, students should also have some flexibility within these different formats. For example, using a digital textbook allows students to adjust the size of the font or the color of the background. With a video, students should be able to adjust the speed and volume.

You ultimately want to foster an inclusive learning environment where the content can be delivered to suit every student's learning needs.

8. Adapt information for multilingual students

Schools nowadays are becoming more and more international. When viewed in a positive light, this international flair can boost the atmosphere of a classroom and make it more inclusive.

However, adaptive representation of information is essential in this aspect of universal design for learning.

How can teachers apply this principle in a multilingual classroom?

Whenever possible, students should be able to access information in both the dominant language of the school and in their own native language.

Teachers can also provide visual aids to help clarify vocabulary that is unfamiliar to students, or provide multilingual students with dictionaries either in paper or digital format. ESL students can be disadvantaged in assessments due to language barriers, even if they have a strong command of the topic.

Adaptability in this area also applies to deaf and hearing-impaired students. Teachers should ensure that there is a visual-only option for these students in all aspects of the classroom, such as assistive captions under videos, automated speech-to-text software, or at best a sign language version of the information.

9. Prompt students to identify key ideas and relationships

In all aspects of life, students must learn to separate critical information from information that isn't as important.

This aspect of universal design for learning can be used in the classroom when teachers prompt students to highlight important phrases from their textbooks, or summarize the important aspects of a video lesson in one sentence.

Teachers should also guide students to build relationships between information they've already learned and what they're currently learning.

For example, a math teacher could help students see the relationship between addition and multiplication, prompting them to draw on past experience to help them learn new concepts.

Examples of action and expression in UDL

10. Create multiple options for expression and assignment completion

Once students have taken in the information, it's time for them to demonstrate their understanding. While a test is the traditional choice for expression, giving students a choice of how they'll complete assignments allows each student to demonstrate his knowledge in a way that is relevant to him or her.

Some options could include:

Creating a video essay

Drawing a comic strip

Completing a test in digital format, or with audio questions

Putting on a group demonstration

Building a physical model

For example, a history teacher may want students to show an understanding of the events that led to World War 2. He could give his students the option to complete a written test, to create a video 'reporting' on the events, or to draw a comic strip that shows which main events led to the start of the war.

That way, each student gets to complete the assignment in the way that is best for them, while all students demonstrate a reasonable understanding of the topic.

See how one teacher utilizes this concept in their learning below:

11. Give access to learning software

Software in the classroom is a great way to be adaptable to different students. For example, language teachers can use language-learning apps and games to help students learn while tracking their progress step-by-step.

Math teachers also love learning software, like Prodigy, because it helps students get involved in the problems and work through the information in a way that is engaging and productive.

12. Provide multiple means for navigation and control

Being adaptable means allowing for adaptive software and hardware for students that have limitations.

For example, with digital content on the computer, students can be allowed to control with voice, joystick, or an adaptive keyboard when necessary.

Alternatives should also be available for students when it comes to the range of motor action required to interact with the materials used in the classroom.

13. Give regular feedback that helps students develop goals and strategies to reach them

Learners need to have a clear picture in their mind of the progress that they are making in class. With regular, personal feedback for students, they're able to see where they are, what progress they've made, and what they still need to accomplish.

While grades are important in this discussion, they are not the only aspect of the student's feedback. Teachers should also include goal planning and achievement when giving feedback.

Teachers should also help students through their own self-evaluation. For example, during feedback sessions they can ask questions as:

Do you feel like you reached the lesson goal for today?

How close do you think you got to reaching your goal?

What do you think you could've done differently to reach that goal?

What skills have you learned this week that you didn't know last week?

How do you plan on reaching our lesson goal for tomorrow?

This helps students to learn how to reflect on their own activities and make plans that help them reach their own learning goals.

Put Universal Design for Learning into Practice!

Universal design for learning is an incredible tool in the classroom. As we've seen, using this method in your school will help all students to learn in the way that works best for them, improving their knowledge of the subjects they're learning.

UDL also helps teachers focus their efforts on the students that need it most, while allowing all students to thrive in an equalized classroom. In a classroom using universal design for learning, there are no students with limitations, only students who accomplish the same tasks and learn the same information with different methods.

Put universal design for learning into practice in your school this year, and your students will grow beyond your expectations.

Are you a math teacher? Prodigy Math is a game-based learning platform that makes it easy to tailor learning to every students in just a few clicks.

But that's not all.

But, this raises a question:

Some options could include:

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Universal Design for Learning: Principles and Examples for 2023

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In this guide, you're going to learn that universal design for learning is focused on flexibility and adaptability to different types of students, and more!

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This chapter from a Guide to Special Education looks at the different elements of inclusion and exclusion of students with disabilities. Showing how inclusion is necessary function of a disabled students progress in development.

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The Human Rights Campaign looks to teachers in this article and provides tips on how to make classrooms more inclusive for students at all levels.

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Back to School is a busy time for educators as they set up their students for success -- laminating name tags, creating bulletin boards and writing lesson plans. They know that for many children, the first few days back to school can make or break their year. As educators sharpen their pencils, the HRC Foundation's Welcoming Schools program is working to ensure that schools also take the time to make classrooms a welcoming place for all by cultivating an LGBTQ and gender-inclusive learning environment.

Don't know where to start? HRC is here to help with these tips for developing LGBTQ and gender-inclusive classrooms and schools:

1. Use inclusive language on all forms. Back to school means paperwork for families. Educators can make the process welcoming by ensuring all handbooks, forms and other communications are inclusive of all family structures and gender identities (e.g., using phrases such as "families and caring adults" in place of "moms and dads").

2. Stock your library shelves with diverse books. Make sure students have access to books that reflect not only their lives but also identities and perspectives outside their experiences. Challenge stereotypes by featuring a Welcoming Schools recommended book as a first day read-aloud.

3. Create a welcoming bulletin board. We know displays are important features in every classroom, so why not switch out the apples and school buses for a display that shows diverse family structures and people of different races, gender expressions and abilities? Use slogans that encourage respect for all people. For an easy visual, print a Welcoming Schools safe school sign.

4. Develop clear classroom and/or school agreements. Educators must ensure that bullying policies specifically name groups that are disproportionately bullied or harassed, and then make it clear to students that this means no put-downs about who someone is or who their family is. Preventing bias-based bullying starts on day one.

5. Prepare for teachable moments. Educators can practice how to respond when they hear students say things like "That's gay!" or "You act like a girl!" or "You're not a real family because you don't have a dad!" Be prepared to interrupt mean teasing about a child's identity or their family.

6. Model inclusive language. Instead of addressing classes as "boys and girls," try using non-gendered words like "students," "scholars," or "friends" to be more inclusive of all identities.

7. Group students according to something other than gender. There's no need to have boys' closets and girls' cubbies. Divide children by number or line them up by birth month, color of clothing or alphabetically by name.

8. Try a new lesson plan. Educators can give one of the Welcoming Schools lessons a try and start the year by teaching students how to be allies and learning about what makes each child special.

9. Plan a family night. Hold an evening event to celebrate all families. Provide information for families and caring adults to help them talk with their children about LGBTQ and gender topics.

For more strategies and resources, visit the HRC Foundation Welcoming Schools website. Welcoming Schools is here to support you. HRC wishes you and the children in your care a wonderful 2018-19 school year.
Housed by the HRC Foundation, Welcoming Schools and Time to THRIVE are national programs designed to help LGBTQ youth succeed. Welcoming Schools is the nation's premier professional development program providing LGBTQ and gender inclusive to schools to reduce bullying behavior and establish a positive school climate. Time to THRIVE is an annual national conference that brings together K-12 educators, counselors and other youth-serving professionals to build awareness and cultural competency to better support LGBTQ youth.

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Tips for Making Classrooms More Inclusive

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Back to School is a busy time for educators as they set up their students for success -- laminating name tags, creating bulletin boards and writing lesson plans.

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This video looks specifically at students with dyslexia and how teachers can make modifications and accommodations for the student.

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This website gives supporting ideas for making an inclusive classroom for students with Autism.

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Supporting Students with Autism: 10 Ideas for Inclusive Classrooms

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Students with autism may have unique needs with learning, social skills, and communication. These ten simple ideas will help teachers address some of these needs and provide guidance for bringing out the best in learners with autism.

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This article is best used for parents but can also be of use to teachers who want more background knowledge on if an IEP or 504 plan would work better for a specific student.

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How to Get an IEP: After the School Assessment

After the school completes its evaluation and assessment of your child, it will send you a letter scheduling a meeting to discuss whether your child qualifies for an IEP or a 504 Plan. A 504 Plan is usually offered as sort of a consolation prize for students who are deemed not sufficiently disabled to qualify for an IEP.

In some cases, the school will determine that a child is ineligible for services and will notify you by letter. Schools usually do not hold a meeting to notify you about ineligibility for services. Of course, you can dispute the finding by requesting an IEE at the school's expense ( see Step 6).

Some school teams will assess the child and make their recommendations of 504 Plan services without your input. Other schools seek the input of parents to discuss services. With IEPs, parents are a designated part of the team and must participate in all phases of applying for and determining services like ADHD accommodations.
[Free Chart Comparing IEPs to 504 Plans]
At the assessment meeting, parents are entitled to have all assessment information explained to them before the next meeting at which accommodations and services are to be determined. Parents should ask the person who administered the assessment to give them a copy of the report and meet with them to explain the report several days before the assessment meeting. This enables the parents to think through the information before making decisions for their child. If all IEP decisions are based on the information from the assessment, parents should be informed about the assessment results in a way they can understand.

Depending on the school district, some IEP and 504 Plan teams propose accommodations and services at the assessment meeting. It is a better idea for parents to request a second meeting to discuss specific accommodations and services. This gives them time to review the assessment with their child's doctor, therapist, or learning specialist.

The school assessment team recommended that a 504 Plan would work best for my son. I thought an IEP would better suit his challenges. What are the differences between an IEP and a 504 Plan?

Let's start at the beginning. There are two laws governing special services and accommodations for children with disabilities: the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. These laws are different.

All schools receiving federal funding are required to provide services under Section 504, but IDEA applies to all students, even those in private schools that do not receive federal funding. Children with ADHD often receive services under Section 504 because the requirements for IDEA are more stringent.
[Expert Webinar: How to Fight for Your Child's Rights - and Happiness]
Under IDEA, there are 13 specific categories of disabilities:

1. Autism Spectrum Disorder

2. Blindness

3. Deafness

4. Emotional Disturbance

5. Hearing Impairment

6. Intellectual Disability

7. Multiple Disabilities

8. Orthopedic Impairment

9. Other Health Impaired (ADHD is covered in this category)

10. Specific Learning Disability

11. Speech or Language Impairment

12. Traumatic Brain Injury

13. Visual Impairment

ADHD falls into the classification of Other Health Impaired (OHI). Because IDEA is very specific, children who have been diagnosed with ADHD only are often denied services under this law. If your child has another challenge, such as a learning disability, this law might apply. If your child's ADHD is so severe that it causes major impairment, he might qualify under IDEA. If so, a document called an Individualized Education Program (IEP) is designed to outline services, accommodations, special education, and goals for your child.

The IEP document is usually about 10 to 12 pages long. It must contain goals and transitional services that might be needed after high school.

Under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the needs of children with physical and mental impairments are required to be met as adequately as those of children without disabilities.
[Free Guide: Easy Accommodations to Help Students with ADHD or LD]
It covers children with ADHD who do not meet the eligibility requirements for an IEP, but who need extra help at school. It is common for children diagnosed with ADHD to receive a 504 Plan.

To be eligible for services under Section 504, you must have a disability. A disability is considered a physical or mental impairment that "substantially limits one or more major life activities." Learning is considered a major life activity. That means, if ADHD limits your child's ability to learn in an educational setting, he may qualify for accommodations or services under Section 504 - things like extended time on tests, cues from the teacher to keep the student focused, and so on.

The Section 504 document is less formal than an IEP. Most are two pages long, and some are only one. It lists all services, accommodations, and modifications your child will receive. Unlike the IEP, the 504 document does not include goals or transitional services after high school.

The easiest way to think about the differences between an IEP and a 504 Plan is that, if a student needs accommodations only in a regular classroom, he will generally get a 504 Plan. If the student needs special education services outside of a regular classroom, he will qualify for an IEP.

Can my child get the same services under a 504 Plan as an IEP?

Yes, a child can receive any services, accommodations, or modifications deemed necessary under Section 504, except for special education.

Both an IEP and a 504 Plan are binding legal documents. That means that once your child has received an IEP or Section 504, the school does not have the right to deny services or accommodations listed in the document. For older children, the IEP must include a transition plan for life after high school.

Teachers, even if they don't agree with an accommodation, must follow the document. Suppose your child's 504 Plan provides for her to receive extra time to take tests, but the teacher doesn't think your child needs this accommodation. If the teacher refuses to provide the extra time, you have the right to file a complaint or ask for a due process hearing (see Step 12).

Consider Adam and Christine, who both live in the same school district. Adam has ADHD and severe dyslexia. His reading is two grade levels below the average. He attends regular education classes at some times during the day, but also attends special education classes to help with his dyslexia and give him extra help in reading. Adam has an IEP.

Christine has ADHD and dyslexia. She struggles with reading and spelling but is at grade level. She is in a regular education class and doesn't require any special education. She does need help, such as extra time on tests or taking tests orally, dividing assignments into small sections, and getting a copy of notes from the teacher. Christine has a 504 Plan.

Both Adam and Christine have ADHD and dyslexia. Adam, however, is two grade levels below in reading, while Christine is reading at grade level. According to the school district, dyslexia does not qualify a student for an IEP unless the child is at least 1.5 grade levels behind. That is why Adam qualified for IDEA, but Christine did not.

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Is an IEP or 504 Plan Best for Your Child? How to Decide

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Which is better for a child with ADHD: an IEP or a 504 Plan? Here, understand the differences in accommodations and special services, learn how to secure the most effective school help for your child, and understand how the process works from the first assessment to the final paperwork.

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The Inclusive Education Project Podcast looks at the life of a disabled individual and allows for educators to learn more about their life experience.

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The programs at Best Buddies International empower those with special abilities to develop meaningful friendships with their peers, secure successful jobs, live independently, improve their public speaking, self-advocacy and communication skills, and to feel valued by society.

Today's guest is Sarah Won, the Director...

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Disability rights is the next frontier in civil rights. We believe education is the key to building an inclusive society and ensuring that all students are given an equal opportunity. The Inclusive Education Project Podcast, hosted by Special Education and Civil Rights attorneys, Amanda Selogie and Vickie Brett, offers a fresh, smart perspective on what it takes to truly make our educational systems and communities inclusive.

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This source provides an abundance of information on students with Central Auditory Processing Disorders (CAPD) and how CAPD can be addressed in the classroom.

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This source provides examples for teachers who want to know more about different types of assistive technologies to use for students with learning disabilities.

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Prepared by Gabrielle Young, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Memorial University of Newfoundland and Jeffrey MacCormack, M.Ed., Doctoral Student, Queen's University
Assistive technology refers to the devices and services that are used to increase, maintain, or improve the capabilities of a student with a disability (Dell, Newton, & Petroff, 2012). While the phrase assistive technology may make us think of computers and computerized devices, assistive technology can also be very low-tech. For example, pencil-grips (the molded plastic grips that slip over a pencil) are considered assistive technology. Assistive technology that helps students with learning disabilities includes computer programs and tablet applications that provide text-to-speech (e.g., Kurzweil 3000), speech-to-text (e.g., Dragon Naturally Speaking), word prediction capabilities (e.g., WordQ), and graphic organizers (e.g., Inspiration).

In comparison to other interventions, assistive technology may have a significant effect in helping students with disabilities progress towards the goals outlined on their Individual Education Plans (Watson, Ito, Smith, & Andersen, 2010). Assistive technology helps in two ways: it can help the student learn how to complete the task and it can help to bypass an area of difficulty. For example, when a student decides to listen to a digital version of a book, they are bypassing an area of difficulty. However, if the student focuses on the computer screen as highlighted words are read aloud, they can learn unfamiliar words.

Assistive Technology Summary Points

1. Assistive technology ranges from low- to high-tech.

2. Assistive technology can be used in two ways: to support learning and to bypass a challenging task such as handwriting.

3. In order to be effective, assistive technology needs to be embedded within quality instruction.

Laptop Computers and Computerized Devices: Benefits of Assistive Technology

Laptop computers and tablet devices are beneficial for students with learning disabilities because they are portable and lightweight. For students with handwriting difficulties, being able to take notes on a laptop or computerized device (such as an iPad) can improve the quantity and quality of the notes (Vaughn & Bos, 2009). Using a word processor can help students to complete work that is more organized and includes less spelling errors than handwritten work (Hetzroni & Shrieber, 2004). In addition, students may identify and correct more errors when using spell check than when editing by hand (MacArthur, Graham, Haynes, & De La Paz, 1996; McNaughton, Hughes, & Ofiesh, 1997). However, obtaining personal access to laptops and computerized devices does not ensure engagement and increased academic success (Donovan, Green, & Hartley, 2010). For many students, laptop computers and computerized devices can be too distracting. Teachers and students need to be trained in how to meaningfully integrate technology into academic contexts so that the devices don't detract from learning (Dell, Newton, & Petroff, 2012).

Computer-assisted Instruction

Computer-assisted instruction refers to software and applications that have been designed to provide instruction and practice opportunities on a wide range of devices (e.g., computer, laptop, iPad, mobile technology). Computer-assisted instruction provides immediate and dynamic feedback and students with learning disabilities can benefit from this nonjudgmental computerized drill and practice (Stetter & Hughes, 2010). Computer-assisted instruction has been shown to be helpful for students with learning disabilities in spelling and expressive writing skills (Wanzek et al., 2006) as this software can reduce distractibility (Hecker, Burns, Elkind, Elkind, & Katz, 2002), and can help students learn to read (Lee & Vail, 2005) and achieve other academic outcomes (Chiang & Jacobs, 2009). Computer-assisted instruction is also an effective way for students with learning disabilities to practice math drills (Bouck & Flanagan, 2009), as students who used computer-assisted instruction to practice math skills were able to memorize math facts more easily, and developed a more positive attitude towards math than students who did not use computer-assisted instruction (Adcock et al., 2010).
Computer-assisted Instruction Summary Points Figure 1: Helping students through assistive technology

1. Computer-assisted instruction provides students with dynamic feedback.

2. Computer-assisted instruction can help students practice spelling and multiplication drills.

3. In order to prevent the technology from being a distraction, students need to be taught how to use technology to support their learning

Software Functions

Assistive technology can improve the writing skills of students with learning disabilities (Batorowicz, Missiuna, & Pollock, 2012). Assistive technology can help students to bypass the mechanical aspects of writing. Using spell check and grammar features can help students focus on communicating their ideas and students can write with confidence knowing that they can easily make changes. In addition, being able to submit a final assignment that is neater and better organized supports positive self-esteem. Text-to-speech (e.g., Kurzweil 3000), speech-to-text (e.g., Dragon Naturally Speaking), word prediction (e.g., WordQ) and graphic organizers (e.g., Inspiration) are four useful software functions for students who struggle with language-based learning disabilities.

We may not consider the default functions of word processors to be ground breaking, but for students with learning disabilities, functions such as spell check and text-to-speech can be a tremendous help when composing and decoding words.

Text-to-speech - Text-to-speech software, such as Kurzweil 3000, can read aloud digital or printed text. This is beneficial as students are more likely to understand text when unfamiliar words are read to them (MacArthur, Ferreti, Okolo, & Cavalier, 2001). Text-to-speech can have a positive effect on decoding and word recognition (Raskind & Higgins, 1999), as well as reading fluency and reading comprehension (Izzo, Yurick, & McArrell, 2009; Montali & Lewandowski, 1996; Stodden, Roberts, Takahishi, Park, & Stodden, 2012). Text-to-speech software can be especially helpful for students who retain more information through listening than reading. This software can assist students with monitoring and revising their typed work, as hearing the text read aloud may assist students in catching grammatical errors that may have otherwise gone unnoticed (Raskind & Higgins, 1995; Rao, Dowrick, Yuen, & Boisvert, 2009; Zhang, 2000).

After reviewing the literature, Strangman and Dalton (2005) reported that the use of text-to-speech software can improve students' sight reading and decoding abilities. In addition, text-to-speech software can improve the reading comprehension of individuals with specific deficits in phonological processing (difficulty hearing letter-sounds) as students can learn to decode new words when they are highlighted as they are read aloud (Fasting & Halaas Lyster, 2005; Holmes & Silvestri, 2009). Kurzweil 3000 provides reading, writing, studying, and organizational support for students who have difficulty reading or writing (e.g., Elkind, 1998). The use of Kurweil 3000 software also improves students' perception of their work and their ability to write expressively (Chiang & Jacobs, 2009). Programs such as Kurzweil 3000 may decrease the negative emotions students associate with reading and provide students with a more complete comprehension of the text (Young, 2012), and as a result, text-to-speech programs are recommended for use along with research-supported reading intervention practices.

Speech-to-text - Writing involves low-level transcription skills (e.g., handwriting, spelling, punctuation, and grammar), as well as high-level composition skills (e.g., planning, generating content, and revising). Speech-to-text software transcribes spoken word into computer text, allowing the student to bypass the demands of typing or handwriting; freed from these effortful tasks, students may compose stories that are longer, more complex, and contain fewer errors (Graham, 1999). Speech recognition accuracy improves with use; however, new users can become frustrated with the training process, and they may lack the ability to efficiently edit the program's text output. Titles such as XpressLab are licensed by the Ministry of Education and can be used to improve expressive oral language for students in grade 7-12.
Software Summary Point
Voice recognition software can improve word recognition, spelling, and reading comprehension skills for students with learning disabilities (Higgins & Raskind, 2000). MacArthur and Cavalier (2004) found that for students with learning disabilities, essays dictated using Dragon Naturally Speaking were better than handwritten essays, but essays dictated to a scribe were even better. These authors found a differential impact on students with and without disabilities, providing evidence that this technology removes a barrier based on disability.
Click here to access a list of Ministry of Education approved software titles.
Word Prediction - Word prediction software was originally designed for students with physical disabilities who experienced difficulty typing. However, word prediction with text-to-speech is also effective for students with learning disabilities because it reduces the need for handwriting, and improves students' spelling accuracy and writing skills (Cullen, Richards, & Frank, 2008; Evmenova, Graff, Jerome & Behrman, 2010; Handley-More, Dietz, Billingsley & Coggins, 2003; Lewis, Graves, Ashton, & Kieley, 1998; Silió & Barbetta, 2010). In addition, students may find it enjoyable to have the words recommended through word prediction and be able to form sentences without having to worry about spelling and word-choice (Evmenova et al., 2010).

An analysis of 25 years of research found that word prediction increases transcription accuracy and may also increase word fluency and compositional quality of writing for students with learning and academic difficulties (Peterson-Karlan, 2011). In one particular study, children and their families generally found WordQ to be helpful, and reported improved vocabulary use and increased independence, productivity, and motivation to write (Tam, Archer, Mays, & Skidmore, 2005). While there are potential benefits to the use of WordQ, a basic foundation of phonological awareness is required as students who are unable to identify the beginning sound of words will not benefit from using word prediction software because the user has to provide the first letters of the word (MacArthur, 1999). In addition, word prediction demands a fairly high level of attention to make use of the suggested words (MacArthur, 1998); and as a result, each child must be considered on an individual basis in order to select the appropriate technology for his or her learning needs.

1. Text-to-speech software helps students to bypass the task of decoding words. Seeing individual words highlighted as the text is read aloud may help to improve students' sight word vocabulary.

2. Speech-to-text software bypasses the tasks of handwriting and spelling, allowing the student to concentrate on developing their ideas and planning their work.

3. Speech-to-text software bypasses the tasks of handwriting and spelling, allowing the student to concentrate on developing their ideas and planning their work.

Mid-tech Devices

Mid-tech devices such as audio recorders, portable note takers, mp3 players, calculators, and pentop computers (such as LiveScribe smartpen) can be useful without the cost associated with high-tech devices. For example, the AlphaSmart is a note-taking device that can provide basic word-processing, without the cost related to the purchase and maintenance of a laptop. AlphaSmart devices were discontinued in 2013, but NEO Direct still provides support for users.

Figure 2: Exploring technology for students with learning disabilities
While assistive technology can be low or high-tech, most of the assistive technology for students with learning disabilities is high-tech (Lewis, 1998). Teachers should become familiar with assistive technology and understand how it can be incorporated within their teaching to support an inclusive learning environment.

Graphic Organizers - Graphic organizers benefit individuals who experience difficulty expressing their thoughts on paper as well as visual learners who need to see their ideas mapped out. While graphic organizers completed without technology can help students with learning disabilities to improve the quality of writing (Institute for the Advancement of Research in Education, 2003), electronic versions, such as Inspiration, allow students to arrange their thoughts on the computer screen without worrying about order, level of importance or categories because the text can be easily manipulated. Graphic organizers provide an organizational framework to help writers generate topics and content for writing projects and can assist with the planning and organizational stages of writing, and using concept mapping software can increase the quality and quantity of writing (Sturm & Rankin-Erickson, 2002). Using a web-based graphic organizer with procedural prompts enabled students to produce better organized and higher quality papers, than they could produce with handwritten organizers (Englert, Wu & Zhao, 2005; Englert, Zhao, Dunsmore, Collings, & Woblers, 2007). Being taught a strategy to plan and organize writing can improve the compositions of students with learning disabilities (MacArthur, 2009).

Pentop computers - Pentop computers, such as LiveScribe smart pens, are cheaper than high-tech devices like iPads but can provide text-to-speech, strategy feedback, and other organizational functions. As cost-effective and self-regulated reading aides, pentop computers may be a useful tool for students with reading disabilities (Schmitt, McCallum, Hennessey, Lovelace, & Hawkins, 2012). Pentop computers are also useful because they utilize instruction strategies such as providing auditory feedback during composition or math work. Handheld computerized devices that provide feedback have shown to be helpful for students with learning disabilities for essay composition (Bouck, Bassette, Taber-Doughty, Flanagan, & Szwed, 2009), and receptive note-taking and multiplication skills (Bouck, Flanagan, Miller, & Bassette, 2009). For example, pentop computers are able to provide reminders such as "don't forget to carry" during multiplication questions (Doughty, Bouck, Bassette, Szwed, & Flanagan, 2013).

Calculators and math software - Students with learning disabilities may have a history of academic failure, which contributed to their development of learned helplessness in math. For some students, a fear of failure and low academic self-concept can lead to math related anxiety. While the use of calculators can level the playing field for students with learning disabilities, some research has shown that calculators may provide unfair advantage (Bouck & Flanagan, 2009). Graphing calculators may be particularly effective because they provide visual conformation of the graph-shape. The added advantage of visual data can be highly motivating for students with learning disabilities (Bethell & Miller, 1998). Math drill programs can be an effective way for students to learn to mentally solve math questions (Adcock et al., 2010), they are also effective in increasing motivation and the addition and subtraction skills of students with dyscalculia (Amiripour, Bijan-zadeh, Pezeshki, & Najafi, 2011). Math Trek 1,2,3 is an example of software licensed by the Ministry of Education for use in classroom. Click here to find the full list of approved software titles.

1. Concept organizers, whether completed electronically or by hand, may contribute to better writing in students with learning disabilities.

2. Pentop computers can be used for reading (text-to-speech), writing (digitizing written words), and math (strategy feedback).

3. Calculators can help students with learning disabilities demonstrate their understanding of mathematical computations. Graphing calculators can provide additional support as they verify graph shapes and help solve algebraic equations.

Considerations

Much needs to be done to improve the quality of special education technology research (Edyburn, 2009). Little research has been conducted on the use of assistive technology in inclusive schools (Watson, Ito, Smith, & Andersen, 2010), and only a few researchers are conducting systematic, well-designed research that can lead to confident conclusions on how the use of assistive technology affects learning (Edyburn & Gersten, 2007; MacArthur, Ferretti, Okolo, & Cavalier, 2001; Wanzek et al., 2006). In addition, research cannot be produced quickly enough to match the rate of technological innovations, and as a result, educators tend to rely on the claims of the producers of the technologies rather than evidence-based research (Blackhurst, 2005).

Despite the enthusiasm that may surround the application of assistive technology in the classroom, assistive technology is not a panacea. Lack of common vision, limited training, access to support services, insufficient funding, and lack of teacher time are commonly cited problems in regards to the implementation of assistive technology (Ault, Bausch, & McLaren, 2013; Flanagan, Bouck, & Richardson, 2013; Morrison, 2007; Okolo & Diedrich, 2014). Researchers have noted that there is still an enormous gap between the potential of assistive technology and how much it actually helps (Burne, Knafelc, Melonis, & Heyn, 2011).

Assistive technology can reduce students' dependence on others to read, write, and organize their work (MacArthur, Ferretti, Okolo, & Cavalier, 2001; Mull & Sitlington, 2003). When provided with effective strategy instruction, outlining programs and concept mapping software can help with planning, and word processing, spell check, word prediction, and speech recognition can offer support for transcription and revision (MacArthur, 2009). While assistive technology can support struggling learners, MacArthur (2009) cautions that technology by itself has little impact on learning. In order for students to benefit from the technology, educators must have an understanding of assistive technology and how to embedded it within quality instruction (Batorowicz, Missiuana, & Pollock, 2012; Lee & Vega, 2005; Marino, Marino, & Shaw, 2006; Michaels & McDermott, 2003).

Staff Training

In a large scale survey study nearly three-quarters of respondents indicated that improved staff training and knowledge were the most important actions that could be taken to promote technology use (Okolo & Diedrich, 2014). Assistive technology devices and services have to be coupled with context-appropriate instruction from trained teachers (Specht, Howell, & Young, 2007), as students' successful implementation of assistive technology is directly related to the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of special education teachers (Michaels & McDermott, 2003). While educators acknowledge the potential of assistive technology, they may feel overwhelmed by the responsibility of understanding and using this technology with their students (Lee & Vega, 2005; Ludlow, 2001). Many teachers feel that they lack the knowledge and support to more fully integrate assistive technology into the curriculum (Okolo & Diedrich, 2014). This is not surprizing given that only a third of special education programs surveyed by Judge and Simms (2009) addressed assistive technology, and few workshops or professional development opportunities exist to continually support teachers' use of assistive technology during instruction (Lee & Vega, 2005; Ludlow, 2001; Michaels & McDermott, 2003). Teachers' use and understanding of assistive technology may increase when provided with effective instruction during pre-service education or professional development opportunities (Flanagan, Bouck, & Richardson, 2013; Lee & Vega, 2005). General educators and special educators need to become familiar with assistive and instructional technology so that they can embed this technology within their instruction to meet the needs of all their students (Chmiliar, 2007; Chmiliar & Cheung, 2007; Flanagan, Bouck, & Richardson, 2013).

When recommending the use of assistive technology, one must consider how training can be provided for students, parents, and teachers to become competent with the technology, as well as environmental factors that will continue to support the child in using technology (Specht, Howell, & Young, 2007). Funding should be allotted for the training of teachers to effectively facilitate assistive technology use (Burne, Knafelc, Melonis, & Heyn, 2011), and all educators who support an individual student should be knowledgeable about that child's assistive technology and be able to embed the use of the technology within instruction (Nelson, 2006; Okolo & Diedrich, 2014). Computers shouldn't be restricted to a specific subject area, and the use of technology should not solely occur within a computer lab; rather, assistive and instructional technology should be an integral part of all subjects and the use of these tools should be built into the curriculum. Schools should encourage teaching staff to assume the role of technology co-ordinators as they understand the demands of the curriculum and may be best equipped to find free or low cost educational solutions to help students meet curricular expectations.

1. Due to the limited evidence-based research, teachers tend to make decision about assistive technology based on claims from the software companies.

2. In order to be effective, assistive technology has to be coupled with quality instruction.

3. Teachers require training to support their implementation of assistive technology.

Examples of Assistive Technology by Domain

Receptive
Notepad - Notepads are an excellent way to record information. Students with learning disabilities (LDs) may appreciate having the information colour-coded based on the purpose, topic, or function of the information.

Audiobooks - Provides a simple way to listen to many of the best classic books and modern titles .

Speaking
Cue cards - Cue cards provide helpful hints for the oral presentation of information, and the process of composing cue cards can help organize the information before-hand.

Prezi - A free 3D graphic organizer which can be used to create presentations. Prezis can be collaborative as students can comment and build upon other Prezis.

ShowMe Interactive Whiteboard -In order to reduce anxiety, students may opt to record presentations on their iPad beforehand. Video recordings can be uploaded on YouTube or a more private domain.

Reading
Highlighter strips - Translucent rectangles of colour can help eliminate extra visual clutter by blocking out the rest of the text. Sticky notes - Students with LDs may find it useful to summarize the main ideas of the text with sticky notes which can be stuck directly on the page.

Kurzweil 3000 - Text-to-speech software, such as Kurzweil 3000, can read aloud digital or printed text.

Storyline Online - A free online streaming video program featuring books read aloud. Each book includes accompanying activities and lesson ideas.

Project Gutenberg - Over 45,000 free e-books.

Wikipedia - The Simple English function on Wikipedia allows content to be "translated" into plain English which is easier to read.

Writing
Pencil grips - For students who struggle with handwriting, pencil grips can provide a surface that is easier to manipulate.

Computerized pens - These pens can automatically transmit handwriting into digital text. Some computerized pens have audio-recording functions that allow the writer to listen to specific sections of the audio file by tapping on the written notes.

Word processing - Functions such as spell check, dictionary options, synonym support, and word-prediction features are helpful for students with learning disabilities.

Reasoning
Graphic organizers - Organizing ideas visually allows students with LDs to see the connections between ideas. Audio recorders - Many students with LD experience difficulty translating oral language into written text. Recording ideas early in the thinking process can provide a record for later recall and clarification.

SimpleMind+ - This app allows you to brainstorm and organize your ideas. Completed concept maps can be automatically converted to an outline.

Math
4-function calculator - Depending on the type of work being done, a 4-function calculator can be a great help without providing disproportionate advantage to students with LDs.

Graphing calculator - Graphing computers can solve complex equations, and the dynamic display screen allows the student to verify the results before solving on paper.

Math Dictionary for Kids - An animated, interactive online math dictionary that explains over 600 common mathematical terms in simple language.

Braiing Camp - Animated lessons and interactive activities to assess student understanding.

IXL Math - IXL's math practice skills are aligned with pre-K through Grade 8 provincial curricula, and students' performance is assessed on each objective.

Sumdog - Sumdog's learning engine adapts its math questions to each student's ability. Covering number operations through to simple algebra, it is designed for students age 6 to 14.

ShowMe and ScreenChomp - These apps provide an interactive whiteboard interface to solve problems. The actions on the screen and audio can be recorded and shared as a video file.

References

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Dr. Gabrielle Young is an Assistant Professor at Memorial University of Newfoundland where she teaches undergraduate courses such as the Nature and Characteristics of Learning Disabilities and Inclusive Practices for Students with Learning Disabilities, as well as graduate courses such as the Nature and Assessment of Learning Disabilities. While completing her doctoral studies at Western University, Gabrielle was also actively involved with the Learning Disabilities Association - London Region, where she was Vice-President of the Board. Gabrielle's research interests include: the use of assistive technology by students with special learning needs; learners' self-beliefs and the self-esteem of individuals with learning disabilities; and the use of universal design for learning and differentiated instruction to support the inclusion of students with exceptionalities in the general education classroom. Jeffrey MacCormack is a PhD student at the Faculty of Education, Queen's University, with a focus on cognition. He is a teacher certified by the Ontario College of Teachers with 9 years of experience teaching elementary school. He worked as an instructor at Queen's University and has taught and authored online courses for educators. He is currently conducting research on several topics including: learning disabilities, autism, emotional well-being, and youth development.
Young, G. (2012). Examining assistive technology use, self-concept, and motivation, as students with learning disabilities transition from a demonstration school into inclusive classrooms. Unpublished Doctoral thesis, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada. Retrieved from http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2316&context=etd

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Assistive Technology for Students with Learning Disabilities

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Prepared by Gabrielle Young, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Memorial University of Newfoundland and Jeffrey MacCormack, M.Ed., Doctoral Student, Queen's University Assistive technology refers to the devices and services that are used to increase, maintain, or improve the capabilities of a student with a disability (Dell, Newton, & Petroff, 2012).

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This website shows the ASCD's support for teachers to helping instructors understand and create context around the experience of a student with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

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Abstract

Developing Independence and Confidence

Getting Social

Ready to Read

Independence and Behavior

Preparing for Life After High School

Their Best Hope

Are high schools doing enough to assist autistic teens both in school and beyond?

Abstract

Developing Independence and Confidence

Getting Social

Ready to Read

Independence and Behavior

Preparing for Life After High School

Their Best Hope

With a new generation of teenagers with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) entering public high schools, there is even greater urgency to improve school support for these students. The prevalence of ASD has gone up 150 percent in the last five years (Baio et al., 2018). From our estimates, there are around 256,000 students with ASD in America's high schools, and that number will be increasing. Many of these students will be able to access the general education curriculum and be enrolled in diploma-granting programs, but they will need support in developing social relationships, independently functioning in complex high school settings, and transitioning into the community after high school. In addition, there will still be students with ASD who need significant academic supports provided in special education classes, hopefully with inclusive experiences happening during their days. All students with ASD, by law, deserve individualized programs that consist of scientifically validated practice.

One reason that it is especially important for high schools to provide an effective educational program for students with ASD is that historically, these students have struggled when transitioning to life after high school. Students with autism are less likely than those in any other disability group to be able to find and keep jobs or go on to community college or university programs. Also, they often continue to have difficulties making friends or being involved in social activities in the community. More often than other young adults, they tend to live at home with their parents.

Since we know what the post-high school results are, what can we do to change the design in high schools to produce better life outcomes for young adults with ASD?

Developing Independence and Confidence

When one mixes tumultuous high school settings, the roller coaster ride of adolescent developmental change, and the spectrum of autism, one gets a perfect storm of complexity. Complex problems resist single solutions, and comprehensive responses are required. As key personnel at the Center on Secondary Education for Students with Autism (CSESA), which is funded by the Institute of Education Sciences, we helped design a comprehensive treatment program for high school students with autism. The CSESA program focuses on the areas where high school students face the greatest challenges: social competence, reading comprehension, independence, and transition to community and work.

Getting Social

Students with ASD have great challenges in social competence, including limitations in social communication, social awareness, and social problem solving. If not addressed, these limitations can result in difficulty negotiating and compromising in groups, a lack of friendships, social isolation, and victimization by bullies. Social competence is also important for finding and maintaining employment after graduation.

There are many ways that schools can help teens with ASD develop social skills. Peer buddy programs and social skills groups such as Social Competence Intervention (Stichter, 2016) and Program for Evaluation and Enrichment of Relational Skills (PEERS) (Laugeson, 2013) have helped students with ASD improve their ability to engage in conversation, read the facial expressions of others, and arrange for "get togethers" outside of school. Peers are a natural source of support, and structured time together to foster social interaction at lunch or during an elective period can be beneficial to all students. In addition, activities that are fun yet require peer interaction, such as the games Hedbanz or Jenga, can provide a context for developing social competence and fostering friendships. Peers also can assist students with ASD with organizing tasks, following rules, or even acting as a tutor of content.

If typical peers are aware of effective strategies to foster social communication, they can help their classmates with ASD learn about the "hidden" social curriculum of adolescent peer culture. For example, it may not be obvious to a student with ASD that only seniors hang out in a particular part of campus, or that they can joke with a peer at recess, but it's not always appropriate to do that with the teacher before class. Peer networks also provide an opportunity for students to get to know their classmates with ASD beyond the characteristics that define their disability.

Ready to Read

Individuals with ASD often have challenges with understanding the meaning of texts (such as the main theme, key points, character motivation and perspectives, inferences, and responding to the "wh-" questions). These challenges will affect what they learn in most academic content areas.

At CSESA, we've developed two evidence-based approaches to address reading comprehension skills. The Alternative Achievement Literacy (AAL) program is designed for students with the most limited literacy skills (often students who also have intellectual disability and are enrolled in modified degree programs) (Browder et al., 2016). Students with ASD who read fluently (at the 3rd grade level or above) but are struggling with comprehension can try the Collaborative Strategic Reading program (Reutebuch et al., 2015).

When using either approach, it is important to identify age-appropriate, relevant, and interesting texts. Both start with a review of vocabulary that may be new or challenging for students with ASD (emotional content, pronouns, idioms). As its name suggests, the Collaborative Strategic Reading program is organized for pairs of classmates (a student with ASD and neurotypical peer) to read and review texts. After reading the text, the students ask each other to define words, to describe the main idea, or to predict what will happen in a story. Each is also encouraged to ask "wh-" questions about the text. As students get to know each other, they often make this into a game. One instructor used the peer-generated questions on a final quiz administered to the entire class.

When altering texts for AAL, teachers should make as few adaptions as necessary for the student to comprehend the meaning. Perhaps a required text such as Romeo and Juliet can be modified by removing some of the advanced vocabulary, and, if needed, adding pictures to represent the central characters or nouns such as sword, tongue, or villain. Following the reading of a few lines of text, teachers use as little prompting as necessary to assist the student. First teachers ask the student a question about the text. For some students, they may use a prompt board to provide a choice of pictures or words to narrow the possible answers. After the student responds correctly to a prompt, the teacher starts delaying the prompt to give the student a chance to independently respond to the question.

Independence and Behavior

Even the most academically competent student with ASD may struggle with the need for routine, a lack of organizational skills, intolerance of change, sensitivity to sensory stimuli, and anxiety. If unaddressed, these issues may surface as tantrums or meltdowns and can interfere with learning activities.

There are strategies educators can use to address a student's social-emotional needs and prevent the more challenging and interfering behaviors from happening. These include outlining the student's schedule, providing a structure to class sessions, using visual supports to supplement oral instructions, and making adaptations for sensory needs, such as allowing a student to wear a hat in rooms with florescent lights or earphones that interfere with distracting sounds during independent work or exam times. Regardless of the level of support needed by a student with ASD, increasing the use of self-management strategies to boost independence can be beneficial.

When challenging behaviors do arise, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act requires that a functional assessment be completed for any student with an identified disability, to determine why the behavior is occurring. Frequently it is the role of the school psychologist to complete these assessments. A well-designed follow-up plan will include evidence-based strategies to reduce the challenging behavior along with strategies to develop or increase the use of an alternative skill or replacement behavior. For example, a functional assessment may show that a student often has a meltdown right before transitioning to lunch. The teacher may develop a picture schedule (visual support) of steps in that transition so the student can examine each step of the schedule right before the transition happens and better predict this change. Once strategies are selected, it is important to provide training to all staff so that everyone uses a consistent approach.

Preparing for Life After High School

Students with ASD often face their biggest challenge when they transition out of school into a job or higher education. They may not have the skills to work independently at the local supermarket, or they may not have the self-organizational skills to navigate around a college campus and follow a class schedule, despite having the academic skills to be successful. Because of the challenges related to these transitions and the lack of adequate support these students often receive when in high school, schools should offer specialized training to students with ASD to put them in a better place for future employment or postsecondary education. The CSESA transition program features several strategies that can assist teachers in this important preparation.

A first step in transition preparation is to identify the sources of support that may exist in the community and even in the high school. Many educators have found CSESA's Community and School Resource Mapping module a useful tool for locating and accessing vocational, recreational, and social support group transition services in the local community.

For all students with disabilities, federal law requires that school personnel establish an individualized transition plan by the time the student is 16 years old. Establishing the plan earlier, however, when students enter high school or are 14 years old, is a much better option. An earlier transition point allows the teachers, family members, and students (if capable) to begin establishing the goals for life after high school and plan the high school experiences that prepare the student to meet those goals. For example, in those early high school years, students may be given the opportunities for career or work exploration (working in a coffee shop or discovering what computer scientists do) that may help them or their caregivers identify reasonable goals for life after the transition. By the age of 16, students are already well into their high school curriculum plans and valuable opportunities may be missed.

It is important to prepare students for direct involvement in both their IEP and transition planning process as much as is feasible. CSESA staff have identified three evidence-based curricula ( Self-Advocacy Strategy, Self-Directed IEP, Whose Future is it Anyway?) from which teachers can choose to provide just such preparation.

Having students with ASD involved in early planning and giving them choices about the future can, for many, instill a sense of self-determination, which is a worthy goal for all adolescents. But, for many teenagers with ASD, this does not happen. In fact, as they grow older, these students often become more dependent on their caregivers, which can limit their success when they leave school.

For young adults with ASD and other disabilities, we know that the best predictor of a student's future job success is their work experience during high school (Carter, Austin, &am Trainor, 2012; Lee & Carter, 2012). Drawing from the work of our colleague David Test and the National Technical Assistance Center on Transition, CSESA staff created sets of lessons and activities that focus on career exploration, job shadowing, work sampling, service learning, internships, paid employment, apprenticeships, and mentoring. Using these resources, high school teachers can select the types of instruction appropriate for individual students. Such preparation requires assessment and careful planning.

Their Best Hope

At an international conference on autism research, Peter Mundy, a noted developmental psychologist and autism researcher, once said that public schools may be the best hope for children and youth with ASD. If so, high school may be the last best hope for these students. Services do exist for young adults with autism after they leave school, but rarely is there the intensity or consistency that is possible through the public school system. The CSESA program was designed to maximize this high school experience and has many freely available resources professionals can use in their work with students with autism. Such work does have the potential for positively affecting the lives of adolescents as they leave schools and become young adult members of our society.

Authors' Note: Preparation of this paper was supported by Grant No. R324C120006 from the Institute of Education Sciences, U. S. Department of Education. Opinions expressed are not necessarily those of the funding agency. Thanks also to the CSESA research team working across seven universities, which includes the additional CSESA Key Investigators: Kara Hume, Leann Smith Dawalt, Bonnie Kramer, Jessica Steinbrenner, Kate Szidon, and Christopher Brum.

References

Baio J., Wiggins L., Christensen D. L., Maenner, M. J., Daniels, J., Warren, Z., et al. (2018). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years-Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2014. MMWR Surveill Summ, 67(SS-6), 1-23.

Browder, D., Gibbs, S., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., Courtade, G., & Lee, A. (2016). Early literacy skills builder (ELSB). Verona, WI: Attainment Company.

Carter, E. W., Austin, D., & Trainor, A. A. (2012). Predictors of post-school employment outcomes for young adults with severe disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 23, 50-63.

Laugeson, E. A. (2013). The PEERS curriculum for school-based professionals: Social skills training for adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. NY: Routledge.

Lee, G. K., & Carter, E. W. (2012). Preparing transition-aged students with high functioning autism spectrum disorder for meaningful work. Psychology in the Schools, 49, 988-100.

Reutebuch, C. K., El Zein, F., Kim, M. K., Weinberg, A. N., & Vaughn, S. (2015). Investigating a reading comprehension intervention for high school students with autism spectrum disorder: A pilot study. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 9, 96-111.

Stichter, J. P. (2016). Social competence intervention. Columbia: University of Missouri.

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ASCD empowers educators to achieve excellence in learning, teaching, and leading so that every child is healthy, safe, engaged, supported, and challenged.

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Deepening Supports for Teens with Autism - ASCD

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With a new generation of teenagers with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) entering public high schools, there is even greater urgency to improve school support for these students. The prevalence of ASD has gone up 150 percent in the last five years (Baio et al., 2018).

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This document looks at High Impact Teaching Strategies (HITS) and the ten steps/elements that are incorporated

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This video presents a classroom "skit" where students portray what students with disabilities need in order to create an inclusive classroom.

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Creating An Inclusive Classroom for Students with Disabilities

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This website provides a collection of podcasts by Loui Lord who initially provides an introduction to UDL and then has longer episodes that explores the idea of UDL in the classroom with guests.

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Sara is well versed and practiced in a research and innovation approach called Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI). When UDL was brought to her campus, she decided she would become a champion of that framework but knew she needed a strategy to bring her colleagues on board. RRI because the tool. She shares that inspiring story here.

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UDL Research in 15 Minutes Podcast * Loui Lord Nelson

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Introduction to UDL Research in 15 Minutes This 2:45 introduction explains the purpose of the podcast, how it will align with UDL, and announces the first guest. Episode 1 - David Rose David Rose, co-founder and Chief Education Officer Emeritus of CAST (the creators of UDL) shares stories about the research that drove the beginning [...]

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This graphic organizer displays 50 different ways for a teacher to instruct a lesson. This allows for multiple barriers to be broken in any given lesson plan.

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This animated shows what an inclusive classroom should look like.

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This resource provides different activities that promote social skills and also describes the importance of teaching better social skills to students.

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Social skills activities are wonderful for teaching kids social skills. When kids develop social skills, they are better able to get along with others.

Social skills are the means by which people can make connections to others, exchange information and ideas, make their needs and desires known, and enter into and maintain relationships with other people (Taylor, Richards, and Brady, 2005).

Some kids are good at understanding and displaying effective social skills. They are usually popular, outgoing, and know how to engage with other people effortlessly.

Then there are those children who are shy, don't talk much, and are more reserved. They may get anxious when they interact with others, especially in unfamiliar territory.

Additionally, kids on the Autism spectrum also struggle with social skills deficits.

Social skills activities give kids an opportunity to learn and practice social skills in a non-threatening way. Since these activities are fun it's an easy buy in for kids

Why We Need Social Skills

Social skills allow us to interact and communicate with others. These skills include verbal and non-verbal communication, such as gestures, facial expression, body language, and personal appearance. People who are socially competent are able to:

Show empathy for others

Participate in group activities

Be generous

Be helpful

Communicate effectively with others

Problem solve and negotiate

A person with strong social skills knows how to behave in social situations and understand both verbal and non-verbal cues when communicating with others.

Social Skills Needed For Success

Based on two decades of classroom research and surveys from 8,000 elementary school teachers, researchers from Vanderbuilt University identified ten social skills kids need to develop in order to be successful in school: Their research findings indicate that children benefit greatly when they know how to:

1. Listen to others
2. Follow the steps /Follow directions
3. Follow the rules
4. Ignore distractions
5. Ask for help
6. Take turns when talking to others
7. Get along with others
8. Stay calm with others
9. Be responsible for their behavior
10. Do nice things for others

Benefits of Learning Social Skills

There are numerous benefits to being socially competent. According to Lynch & Simpson, "the development of social skills lays a critical foundation for later academic achievement as well as work-related skills.

Families and schools that create an environment which reinforces social competency, allow children a greater opportunity to have positive short and long-term success. When kids learn effective social skills they:

Develop a positive attitude about themselves and others

Communicate better with others

Develop more self-control and are better able to manage their behaviors and emotions

Manage conflicts more effectively

Learn to be empathetic and see other people's perspective

Related article: 100+ Social Skills Activities For Preschoolers
Signs of Social Skills Deficits In Children

Social skills deficits can become a lifelong problem for children if not addressed early on. Therefore, it is important that we identify and address deficits as soon as possible. If a child has difficulties with social skills they might:

Have trouble making and keeping friends

Inconsistently make eye contact, look down at the ground, or they may stare at others

Have difficulties taking turns during a conversation, talk over others, interrupt, or offer irrelevant

input in a conversation

Have inappropriate boundaries and don't recognize people's personal space

Not understand the consequences of their actions.

Struggle to use good manners

Ask inappropriate questions

Be rigid in their thinking and can't see other people's perspective

Have trouble understanding sarcasm and take things literally

Have difficulty reading body language and non-verbal cues

Be unable to respond to teasing, anger, failure and disappointment appropriately

Have difficulty asking for help

Lacks empathy

Come off as conceited, self-centered, and/or entitled

Have a difficult time handling conflict

Not be able to handle failure

How to Help Children Improve Social Skills

Developing social skills in children is all about teaching them to communicate effectively through verbal and non-verbal means. According to Ladd & Simpson, 2005, "teaching social skills can incorporate a number of techniques, including direct instruction, learning from peers, prevention of problem behaviors, and children's books."

Below are several resources that highlight different ways and resources you can use to help children learn how to interact with others in socially acceptable ways.

This resource is updated frequently. Sign up for our monthly newsletter, Social Emotional Tool Box, to get social skills activities delivered directly to your inbox. When you sign up you also receive VIP access to our growing library of free social and emotional learning printables and activities.

Social Skills Activities
Best Games to Teach Children Social Skills 100+ Social Skills Activities for Pre-Schoolers 50+ Self-Control Activities for Pre-Schoolers
There are so many different activities you can utilize to help children develop their social skills.

Social Skills Activities: Minimum Prep, Maximun Fun by Everyday Speech

10 Engaging and Fun Social Skills Group Activities for Kids by Encourage Play

Social Skills Activities to Help Kids Who Are Bossy by Encourage Play

55 Kindness Activities for Kids by Kid's Activities Blog

Social Skills Books

101 Books That Build Friendships, Communication, and Social Skills by Childhood 101

24 Fabulous Picture Books About Friendship by Teaching With Children's Books

Books About Inclusion and Acceptance by A Day In Our Shoes

Books That Help Children Learn About Friendships by Imagination Soup

20 Top Books For Teaching Kids Manners by The Relaxed Homeschool

30 Anti-Bullying Books for Kids by Untrained Housewife

6 Dr, Suess Books for Teaching Kids Social Skills by iGame Mom

Self Regulation Picture Books by Teaching Elementary and Beyond

Children's Books That Encourage Kindness by What We Do All Day

Social Stories For Social Skills
Social Skills Training Mini-Book Bundle Social Story-NO HITTING How to Make Friends Social Story Teaching Kids to be Responsible-Social Story and Activities Teaching Kids to be Fair-Social Story and Activities Teaching Kids To Be Caring Social Story Social Story: How to Show Respect When I Am Frustrated Social Story
Social stories are a great way to help children understand what behaviors are expected of them. Below are a variety of free and paid social stories to help teach children social skills.

Playground Social Scripts Mini Flip books-by And Next Comes L

Free Printable Comic Book Template For Making Social Story by Picklebums

21 Social Story Templates and Apps by Meraki Lane

Receiving Gifts Social Script by And Next Comes L

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Social skills activities to help kids build relationships

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Social skills activities are wonderful for teaching kids social skills. When kids develop social skills, they are better able to get along with others. Social skills are the means by which people can make connections to others, exchange information and ideas, make their needs and desires known, and enter into and maintain relationships with other people (Taylor, Richards, and Brady, 2005).

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Understood.org gives the perspective of the parent, teacher, and student and how IEPs should be introduced and executed to benefit the student the most.

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Sometimes a child's learning differences aren't uncovered until the teen years. Some kids are able to work around their weaknesses until they face more challenging work in high school. Others may have always struggled, but no one realized it was due to learning or thinking differences.

No matter what your teen's journey has been, he's eligible to request an IEP through the public school district. According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), students who are found eligible can start an Individualized Education Program -and the special education services that come with it-until high school graduation (or a maximum age of 22).

If you or your teen are reluctant to pursue an IEP, thinking it's too late, consider the benefits:

An IEP can help teens learn to understand and manage learning and thinking differences while still in high school.

An IEP must include a transition plan to help prepare teens for life after high school. (IEPs don't exist after high school.)

Teens and the IEP Meeting

IDEA requires that high school students be included in IEP team meetings. Teens are encouraged to take part in and even lead their IEP meetings. Many learn how to advocate for their needs and goals-an important skill for young adults as they head out into the world.

With an IEP, your teen will be entitled to a transition plan. Developed by the IEP team with the student, the plan outlines steps needed to prepare for young adulthood.

Transition services can be included as early as age 14 and must be included by the time a student turns 16. Whether your teen wants to attend college or vocational school or go to work right after finishing high school, the transition plan can pave the way. It will specify what courses and other educational experiences he'll need while in high school so he can pursue his goals after graduation.

The transition plan also addresses the functional skills he'll need to live independently: managing money and paying bills, using public transportation, staying healthy, and balancing work, study and leisure time.

"Make the most of the resources and opportunities available to your child now."

The IEP team sets clear goals and decides who will assist him in his efforts. This is a unique opportunity to invite members of the community, such as vocational counselors and other mentors, to participate in your child's transition.

If your child still has an IEP when he officially becomes an adult (age 18 in most states), he becomes legally responsible for consenting to and making requests about his IEP. You'll pass the baton to him but can continue to give advice and encouragement.

Every teen with an IEP leaves high school with a document that lists what he needs to thrive in the future. This is called a Summary of Performance (SOP), and it's provided by the IEP team. It includes:

A summary of the student's academic achievement.

A summary of the functional skills (such as navigating public transportation) he has or will need to learn to live independently.

Recommendations to help the student meet his goals.

Some states have additional requirements for what an SOP should contain.

If Your Child Doesn't Graduate From High School by Age 22

Special education services for a student with an IEP end when he graduates with a regular high school diploma or when he reaches the maximum age for receiving special education services. In most states, the maximum age is 22.

If the student reaches age 22 and still hasn't graduated from high school, the school district must provide the SOP letter. But the student is no longer eligible for special education services.

Up until that age, your child is allowed to take high school classes. Some older students prefer to take courses at a community college. Your child must receive permission from the school district in this case.

Make the Most of the Resources an IEP Provides

An IEP provides important benefits to teenagers. It can help you and the school district work with your child to meet his current and future needs. Make the most of the resources and opportunities available to your child now. You may see your child make tremendous progress in academics, self-confidence and planning his future.

Most states allow students to have an IEP until age 22 if they need extra time to graduate.

Teens with IEPs can benefit from learning how to advocate for themselves.

An IEP with a transition plan can make it easier for a teen to succeed after high school.

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Sometimes a child's learning differences aren't uncovered until the teen years. Some kids are able to work around their weaknesses until they face more challenging work in high school. Others may have always struggled, but no one realized it was due to learning or thinking differences.

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The Kentucky Department of Education provides a graphic organizer of the different barriers a student can face during instruction.

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This Webcast shows how teachers can effectively instruct students who are visually impaired.

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1. Introduction

2. The Importance of the Nemeth Code

3. Producing Accessible Math Materials

4. Applying a Multi-Sensory Approach and Universal Design to Math Instruction

5. Technology Tools for Students Who Are Blind and Visually Impaired

6. Helpful Teaching Aids for Students and Teachers

7. Issues and Challenges with Standardized Testing

8. Final Thoughts

CHAPTER 1: Introduction
OSTERHAUS: I actually started in the fall of 1978. I did have a background in teaching mathematics. I have a bachelor's degree in math, a master's degree in mathematics education, and I have a Texas certification to teach secondary mathematics. But I had no knowledge at all of teaching blind and visually impaired students, and I just kind of happened across.

There was an opening, and I decided to just check it out and basically I went in for, I thought, my first interview at the Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired in Austin, Texas. Actually it was TSB in those days, Texas School for the Blind. And they kidnapped me. (laughing).

No, they wouldn't let me go. You know, I walked in and the principal who interviewed me said, "We need you desperately. Your credentials are fantastic." And I was there, you know, normally when you're in interview you're supposed to be telling them the best things about you, and I'm going, like, "But I've never taught the blind and visually impaired."

"No problem," you know. "You will have to go back to school, get your certification, but you can do it." And so I said yes, and here it is 36 years later, so I must have liked it. I really thoroughly still enjoy, you know, what I did. But again, I knew, you know, virtually nothing about teaching the blind and visually impaired. And, in fact, in those days, unbeknownst to me, a lot of people really didn't feel that a blind person could go on into higher mathematics.

Let me put it this way, the average person. We have our geniuses, you know, that just happen to be blind and so forth. But the average student who was blind was thought to, you know, not really have any hope of going into higher mathematics and so forth, that it was such a difficult subject. Well, anyway, I didn't know that and so I just jumped in.

And bottom line, when I started in 1978, the highest level of mathematics taught at our school, at least, was a kind of a two-year, I'd say equivalent to pre-algebra nowadays. And now we have students taking calculus, scoring fives - five, that's the highest you can score on an AP calculus exam. So we proved them wrong, those other people.
CHAPTER 2: The Importance of the Nemeth Code
OSTERHAUS: What I had to do was, first, I had to learn braille. I didn't know literary braille, much less the Nemeth code. The Nemeth code is the braille for learning mathematics and science notation. And so I had to start there. I had to learn Nemeth code, and I'll tell you a little story about that.

I came to the school for the blind, and again, I thought I was told, you know, get all kinds of help any assistance I needed. We had a lot of teachers who themselves were blind. So I'm asking for the teachers' help. I go to the braille teacher, she is the teacher of braille, and I ask for help and she goes, "I don't know Nemeth." And I went, "Okay." And then I went to the social studies teacher, who had. He was a social studies teacher but he had to have taken math in college, so I said, "Can you teach me Nemeth?" and he laughed. And I went, I said, "What's going on here? I'm missing something." And what he told me was that they were too old. I was young for them.

NARRATOR: We see a page with column headings, "Symbol" and "Nemeth." In the "Symbol" column on the left are common math symbols such as plus, minus, multiplication and division signs, greater than, less than and equal signs.

In the column to the right are the symbols as they would be displayed in Nemeth code using six-point braille cells.

OSTERHAUS: And so a man named Dr. Abraham Nemeth decided to create this special code, and he was a professor of mathematics himself and he wanted to be able to read and write, you know, in all these symbols in a code. So he invented the Nemeth code, and I ended up teaching myself, my students and the rest of the staff the Nemeth code, and as I was teaching myself and learning, I saw how beautifully it was done, how logical it was.

NARRATOR: We see a photograph of Dr. Nemeth on the occasion of his induction into the Hall of Fame for Leaders and Legends of the Blindness Field. Dr. Nemeth is holding a bronze plaque of his likeness.

OSTERHAUS: And Dr. Nemeth has passed away now, but I want to say, "Thank you, Dr. Nemeth," because I just don't know how I really could have done what I did without the Nemeth code.

I'm not saying that I feel like I'm a good teacher, but having that Nemeth code, that ability to give these students the higher mathematics using these higher-level math symbols was just a real necessity. And so I think that's the main thing that has really expanded this world of mathematics to, I'm going to just say, the average student. I'm not saying I didn't have some very brilliant students, but the average student can now take mathematics and enjoy it and, I hope, have as much fun with it as I have over the years.
CHAPTER 3: Producing Accessible Math Materials
OSTERHAUS: So I'm going to actually start with the low-vision students. Remember, this was 1978, okay? I had to enlarge something by hand-enlarging it. So I would just get out my large print paper or, you know, lined paper, whatever, and make everything large and then copy that, because we didn't have copying machines that would enlarge. So we had to do all that by hand, and then all the tactile graphics, again, had to be done by hand.

So there I was, with my...I had a Sewell raised line drawing board. It's just a clipboard that's got a little rubber padding on it. And I would put braille paper on top of that. I would use a Howe Press compass, by the way, which is from Perkins. And I would go ahead and draw my tactile graphics using that and just a ruler to guide me.

NARRATOR: In a photograph, we see a person using a Howe Press compass to trace and produce raised-line drawings on a sheet of braille paper. The braille paper is on a raised-line drawing board.

OSTERHAUS: So very, very basic. Now, I'm not going to say that some of those tactile graphics are still very good. I don't want to throw out all the old stuff. But basically everything was done by hand.

All the brailling was done, again, on a Per... I feel like I'm advertising because for the Perkins Braille Writer. We would put everything. And so it was one copy, and then we had a machine called a thermoform machine that would make our copies, the kind of plastic paper.

That's how it started, okay? That was the original method. And then over the...And if you're thinking, well, why wasn't I using high tech? It's not, believe me, if there was any higher technology, I would have been using it, but at that time, that's all we had. And then later on, you know, there were many, many improvements.

NARRATOR: We see displayed on a black background several thermoform pages depicting a variety of geometric shapes, such as triangles and circles, as well as a page with plot points of intersecting lines. In addition, there are two green plastic protractors with raised lines and markings.

OSTERHAUS: But there's so many, there's just so many more tools that you can create tactile graphics with these days. When you create a tactile graphic, let's say with Microsoft Word, you get a nice print copy. And by the way, again, I'm always thinking in terms of low-vision students and the braille student. So I make one graphic, let's say, on the Microsoft Word, and you can do it any way you want.

Some people are more artistic than I am, so they'll use Corel or some other type of drawing program. But you create a black line master, and then you can go in and where you would normally put print, you can still put print - you can put large print font for your low-vision students, but then you can change the font to a braille font, and then what you have to do with the copy that is in braille, it's not really raised. It's just, you know, you're printing it out and there are braille dots.

So what you have to do is copy that onto this special paper called swell-touch paper and it does what it says, swell. So everywhere there's black, including the braille, you put it through this special machine and there are like three manufacturers of these machines and three vendors, and you put it through and it comes out the other end and all of the black lines are raised and the braille is raised. So that's probably, I would say that is about the fastest method of getting a very good quick graphic.

NARRATOR: A photograph shows a sheet of thermal paper coming out of the machine that heats the paper, causing any black line or image reproduced on that paper to swell and become a raised line, dot or shape.

In this case, a line arcs upward on raised graph paper.

OSTERHAUS: Now when I'm preparing my math materials, I actually use, I'm not saying everybody has to use, but this is my method, I use a product called Scientific Notebook. And it's a software that's kind of like Microsoft Word. When you look at it you think you're maybe in something like that except it has a special little extra icon that you switch back and forth between text and the actual math.

So, anyway, I just get on my computer and keyboard and I type in all of my math, and the description or the text portion is one thing and then the mathematics is in, actually even in a different color when I'm looking at it. And I can change that font size to any size font, any type of font, so for my low-vision students, they get a perfect copy in the font.

If they want Comic Sans 24, they get Comic Sans 24. And then I take that particular document after I've created it and import it into something called Duxbury, and that's DBT Win. I think we're up to 11.2 now. And it translates it into very good Nemeth code and then I do need to do a little formatting. So that's how I create, you know, all of my math work now. So we've come a long way in 36 years.
CHAPTER 4: Applying a Multi-Sensory Approach and Universal Design to Math Instruction
OSTERHAUS: I was teaching very much like I teach today even when I taught sighted students. In fact, I'll go back to my student teaching days. They used to have a nickname for me. I hope it was, (laughing). They called me the Tinker Toy Lady, because I was teaching geometry and I would come in and I would make all these 3D models and come in, for the sighted students.

So truthfully, I want to say, when people ask me how do I think mathematics should be taught, I want to say, I think all students should be taught like I teach blind students. And I've learned this over the years. When I was, you know, growing up, I was taught totally visually, I think, mathematics. And I thought I was a visual learner myself. Now that I've been teaching for 36 years, I think I'm more of a multisensory learner myself and I've learned so much while, you know, teaching these students.

NARRATOR: In a video clip, we see a boy who is blind in a math class at Perkins. Today, he and his teacher are working on fractions using segments of wood in various sizes that are labeled both in marker and with braille tape.

BOY: Four-twelfths equals one-third.

TEACHER: You got it. Nice job.

OSTERHAUS: The way I approach everything, I found out that it's called the multisensory approach. When I started out, I just did my own thing, but then people later on told me, "Wow, you use the multisensory approach." I said, "Oh, I do? Glad to hear that." "And you believe in universal design."

So let me explain a little bit about that. As far as multisensory approach, when students are in my classroom I really try to get them, at least, if they have some vision to look at it. Basically, we use as many senses as possible. If they can see a little bit, some of them, even if they're a braille student, can have a little vision and we want them to use as much of that as they can, even if it might just be color.

And then we want them to, you know, of course, if they're a braille student, to feel it. But even if they're a low-vision student, I still have them in there doing a lot of tactile work. With the, I'll even have them eating math. You know, if you make a pizza and they have to cut it into pieces, into fractions, all kinds of things. I can still remember doing, you know, I don't think they do them anymore, they do too much work for us now, you used to be able to break the crackers into four pieces, and so we would do the fractions that way and then I would say, "Okay, eat one-fourth of your big cracker" and so forth. And it's amazing. They learn a lot better when they get to eat their math.
CHAPTER 5: Technology Tools for Students Who Are Blind and Visually Impaired
OSTERHAUS: So I was desperately constantly telling people, "Find me a better calculator." And again, over the years they've had several of the basic calculators. You can buy them anywhere these days. But finally, I was really in need of a, at least a talking scientific calculator, and I started doing a lot of research to find the perfect one. Went all over the place, had the students evaluate each one of these.

And finally we found, just as I was about to make a bad decision, a new calculator came out, and it was from Orbit Research and it was called the ORION TI-34 talking scientific calculator. It was, like, a third of the price of all the other ones and had more functions, and again, it was based on Texas Instruments' product. So I have,I am from Texas, so I have confidence in Texas Instruments. And that ended up being our calculator of choice.

NARRATOR: We see displayed a photograph of the TI-34, a Texas Instruments talking calculator.

OSTERHAUS: However, at a certain point, TI decided to stop making the TI-34, so then we went to, and actually Orbit Research asked me, by that time I had gotten involved and had helped them actually with the TI-34, so they asked me for my input. And I am actually the one who put the stamp of approval on them doing the TI-36X.

So currently we have the ORION TI-36X, which has, as I said, many more functions. I think it has 122 functions. And then ViewPlus came out with the audio graphing calculator, which was a software product that was on, basically used on a PC. And I, you know, learned how to use that and again asked them to, you know, continually update that. And we used that for many, many years.

Bottom line, I was involved, and we got this fantastic collaboration between Texas Instruments, Orbit Research and the American Printing House for the Blind, and we now have the ORION TI-84 Plus talking graphing calculator. APH came out with something called Math Flash, which is a cute little program of teaching, helping. Well, it's not really so much teaching, it's giving sample problems, but it's in such a cute way.

If a student gets the problem correct, you know, it gives them all this great talkative feedback and praises them and so forth. And if they get it wrong, it does things like flush the toilet.

The people that I worked with were Touch Graphics, who do the Talking Tactile Tablet, and since I field-tested that, you know, that's the one that we got to keep. The IVEO is the competition. It's ViewPlus. I just want to mention them, though. You know, but it's the fact that Touch Graphics got to us first and we field-tested that. And the Talking Tactile Tablet, I thought what we were going to do is that it was going to mainly be for my blind students.

NARRATOR: A raised-line graphic of a right triangle sits within the frame of a Talking Tactile Tablet. The tablet is connected to an open laptop computer that displays an X-Y axis on a background field of graph paper.

OSTERHAUS: But that particular year that we were first field-testing it, I happened to have a student who had achromatopsia, which is basically real color blindness, no, just seeing basically in black and white and grays. And he also had dyslexia. And it turned out that this was the most fantastic thing for him.

As it turned out, the contrast was best black on canary yellow - not that he could see canary yellow, but the contrast was the best. So I did his graphics that way with the black line masters but on the canary yellow paper. I did the whole Talking Tactile Tablet with him. I was so pleased. He was absolutely ecstatic.

The iPad, yes. What had happened there. I'd been working with the University of Arizona, and they are taking AnimalWatch Vi Suite, and they are basically opening it up to the Vi population. And this is, I think, one of the first apps for the iPad that is truly, you know, accessible for our students. It has the, again, it's on the iPad, so you can listen to it and so forth, but in addition to all of that, we have a braille script that goes with it - a hard-copy braille script - hard-copy tactile graphics. We even have three-dimensional objects.

NARRATOR: A fourth-grade boy who is blind is using the AnimalWatch app on an iPad. This particular math problem involves determining the amount of weight that a cheetah gains per month over its first year of life. The boy can hear the problem read to him using the voiceover feature on his iPad.

He also has a refreshable braille display that allows him to read the problem.

On the screen of the iPad, we see the text of the problem and a picture of a cheetah. On the desk to the right of the iPad is a small three-dimensional plastic figure of a cheetah.

COMPUTER VOICE: To find the average weight gained per month. (boy laughing)

BOY: 60 divided by...

COMPUTER: Divide 60 by 12 to find the average weight gained per month.

OSTERHAUS: And the little three-dimensional objects are the actual animals themselves. We came up with, I think, good tactile graphics, but there's still nothing better than they really need to kind of feel, even though it's, of course, a much smaller version of what it's going to be.
CHAPTER 6: Helpful Teaching Aids for Students and Teachers
OSTERHAUS: My first and this was old. This is the oldest tool I...Well, maybe not. But if not the oldest, one of the oldest tools. In my closet when I got there there was something called - it's got a long name - Graphic Aid for Mathematics. We just call it the rubber graph board. It looks like a coordinate plane, and you put the X and Y axis on with rubber bands and you use push pins. And I'm going to tell you that we...It's changed over the years. They've made adjustments and so forth. But it is still the greatest thing. So I don't believe in throwing out the old with the new. We keep the old that is good and add the new is what we do. So we still have that and I still just absolutely love that particular tool.

NARRATOR: We see a photograph of a Graphic Aid for Mathematics.

In the lower left corner, three push pins with rubber bands stretched between them form the X and Y axes of a graph.

Two other plot points are noted by push pins, and a thin piece of flexible black plastic describes a line that passes from the 0,0 point on the graph through the other plot points.

To the upper right on the board, rubber bands stretched between push pins create a triangle shape. The thin, flexible black plastic forms a circle around this triangle, intersecting at the points of the three angles.

OSTERHAUS: Some people complain that we're, like, "Well, Susan, you know, you can only do one graph at a time" or, you know, "and then if the student has 12 graphs to do, what do they do?" So I was, like, thinking very hard, "How am I going to do this?" And the light bulb finally went off because I have a motto that anything I can do my students can do better.

So I had been taking digital pictures. I would do something and I would take a digital picture for a presentation, for a PowerPoint. And I thought, "If I can take a picture, they can take a picture." So we teach blind students, our totally blind students and the low-vision students, they can take a digital picture of their graph and put that in their math teacher's shared folder or however they want it and hand their homework in. So I have brought an old, old tool into the modern world.

There's something called Geometro that has not been around as long. It is a Canadian, a Canadian vendor created these. They're, if you can imagine, polygons with a Velcro edge and you can make something we call nets and then you take the nets and you fold them up to this three-dimensional model. They are the most fun thing ever for geometry.

There's something called a braille print protractor that, actually I had something similar to it in my classroom but we didn't have a vendor for it anymore and I asked APH to kind of reinvent it. And this braille print protractor has braille and print on it, so again, it's universal design. And it's got this little wand, and it's really what people out there, a geologist, would call a goniometer. They would use it for measuring the angles on crystals because it has this wand, and you use it in a very different way. It's kind of like you turn it almost upside-down and you actually, the wand actually forms the angle that you want and then its supplement. So it's another teaching tool. You get such a good tool for teaching supplementary angles.

NARRATOR: We see an example of the braille print protractor with the APH logo as described. The wand portion, which pivots from the center of the compass's horizontal base, comes to a point on the end that sweeps over the compass arc just below raised markings that denote a distance of five degrees on the arc. This allows the student to measure an angle.

OSTERHAUS: And then if you think about, as I mentioned, like just a ruler. So we have at least, we have an English measurement flexible ruler that's both braille and print. We have a metric one. We have a braille print yardstick. So all of those kind of tools. And I know I've...

Oh, there is another one that's another one of my favorites. It's called Omnifix Cubes. This is not available at the blind store. This is just something you can purchase at Didax, which is one of the math education type online stores that you can buy from. And they're just these cute little. Actually they come as a net. You fold them up into a cube. But the cubes fit together and they're not unifix cubes. They fit on all sides.

NARRATOR: In a photograph, we see many Omni cubes stacked in various configurations. In the center of the picture we see one of the cubes unfolded, its six sides flat on the table.

OSTERHAUS: So when you're trying to create this three-dimensional drawing of squares or cubes, which they love to put on standardized assessments.

This is the real big thing. And we used to try to do this with regular cubes, and the kids, if you can see it and maybe keep the cubes together, you're okay. But to explore them tactilely, your cubes would all fall apart and so forth, so this was just a wonderful thing, again, to have, and so I use that with students.
CHAPTER 7: Issues and Challenges with Standardized Testing
OSTERHAUS: There are obviously problems with online testing, but that's where they would like to go. And I think that they've been more successful in, let's say, with English language arts.

Now, so what are the problems with math? Okay. Well, I've already addressed a little bit about that talking about the iPad and needing that extra hard copy additions. So as far as what we can do and whether we think it's good or bad, first of all, you can listen to math, but listening to math, what I try to tell sighted people is, "You try to do it." Because a lot of these testing organizations say, "Well, they can just listen. "They can just listen to the math. "I mean, they can listen to, they can listen "to an English passage, a nonfiction or fiction passage.

Why cantt they just listen to math?" Well, what I like to say then, "Okay, if you think listening is the way to go, "then everybody takes their online test in math "by listening. "There will be no print. "There will be nothing visual. You go ahead and take a math test just by listening." And then they kind of go, "Oh, I get it."

The other thing is with, let me go to low-vision students. The way that these online folks are doing it, they are incorporating a zoom feature so people can enlarge things. They are coming up with calculators that, again, you can zoom them and they are actually on the test itself.

They have contrast. You can choose. Do you want black on canary yellow or black on white or white on black? You know, you can do that type of thing. So, they are coming up with a lot of features, that type of features. And even math tools that these low-vision students are going to be able to use and manipulate.

Again, when you get to the braille reader, some of them have said to me, "Well, what about refreshable braille"? And that's, and basically a lot of students are using refreshable braille now. But I've heard, not everyone. But, you know, just about all of the students that I know, they have some type of a refreshable braille.

However, at the present time, they get one line of refreshable braille. Well, when I do math, yes, I may do one line at a time, but I look back at the line before. I want kind of this bigger picture. And there are some things that you can create in math that require your looking at more than one line at a time. For instance, a number line graph can be created, and in fact this is the standard way.

Now it is considered the standard way in the United States and Canada that we make number line graphs. And they require three lines. You can't do that on a one-line refreshable. But again, I'm going to tell you right now, teachers are still saying, "We still need the hard-copy braille, the hard-copy tactile graphics for now." They don't feel that the technology is there yet.
CHAPTER 8: Final Thoughts
OSTERHAUS: You know, when you're studying orientation and mobility, they do put us under the blindfold and we kind of simulate it and I was amazed how all my other senses started kicking in, things that I had never bothered to notice, never heard before, never felt before, never, you know, the sun coming in the, just all of these things that I had never heard or felt, et cetera, before until we blocked out the vision momentarily to where I actually had to use my other senses.

So again, I'm not going to say, there are certain aspects that are more difficult that are just easier to grasp if you can see it. But I still think that there is no ceiling. I mean, and now with all the new technology, it's just becoming much more accessible. Everything is still, like I said, we're behind. You know, the technology continues to be behind, but from 36 years ago, boy, have we come a long way, baby, as they say. So I really encourage many students.

You know, not everyone is going to be a mathematician, but certainly at least explore mathematics. I've had a lot of students who were fantastic in math and, unfortunately, they didn't go on to become mathematicians, but they certainly went on to do other, you know, fantastic things and used their math.

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Teaching Math to Students Who are Blind or Visually Impaired

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Introduction The Importance of the Nemeth Code Producing Accessible Math Materials Applying a Multi-Sensory Approach and Universal Design to Math Instruction Technology Tools for Students Who Are Blind and Visually Impaired Helpful Teaching Aids for Students and Teachers Issues and Challenges with Standardized Testing Final Thoughts CHAPTER 1: Introduction OSTERHAUS: I actually started in the fall of 1978.

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The NTACT puts UDL specifically into the perspective of Secondary Level Education and gives general background and specifics of how it is used.

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Do2Learn provides many examples of how to teach student with Learning Disabilities into categories of: Organization, Reading, Writing, Mathematics, and Testing

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Do2Learn: Educational Resources for Special Needs

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picture communication cards, songs, games and learning activities for autism, aspergers, fetal alcohol syndrome and disabilities

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This resource provides instructional strategies for Secondary-Level instructors with the help of data on student demographics, a TEDx Talk on motivation, and other tips on how to create an educational environment.

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Putting High School Teaching Strategies to Work

High school teaching strategies assume that you are working with and teaching young adults. If you have experienced teaching at different levels within a school district, you know that you've got to be flexible and change how you present material depending on your audience. What works with elementary students doesn't always fly with the high school kids. Here is a quick look at how the brains of those mysterious teenagers actually work...

Find more education infographics on e-Learning Infographics

Some ideas for inspiring students

Strategies for Teaching High School Students

You've got to know who your audience is in business, and in teaching. When you are teaching high school students, you are dealing with a bunch of folks who are on the doorstep of adulthood. True, many of them might not act anything like mature adults, but they are at an age where they are starting to feel more grown up. They are starting to stretch themselves. Some are highly motivated and pushing themselves forward toward their futures... others, not so much.

Like it or not, this is your audience now. Treating them like they are in elementary or middle school just won't work very well. Some of them will quietly endure such teaching methods, but many will bristle and perceive such an approach as condescending. That isn't a formula for classroom success. You certainly still need to have well established classroom behavior expectations and rules, but starting the year by demonstrating your iron fist to these young men and women is only going to earn you a lot of grief from the students, and maybe even from their parents and your administrators.

Classroom Management for High School Students

I don't want this post to focus on management skills for teachers. I want to investigate interesting ways to engage learners and encourage learning. With that said however, nothing good is going to happen in your classroom if there are not some clear rules and expectations.

Make Expectations Clear for Learning and Behavior

You've probably got over twenty kids (at least) in each of your classes. If you don't give them some rules and clearly establish your expectations, what do you think will happen? It isn't likely that they will come together and organize themselves in such a way that you'll be pleased with the results. On that first day, they expect to hear what the class is going to be like. This is your big moment. Possibly the most important 40 minutes of the school year. Explain classroom policies and expectations. Tell your students what specific consequences and rewards can be expected. Write it all down and give them a copy. Attach it to a syllabus. You might even want to require a parental signature on this document, just in case issues pop up later in the year.

Do you want the students to be a part of the rule making process? That's fine. Just type up the agreed upon terms for the next day and make that your classroom charter. Make the rules clear, post them, and stick to them from the very next day of class. Keep it simple. If you are tempted to make this a long, complicated process, filled with threats and drama, don't. Why? Just picture yourself sitting in an in-service meeting listening to the same speech you are about to give coming from your administrators. How does that make you feel in your stomach? That's why.

Methods for Creating Successful High School Lessons

Every high school building has at least a few hard core teachers who won't adapt to what our world has become. Like it or not, the youth of today have been raised in a world filled with computers, smart phones, and tons of interactive entertainment options that require an attention span of about 3 seconds. Is that a good thing? Probably not, in my opinion, but it is what it is. These students are NOT going to react well to a 40 minute droning lecture given by someone who seems bored with the subject himself. Very few people have ever enjoyed this presentation method...EVER. Why not consider some teaching methods that get the students more involved?

Students Working Together in the Classroom

If you, as a high school teacher, spend every class period standing at the front of the room lecturing the entire time, you might just be doing your students a disservice. Think about this for a second. How do people learn and work together in the "real" world as adults? How are new ideas and innovations created? Usually, progress happens when people work together to combine their creativity and understanding of a problem. Why not let your students do this in your classroom?

There are many ways that you can apply new and innovative approaches in your classroom. Encouraging peer interaction and collaboration is a great way to start. Don't sell your students short. Some of them have excellent communication skills and they might just be able to get YOUR message across to their peers if they are given the chance to explain things during an in class project. This high school teaching strategy wouldn't work very well with early elementary students, but most students older than primary age really enjoy the chance to get up and try something different in class.

Putting Technology to Use

Let's face it. Smart phones are only going to get smarter. Most of the kids in your classroom probably have them already, and unless your school has a policy against having them in class, chances are good that the majority of your high school students are bringing them with them every day. Too bad there isn't an app that works like one of those pencils they never seem to bring with them, huh?

Have you ever considered letting your students show off their amazing smart phone research skills in class? Instead of fight them, give an in-class assignment (make groups if you have to) that actually encourages students to use their phones for their own education. Are you still having students turn in basic written papers on subjects they don't care about? How about encouraging them to show off their tech skills by putting together a multi-media presentation?

Back to the Instructional Strategies List for Teachers.

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High School Teaching Strategies | Instructional Strategies List

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High school teaching strategies assume that you are working with and teaching young adults. If you have experienced teaching at different levels within a school district, you know that you've got to be flexible and change how you present material depending on your audience.

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Starting at pg. 4 of this document, it highlights the entire concept of what inclusion is at the secondary level and who it involves.

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The LDRFA provides five ways for teachers to involve Assistive Tech into their classrooms with detailed descriptions on how to best apply them.

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Assistive technology tools and devices can significantly enhance the learning experience for students with learning disabilities. Examples include text-to-speech software, speech recognition software, graphic organizers, and specialized keyboards. These tools can help students overcome specific challenges and promote independence in their learning.

Assistive technology improves the functional capabilities of students with disabilities. Functional abilities can include communication, learning, and mobility.

With the right assistive technology in place, these students can perform specific tasks that were earlier difficult to accomplish. They can accomplish such tasks with greater efficiency and success.

Assistive technology includes both devices and services. Devices include customized and commercially-available equipment used to maintain or enhance the existing capabilities of learners.

For teachers and schools, the use of assistive technology ensures that classrooms are well-equipped to deliver all-inclusive instruction. With assistive technology tools, schools can teach all types of learners efficiently.

For students, assistive technology makes learning and engagement easy. Being easy to use and effective, these devices improve the morale and confidence of students.

Devices can be as simple as highlighters, timers, and graphic organizers. They can also be high-tech such a computers and tablets, containing built-in specialized assistive software such as word prediction and text-to-speech software.

Services related to assistive technology include those that help learners to choose or use an assistive technology tool. Training and functional capacity evaluation may be conducted to assess the learner's ability to use the device and evaluate the service's success rate.

When incorporated into classrooms in the right way, assistive technology can bring a positive difference in students' lives and enable them to succeed in the real world.

Here are some ways to incorporate assistive technology for learning disabilities in your classroom:

Incorporate Speech-to-Text Assistance

Speech-to-Text is an assistive software to support students with dyslexia. Dyslexic students find it difficult to learn languages as they cannot grasp the phonological aspects of a language. They find writing hard in particular as they become incapable of using language to express their thoughts.

As an assistive technology tool, speech-to-text software helps dyslexic students by enabling them to use their voices to respond. The voice commands are then converted into text format by the software.

Students can simply dictate the words into a computer to have the words appear as text on the screen.

For the best results, install the computer at a spot where background noises and classroom sounds are minimal. The computer can otherwise pick up such noises as input.

Students can use this software for completing their writing assignments and search the Internet for information.

Allow Printed Graphic Organizers for Writing Tasks

Graphic organizers are visual tools that enable students to organize their thoughts and ideas and connect them to available facts and terms during a learning activity.

Students with learning disorders such as EFD (Executive Function Disorder), and dysgraphia often find writing intimidating. Students with EFD struggle to process information, which makes learning difficult for them. Dysgraphia is a neurological disorder that makes it difficult for students to spell and write.

Printed graphic organizers help these students arrange their ideas practically, and understand the relationships therein, more effectively. The use of visual elements in graphic organizers makes such in-depth understanding easy.

With graphic organizers, students will find it easier to reproduce their ideas in writing.

Graphic organizers are of different types. They can be used depending on the information that needs to be processed. For example, a Thematic Map works well for general information.

A Problem and Solution Map is ideal for information that involves cause and effect. If the information has related sub-units, then a Network Tree is effective.

It's estimated that one in every five students have dyslexia or another language-based learning difference.

Use Visual Timers to Ease Time-Based Anxieties in Students

For many students with special needs, especially those with EFD, time is an abstract concept. These students fail to understand time in its actual sense, and find moving from one task to another overwhelming and intimidating.

For example, they may not be able to understand the time limit set for a test. They can get anxious when they hear a time-elapse-nearing alarm.

A visual timer works best for such students. It can be placed on the desk or on a whiteboard where it is clearly visible. These timers clearly indicate the time that has elapsed and the time remaining for projects, tests or other classroom activities.

As students know the time available to them, they prepare better, which eases their anxiety and keeps them calm. Such students can benefit from additional time for test-taking. A test environment that is free of distractions is also quite helpful.

There are physical timers as well as timer apps. You can use either depending on the ease of usability in your classroom.

Provide Seat Cushions to Improve Focus

Students with hyperactive behavior and those with autism and ADHD struggle to be seated at a single place. This affects their focus and their ability to learn.

Assistive seat cushions are well-known assistive technology tools for ADHD, autism and other disorders that have a deep impact on the students' learning capability.

They help calm such children by providing them greater mobility. Students can bounce on these chairs and move around while on the chair. These cushions are designed to improve posture. So, any negative impact on the back resulting from prolonged sitting is minimized.

Seat cushions have been known to build focus, improve behavior, and increase classroom engagement.

Include Virtual Reality (VR) for a Real-World Experience

Virtual Reality is an Assistive Technology devices that brings real-world realities into the classroom.

Academy of Whole Learning, a Minnesota-based K-12 private school for children with autism spectrum, shows the way for effective implementation of this tool. Autism affects learning by narrowing down focus, impacting attention, and stunting language development skills.

Academy introduced VR in its classrooms, which led to increased engagement and better social interactions among students.

The school used VR to take children on a world tour, introducing them to the various wonders around the world, from the classroom. The immersive VR experience had students engaged, blocking any distractions they would otherwise have in the classroom. VR made the students feel as if they were witnessing the attractions of the world in reality.

Students were also able to connect with each other better through virtual interactions.

Accommodations & Modifications

Accommodations and modifications are adjustments made to the learning environment or curriculum to meet the unique needs of students with learning disabilities. Accommodations may include extended time on tests, preferential seating, or access to note-taking assistance. Modifications involve altering the curriculum content or requirements to match the student's abilities while still addressing essential learning goals.

How Schools Can Meet the Needs of Students with Learning Disabilities In Schools

Teachers should employ a variety of teaching strategies and instructional materials to accommodate different learning styles and abilities. Differentiated instruction involves modifying the content, process, and product of lessons to ensure that all students, including those with learning disabilities, can access and engage with the curriculum.

Conclusion

Parents of special children want to see their child succeed at school and develop skills to achieve a quality of life. The use of assistive technology tools in classrooms makes their dream come true. Parents should also know about Assistive Technology Laws and Legislation to help their special education kids' need.

By implementing these strategies, schools can create an inclusive and supportive environment that meets the needs of students with learning disabilities, allowing them to thrive academically and socially.

If you are struggling with Dyslexia of Learning disabilities, LDRFA is offering an AWARD PROGRAM for ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY. and resources.

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How to Incorporate Assistive Technology in the classroom

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Assistive technology tools and devices can significantly enhance the learning experience for students with learning disabilities. Examples include text-to-speech software, speech recognition software, graphic organizers, and specialized keyboards. These tools can help students overcome specific challenges and promote independence in their learning. Assistive technology improves the functional capabilities of students with disabilities.

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This source gives information on how to make "Powerful Instructional Strategies" in a model Edutopia calls Interactive Learning (IL)

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Edutopia is a free source of information, inspiration, and practical strategies for learning and teaching in preK-12 education. We are published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization.

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This source provides tips for teachers on how to work with parents who have children with special needs

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Knowing how to work with parents of students with special needs is just as important as knowing how to help the students. Robin Hartman, educator and mother of a son with Autism, says, "I know I am a difficult parent to deal with which is why I thought I would give some tips on how to deal with the parents of children with special needs because we are super sensitive about our children." Read her story below where she lays it all on the line and shares her concerns, fears, and respect for those teachers who make a difference in the lives of students with special needs.
by Robin Hartman, Guest Author
As I take education courses, I feel myself at odds with some of the information because I look at things as a parent. I look at the needs of my child first, even when sometimes his needs could hinder the academic progress of the class by causing disruptions. However, as I parent, I view his disruptions as an indication that his needs not being met. Granted, this is an issue because this places no responsibility on the child for not choosing the appropriate behavior. I also realize I tend to find fault with the teachers simply because I probably could have or would have handled the situation differently. However, I can honestly say that the teachers have helped me immensely with raising my child with Autism. It has taken me awhile to trust their judgment.

Originally, I failed to remember that the teacher has a role, they are a specialist in the field, and my child is not the only student he or she is dealing with in the classroom. The teachers are there. They have the full picture of the situation. But, as a parent, I will also look at things as though my child, because he is my child, will be the most important student in the teacher's classroom.

I know I am a difficult parent to deal with which is why I thought I would give some tips on how to deal with the parents of children with special needs because we are super sensitive about our children.

8 Tips for Working with Parents of Special Needs Children
1. Open up communication before a situation arises.
As a parent, I will not trust a teachers' judgment until I get to know them. I view myself as being on the teacher's side once I know the person. But if I see them as a stranger who is being mean to my baby at our first meeting, there may be a problem. If I have to come to the school because of my child's inappropriate behavior or their lack academic successful and this also happens to be the first time I have spoken directly to the teacher, I am not sure whether my child is at fault.

Also, if I have to come to school to address a particular situation I was completely unaware of, I would feel that I should have been contacted before the situation became a huge issue for everyone, before the situation has crippled my child's grades or hindered your classroom's behavioral compliance.

I am the kind of parent that likes to hear updates about my children as much as possible. I want to know what he or she is struggling with, what they are excelling at, and what they are enjoying. Remember, sometimes the communication from the teacher is the only window into the child's school day because children with special needs (well even typically functioning children) do not share information about their day with the parent.
2. When opening up communication, always start with a compliment about their child.
Parents will not get tired of hearing how awesome their child is. A teacher should never begin the discussion about how the student is struggling with decoding and compliance until he or she has given an overview of how absolutely adorable the parents' child is and maybe even start with a cute story.

I always enjoy hearing little funny stories about my child, especially if it is something that I can identify as his behavior but never experienced that particular situation. This helps me know that the teacher knows my child and found his behaviors a refreshing gift, something charming and cute, rather than a strange abnormality that needs to be trained out of him.

For example, he once yelled at his teacher for not writing their math textbook. They were not sure why he got upset about it but he was convinced she was stealing. She had to talk him through the situation, explaining how teachers order textbooks for the classrooms that everyone uses based on the district's curriculum to insure that everyone learns the same material.

Considering I teach writing courses, I think he overheard a discussion I had about plagiarism.

I knew that based on the story, the teachers could handle him and truly loved him. They showed true patience with the situation by talking him through the logistics of his assumption; however, someone else may have just silenced him in order to move ahead.
3. Do not tell a parent to teach the child to behave.
I always work with my child's school to make sure there are at home consequences for inappropriate school behavior. Make sure you work with a parent to institute some type of communication and consequence arrangement.

Telling a parent simply to talk to your child about this or that behavior is not appropriate. It shows that the teacher did not deal with the situation, cannot deal with the situation, and believe the parent can magically with a simple discussion make the child act appropriately when the parent is not present.

I am a pretty good parent, but I do not have that kind of authority over my child when I am not present. Many parents with children with special needs will struggle connecting the talk or correction with the inappropriate school behavior that more than likely the child cannot remember demonstrating. Do not leave every correction up to the parent. The teacher needs to be given the authority to correct the child's behavior. Reminding and connecting the at home consequence with the behavior at school while the child is illustrating that particular behavior helps quite a bit. Thus, the teacher has the authority over the situation. The parent does not step in to have to take care of the situation.

Also, when asking a parent to discipline their child it could also imply that the teacher feels disciplinary actions are being made at home. As a parent with a special needs child, you would not imagine how horrible people can be about my child's behavior. I feel the looks when he acts up. Unlike other disabilities, you cannot see Autism written across my child's face, and while I am happy that disability is not what people immediately see when they look at my child, some adults do not sympathize with what I am going through at first glance because a melt-down looks so similar to a tantrum. Many people, from a distance, just see a bratty kid throwing a fit because a parent fails to parent. Parents of children with special needs are treated like this all the time; people even get vocal about their disapproval of other parents. Teachers should avoid the "parent your child", "make them behave" bandwagon advice pile on.

That does not mean parents should not be open to advice about how to deal with a particular difficult situation. Just wait for a parent to ask. I have learned so much about when it is and is not acceptable to baby or comfort my child and when to be stern in order to push him to complete tasks that are new and frustrating.
4. Educate the parent.
If you are helping parents understand their child's disability, it is helpful to make sure they have access to plenty of information: handouts, websites, reading material or lists of reading recommendations about the disability. Remember, you are a professional with vital information.

It would also help to remind the parent about your expertise, what you studied, your qualifications, your teaching experience, and so forth. While you do not need to go into your whole resume, it is helpful to remind a parent their child is in strong, capable, well-educated, and well-experienced hands. I have recently gotten into the habit of asking the educators their background. It makes me feel better.

Also, know that someone outside of education is not fluent in the same terminology. I remember how inept I felt being at a teacher meeting hear the educating team discuss ARCs and IEPs. It is helpful to explain the common concepts that you know that are new for the parent. It makes us feel in the loop and a part of the educating team.
5. Never mention medication!
A teacher may have experience with similar children but he or she should never directly state that someone's child needs to be put on medication. If you think the child should be on medication, you need to request a counselor/specialist who will observe the child and make the appropriate recommendation.

That does not mean that medication is off the table. Just go through the appropriate avenues and show the parent the accommodations and behavioral interventions you have tried and the multiple observations made by various specialists before coming to the conclusion that medication is necessary.

The request for medication should never come directly from the teacher because the parent will feel like you do not want to deal with the child; you just want the child to shut up and stop being a problem.
6. Never mention new labels.
That is great that the teacher has an understanding of disabilities. But make sure the teacher does not mention five or six new disabilities which will be used to label their child. Many disabilities have similar traits.

For example, my child is Autistic; he is not depressed. He is having self-esteem issues now that he is old enough to perceive his differences. He does not have AD-HD; He does not want to focus on the writing assignment because he struggles with decoding and he is getting frustrated about that. My child is not Oppositional Defiant. If my son is refusing to do his work, there could have been a break in his routine, something could have happened with another student or maybe the class is loud resulting in his desire to shut down.

Do not try to diagnosis or RE-diagnose a child. A parent will eat you alive. I know I would.
7. NEVER make a joke about a person's child and always use the appropriate language.
This should be a given but I would like to address this situation anyway because I once had a person ask if I talk. I did not understand what she meant at first because her question was so incredibly strange. She laughed and went on to say that she wondered if I talk because my son did not. She was not a teacher, and I would prefer not to state her position as to not stereotype those in her situation. I made sure I understood whether she was aware of his disability before getting upset.

This is when I discovered that some people are skeptical that disabilities exist. Based on ignorance or stubbornness, they do not see that other people are different if they do not look different. They just see a bad kid who will not behavior. When making jokes about someone else, it only shows the person's ignorance and lack of compassion.

Showing compassion in the language also helps. Try to avoid stereotyping a behavior and using terms like "That's Aspy" or "A Downs Kid" because it shows that the teacher defines the child by their disability. Get in the habit of using child first language like child with Autism, Student with special needs, and child with Down syndrome.
8. Keep the child around capable and trained individuals: teachers, substitutes, bus drivers, student aids, assistants, and volunteer parents.
I like to meet every single person who has contact with my child, because I have a fear that someone will be mean to him, someone will not talk to him appropriately, or they will say something that he does not understand and expect him to comply with instructions that do not compute. Fortunately, his education team surrounds him with the most compassionate people.

When there is something that gets him upset, his educating team and I try to figure out the function of his behavior which includes an overview of everyone he works with, when his behavior changed, and who observed it. I am comforted that every person he has contact with understands his triggers, works with him to keep his day smoothly transitioning, and they all love him. I put him on the bus each day knowing that no authority figure will hurt him, dismiss him, or bully him.

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8 Tips for Working with Parents of Special Needs Children

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Knowing how to work with parents of students with special needs is just as important as knowing how to help the students. Robin Hartman, educator and mother of a son with Autism, says, "I know I am a difficult parent to deal with which is why I thought I would give some tips on how to deal with the parents of children with special needs because we are super sensitive about our children."

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This article provides clarification of the difference between Assistive and Instructional Technology while also providing examples.

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We live in a world where technology continues to be a major driving force behind innovation. Innovation is more than just a new technological development or breakthrough; in fact, people drive innovation. People are the advocates of new products and innovative technologies. Two such people-driven technologies are Assistive Technology and Instructional Technology. Well, there is a thin line between the two technologies but the primary purpose is same - to improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities, and in case of instructional technology, people with learning disabilities, especially students.

What is Assistive Technology?

Assistive technology refers to a wide range of products, systems and services that assist people with disabilities or the elderly people. When you call somebody only to be answered by their answering machine saying "please leave a message..." this is a kind of assistive technology. When you see a disable person on a wheelchair or someone wearing a hearing aid or some kind of prosthetic, these are all examples of assistive technology. So, any device or service that assists with daily activities of people, particularly people with disabilities or the elderly population, is a type of an assistive technology. Assistive technology solutions are great resources that address a wide range of functional problems, such as walking, eating, hearing, driving, talking, etc. Assistive technology encompasses both hardware and software resources providing individuals with practical solutions to everyday life activities.

Instructional Technology

Technology plays a fundamental role in modern teaching methods. In fact, technology has revolutionized the teaching scene over the past couple of years. The learning programs have also been greatly affected by it. Instructional technology proves to be a great resource for learning for years, but what exactly is Instructional Technology? Instructional technology, as the name suggests, is any technology or resource that aids in learning. Instruction is mainly concerned with the development of knowledge and understanding in an individual. Instructional technology has evolved from a field to a profession. According to the 1994 definition, Instructional technology is a field of study as well as practice. However, the term 'instructional' is more appropriately describes the function of technology. It is often used synonymously with educational technology. In fact, Instructional technology can be defined as a subset of 'Educational Technology' based on the context that instruction is a subset of education. The goal is to create effective learning experiences using technological tools.

Difference between Assistive Technology and Instructional Technology

Definition

- According to the WHO, Assistive technology can be defined as devices and technologies whose primary purpose is to maintain or improve an individual's functioning and independence to facilitate participation and to enhance overall well-being. In simple terms, assistive technology refers to a wide range of products, systems and services that assist people with disabilities or the elderly people. Instructional technology, on the other hand, can be defined as a subset of educational technology that is concerned with the development of knowledge and understanding in an individual using technological tools. It is the use of hardware and software to facilitate effective learning.

Role

- Assistive technology is any device or tool that aids in the overall physical well-being of individuals with disabilities, making them function better. For example, assistive technology can help students with physical impairments or any other cognitive problems function just as well as other students in the classroom. Assistive technology plays a fundamental role in learning, assisting those with learning disabilities. Instructional technology plays a crucial role in learning, making it more engaging and effective. It is a systematic approach to establishing conditions for effective learning, including visual and auditory abilities, speech comprehension abilities, and so on.

Examples

- Assistive technology encompasses both hardware and software resources providing individuals with practical solutions to everyday life activities. Common ones include wheelchairs, canes, walkers, hearing aids, prosthetic devices, crutches, and so on. Other examples of assistive technology include screen optimizer, speech recognition, audio player, digital recorder, word processors, visual search engine, etc. Some common yet innovative examples of instructional technology are digital readers and tablets, audio books, virtual reality, cloud, artificial intelligence, online learning, computer-based learning, social learning, active learning, video conferencing software, virtual classroom, etc.

Assistive Technology vs. Instructional Technology: Comparison Chart

Summary

While the two technologies are often interrelated, there is a fine line between the two. Assistive technology is mainly intended for individuals with disabilities or the elderly population, but also proves to be a great resource for students with physical impairments or secondary health conditions. Instructional technology is more or less associated with educational technology that is developed for students with learning disabilities, such as visual or hearing impairments, speech comprehension conditions, and so on. It is a systematic approach to establishing conditions for effective learning. Assistive technology can be any technology, such as a software program, or a product that can be used to improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. Instructional technology can be used in the same context but more geared towards students with learning disabilities.

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Difference Between Assistive Technology and Instructional Technology

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We live in a world where technology continues to be a major driving force behind innovation. Innovation is more than just a new technological development or breakthrough; in fact, people drive innovation. People are the advocates of new products and innovative technologies. Two such people-driven technologies are Assistive Technology and Instructional Technology.

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This video describes different elements of social skills and provides information on how to teach them to students.

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This source helps teachers on how to deal with students who have ADHD in their classrooms.

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This document by Tori Letizia gives information on how to teach students with high incidence disabilities.

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This source provides resources for some of the most engaging uses of instructional technology for teachers to use in their classrooms.

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Start the New School Year With More Fun, Engaging Techniques and Resources Than You'll Probably be Able to use all Year!

Are you looking for ways to integration technology in your lesson plans and courses that provide for an engaging experience for you and your students? Fans of instructional technology know that it can be fun and inviting, and engaged students are far more likely to be learning.

I believe that if you can get students involved and motivated effectively enough, you can improve their learning habits over the long term.

With that in mind, here are 10 highly engaging uses of technology in the classroom, along with dozens of tools and resources for implementation. Most of these involve free web based tools, so that's an added bonus!

Interactive Collaboration

The 2014 Gates Foundation report, Teachers Know Best: What Educators Want from Digital Instructional Tools, indicates that teachers want tools "supporting student collaboration and providing interactive experiences". These types of tools are fun and engaging, and they support 21 st century skills like collaboration, communication, and creativity.

Learning this compelled me to write the article, " 20 Fun Free Tools for Interactive Classroom Collaboration", which has been in the top 10 most popular posts on the site since I published it in May. We followed that in July with " 5 More Cool Tools to Take Classroom Collaboration to a New Level ", another popular post. So there you have over two dozen fun free interactive collaboration tools to consider using in your classes this year!

Gathering Feedback

The potential to gather structured feedback in moments is a powerful aid to instruction, and thanks to proliferation of Internet enabled devices, it's never been easier. Hi-tech or lo-tech, it's easy to gather student input and feedback in today's classrooms. Here's a number of tools and techniques for doing so:

Surveys/Polls (using any Internet enabled device): When you use web based survey and polling tools, users can often participate from any web-enabled device. SurveyMonkey is a popular web based survey tool that provides for a small survey at no cost. Doodle, Polldaddy, and SurveyAnyplace, are a few other alternatives.

Clickers: Also known as Student Response Systems, these devices make it really easy to gather student feedback. Click here to read a story about a contest winner we had on the site back in 2010 who used Clickers to help improve FCAT scores.

Plickers: This is a relatively lo-tech, and highly affordable alternative to clickers that does not require students to have an electronic devices! Learn more here.

More advanced, education-specific tools: Apps like Socrative are great examples of the maturing tool set available to educators.

Twitter! Twitter is a unique, fun way to gather feedback when students have a way to tweet. Create a unique hashtag and have students use it in their tweets, to create a custom stream of student tweets. In this article, a College of Westchester teacher explains how Twitter helped engage her students in the course material.

Embedding Questions in Videos

Today's students consume video like drinking water. As today's teachers leverage this fact by using video for instructional purposes more than ever, free tools that enable educators to embed questions are powerful aid. When students are asked to consume video content outside of class, how can you help to ensure that they are really engaging with the content? Here's an excellent approach.

EduCanon: I recently created this '3 Minute Teaching with Technology' Tutorial Video showing how easy it is to use EduCanon to do this.

EdPuzzle (edpuzzle.com): I haven't tried this one yet, but I heard about it at FlipCon14, and people seem to really like it!

Ed.ted.com: This is a different approach - one that allows for the building of a quiz and other interactive content after the video is viewed.

Active Learning

This is a personal favorite of mine. Tech tools can be great for active learning in the classroom. Whether your preference is for Inquiry Based Learning, Constructivist Learning, Experiential Learning, or one of the various other labels for or sub-categories of Active Learning, there are applications and resources available to enable this teaching construct in your classroom. Here's a few web based resources for further exploration:

Social Learning

Bandura's Social Learning Theory posits that "people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling". Of course, the type of socialization that occurs via "social" computer tools is certainly different than face-to-face social interaction, but it still offers opportunities for social learning. Moreover, when it comes to blended and online learning, making an effort to bring social elements into the picture can truly help to fill one of the gaps that digital learning can have when contrasted with face-to-face learning.

Some resources to learn more:

Using Technology to Help to Ensure Engagement With Digital Content

As digital learning content becomes increasingly commonplace, one challenge we teachers are faced with is how to make sure that students are engaging with content they are consuming. Unlike the traditional textbook, digital content generally lends itself to much easier distraction.

One technique to help ensure that this type of content holds students' attention is to make it interactive, requiring responses and actions during consumption. We've already looked at embedding questions in videos as one example. Other techniques can include clicking on simple response requests, embedding discussion forums in content, or using techniques like K-W-L or WSQ. Whatever approach you take, it's worth considering some sort of measure to help ensure engagement.

Student Created Presentations

I've written a few times about the inspiring nature of student created content. Surely, one of the most rewarding moments a teacher can have is when they see the pride a student's face when they share something they have created.

In the article, Student Created Content is an Exciting and Inspiring Learning Tool that Teaches Many Skills, we look at student uses of iBooks and iMovie. As another example, I shared presentations created by students in my Emerging Information Technologies course using a variety of presentation tools in this article.

Project Based Learning

One very well-known form of Active Learning is Project Based Learning, and technology lends itself to PBL in so many ways. Heck, there's no need for me to write much more on this when so many others have!

Digital Makerspaces

The Makerspace Movement is of my favorite new 'trends' (although I really kind of hate that word) in education. While I fully embrace the many non-digital Maker tools that are available and should be a part of any robust school-base Maker Space, digital tools can also be used to create. Here's a few resources focused on the intersection of 'Digital' and 'Maker' in the education space:

Flip Your Class to Free up Class Time for More Engaged Learning

One of the primary challenges in getting engaged in the classroom can be making the time for it. If a course has a lot of learning content that has to be delivered, many teachers will use class time to that end. Flipped teaching and learning is a technique that addresses the question, "What is the Best use of Valuable Face-to-Face Class Time?" by making more class time available to be used as you see fit. Getting active and engaged is a great way to use that time!

Here are some select resources for learning more about flipped teaching and learning:

Well, there you have it ... a plethora of engaging using of technology for your classroom. Have fun!

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10 of the Most Engaging Uses of Instructional Technology (with Dozens of Resources and Tools)

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Are you looking for ways to integration technology in your lesson plans and courses that provide for an engaging experience for you and your students? Fans of instructional technology know that it can be fun and inviting, and engaged students are far more likely to be learning.

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From Positive Action, this source shows how to teach Social Skills to school-age children.

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Many students struggle to learn important social skills, like interacting positively with others and starting conversations. The time spent lecturing in schools means that kids don't always have the time to use these skills in the classroom.

A lack of social skills can contribute to poor academic performance, causing problem behaviors in class and dropping grades. We'll show you how to teach social skills just as you teach math, science, and writing using evidence-based SEL techniques.

1. Work with Peer Mentors

Kids develop similar social skills to those around them as they observe others' actions and behaviors. Pairing students with peer mentors of the same age makes learning social skills feel less like a lesson.

You can pair students of the same age and go over which social skill you want to work on that day so that the peer mentor can effectively guide their students toward developing the desired skills.

2. Adopt a Research-Based Program

A research-based program like Positive Action creates a unique curriculum suited to specific grades that helps with teaching social skills in the classroom.

Positive Action focuses on social skills instruction and overall personal development through six units. These lessons don't take much time out of your school day, but they have a significant impact on kids, teachers, and parents.

The Positive Action program promotes a social emotional learning curriculum that encourages responsible decision-making, self-management skills, social behaviors, and following directions. It is designed to guide kids through social encounters and encourage them to make their own decisions, become independent, and improve their overall well-being.

Studies show its effectiveness in schools, citing that Positive Action has helped students raise their grades, interact positively with peer s, and improve overall socialization skills.

3. Model Social Skills with Videos

Video modeling demonstrates social skills and allows students to observe an action before putting it into practice for themselves.

Videos are one of the most effective strategies for teaching social skills in class. You can use different kinds of video modeling, including:

Basic: Students watch a video of people performing certain social behaviors.

Point-of-view modeling: The video plays from the point of view of the learner.

Prompting: The video demonstrates an action and then offers a prompt for an activity.

Self-modeling: Someone records the student doing a social activity so that they can watch themselves.

They and other students then point out what the student did well and how they can improve.

4. Use Film and Video Clips

Apart from video modeling, you can have students give feedback about characters in video clips. Ask them to describe what the character did wrong in a specific situation first. For example:

Were they talking too close to someone and invading personal space?

Did they not make eye contact?

Were they not listening?

When you teach social skills, it's important for students to recognize problem behaviors in others and themselves. Using video clips will boost their awareness of these behaviors.

5. Have Students Create Videos

Try having students create their own videos while they practice social skills. You can use this activity for homework assignments so that kids can use their skills outside the classroom.

Creating videos lets children have fun with learning social skills. They also help each other learn by viewing their videos and offering feedback.

You might try choosing a single social skill to practice, like nonverbal communication. In this case, students create silent films. Ask the rest of the class to guess what happens in the films based on each person's body language and nonverbal cues.

6. Imitate and Model Other Students

Much like with video modeling, kids often use imitation behaviors to learn new social skills. When you ask them to practice these techniques in the classroom, you can create situations where students model body language and other behaviors you want to encourage.

Use prompting while teaching social skills, so children get used to imitating and improving upon their skills. Kids may think they imitate well, but with instruction, find out where they can do better.

7. Construct Social Narratives

During a social narrative, you describe a situation to your students. For example, telling a short story about a student arguing with their teacher and getting in trouble presents a situation that does not demonstrate positive social skills.

With this exercise, children learn empathy when they consider how the person in the situation feels and how they would act differently. This skill allows them to explain why certain behaviors are or are not appropriate. The educator can also describe the best response after kids have thought about it themselves.

8. Create Lunch Groups

Break kids into small groups for lunch or activities. You can use topic boxes to prompt them to talk about specific subjects or use a particular skill.

Lunch groups can help students learn to talk about different subjects and relate to others by learning their interests. It also guides kids toward having appropriate conversations.

9. Form Structured Social Situations

In structured social situations, you teach a social skill to students before putting it into practice. You might have kids learn something on their own, in a one-on-one environment, before they go into a classroom to use their new socialization skills with others.

Structured social situations involve defining a behavior and the expectations that come with it first. For example, if a student has trouble standing too close to someone while talking, you might go over respecting personal space and have them practice it after.

10. Encourage Communication with Joint Action Routines

Joint action routines create predictable routines for skills that kids can repeat. You show them a skill and then have them repeat it to practice.

Joint action routines minimize distraction and confusion when you teach one skill at a time. They show students exactly what to do in social situations to form habits and become independent as they get comfortable with the behavior.

11. Create a Classroom Management Plan

A classroom management plan helps children develop a routine and meet expectations. It also helps with problem-solving, as kids learn that they must complete a certain task with or without help, as well as how to ask for help politely.

Children develop an understanding of a behavior through repeated situations. They learn how they can improve and behave in different classroom environments based on their assigned tasks.

12. Encourage Teamwork

Activities, such as cooperative games or decision-making tasks, particularly those that don't just encourage but require teamwork for success, lead children to get to know one another, work together, and learn the fine intricacies of forging friendships and presenting well-reasoned debates to have their voices heard.

Avoid creating long-term teams to keep students continually interacting with new groups and practicing new social skills as different personalities collide!

13. Social Role-Play Activities

Social role-play activities allow students to use their new skills creatively. Give your class a scenario and ask them to come up with a short skit to act out in front of their peers.

You can make the scene specific to a single social skill, and other students will give feedback after the actors finish their demonstration. Kids come up with their own scripts, which allows them to think about the actions that do and don't work.

Conclusion

When you use evidence-based methods to teach social skills, you help students learn new social techniques more quickly and effectively. Use a combination of these practices to determine how your students respond best and see which ones they enjoy.

Positive Action can help with SEL in any learning environment.

Contact us to schedule a webinar and talk about how our program can benefit your classroom.

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13 Evidence-Based Ways to Teach Social Skills in 2023

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Many students struggle to learn important social skills, like interacting positively with others and starting conversations. The time spent lecturing in schools means that kids don't always have the time to use these skills in the classroom.

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This is a guide from the Department of Education for Teachers, Students, and Parents on how IEPs work.

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Select a link below to jump to the relevant page section.

1. Preface

The purpose of this guidance is to assist educators, parents, and state and local educational agencies in implementing the requirements of Part B of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) regarding Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) for children with disabilities, including preschool-aged children. (This guide does not address the development of Individualized Family Service Plans (IFSP) for infants and toddlers.)

Guide to the Individualized Education Program
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Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services
U.S. Department of Education
July 2000

Credits

This guide was developed by the U.S. Department of Education, with the assistance of the National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities (NICHCY). The Department staff contributing to this guide include: Debra Price-Ellingstad, JoLeta Reynolds, Larry Ringer, Ruth Ryder, and Suzanne Sheridan, under the direction of Judith E. Heumann, Kenneth Warlick, and Curtis Richards.

Editor: Lisa Küpper, NICHCY

Production: Jean Kohanek, NICHCY

Disability Art: Madison, Moore, www.disabilityart.com

Each public school child who receives special education and related services must have an Individualized Education Program (IEP). Each IEP must be designed for one student and must be a truly individualized document. The IEP creates an opportunity for teachers, parents, school administrators, related services personnel, and students (when appropriate) to work together to improve educational results for children with disabilities. The IEP is the cornerstone of a quality education for each child with a disability.
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To create an effective IEP, parents, teachers, other school staff--and often the student--must come together to look closely at the student's unique needs. These individuals pool knowledge, experience and commitment to design an educational program that will help the student be involved in, and progress in, the general curriculum. The IEP guides the delivery of special education supports and services for the student with a disability. Without a doubt, writing--and implementing--an effective IEP requires teamwork.

This guide explains the IEP process, which we consider to be one of the most critical elements to ensure effective teaching, learning, and better results for all children with disabilities. The guide is designed to help teachers, parents and anyone involved in the education of a child with a disability-develop and carry out an IEP. The information in this guide is based on what is required by our nation's special education law--the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, or IDEA.

The IDEA requires certain information to be included in each child's IEP. It is useful to know, however, that states and local school systems often include additional information in IEPs in order to document that they have met certain aspects of federal or state law. The flexibility that states and school systems have to design their own IEP forms is one reason why IEP forms may look different from school system to school system or state to state. Yet each IEP is critical in the education of a child with a disability.

Additional copies of this guide are available from:

ED Pubs
Editorial Publications Center
U.S. Department of Education
P.O. Box 1398
Jessup, MD 20794-1398

(877) 4-ED-PUBS
(877) 576-7734 TTY
(301) 470-1244 Fax

The writing of each student's IEP takes place within the larger picture of the special education process under IDEA. Before taking a detailed look at the IEP, it may be helpful to look briefly at how a student is identified as having a disability and needing special education and related services and, thus, an IEP.
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Step 1. Child is identified as possibly needing special education and related services.

"Child Find." The state must identify, locate, and evaluate all children with disabilities in the state who need special education and related services. To do so, states conduct "Child Find" activities. A child may be identified by "Child Find," and parents may be asked if the "Child Find" system can evaluate their child. Parents can also call the "Child Find" system and ask that their child be evaluated. Or —

Referral or request for evaluation. A school professional may ask that a child be evaluated to see if he or she has a disability. Parents may also contact the child's teacher or other school professional to ask that their child be evaluated. This request may be verbal or in writing. Parental consent is needed before the child may be evaluated. Evaluation needs to be completed within a reasonable time after the parent gives consent.

Step 2. Child is evaluated.

The evaluation must assess the child in all areas related to the child's suspected disability. The evaluation results will be used to decide the child's eligibility for special education and related services and to make decisions about an appropriate educational program for the child. If the parents disagree with the evaluation, they have the right to take their child for an Independent Educational Evaluation (IEE). They can ask that the school system pay for this IEE.

Step 3. Eligibility is decided.

Clearly, the IEP is a very important document for children with disabilities and for those who are involved in educating them. Done correctly, the IEP should improve teaching, learning and results. Each child's IEP describes, among other things, the educational program that has been designed to meet that child's unique needs. This part of the guide looks closely at how the IEP is written and by whom, and what information it must, at a minimum, contain.
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A group of qualified professionals and the parents look at the child's evaluation results. Together, they decide if the child is a "child with a disability," as defined by IDEA. Parents may ask for a hearing to challenge the eligibility decision.

Step 4. Child is found eligible for services.

If the child is found to be a "child with a disability," as defined by IDEA, he or she is eligible for special education and related services. Within 30 calendar days after a child is determined eligible, the IEP team must meet to write an IEP for the child.
Step 5. IEP meeting is scheduled.
By law, the IEP must include certain information about the child and the educational program designed to meet his or her unique needs. In a nutshell, this information is:
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Current performance.
The IEP must state how the child is currently doing in school (known as present levels of educational performance). This information usually comes from the evaluation results such as classroom tests and assignments, individual tests given to decide eligibility for services or during reevaluation, and observations made by parents, teachers, related service providers, and other school staff. The statement about "current performance" includes how the child's disability affects his or her involvement and progress in the general curriculum.

Annual goals.
These are goals that the child can reasonably accomplish in a year. The goals are broken down into short-term objectives or benchmarks. Goals may be academic, address social or behavioral needs, relate to physical needs, or address other educational needs. The goals must be measurable-meaning that it must be possible to measure whether the student has achieved the goals.

Special education and related services.
The IEP must list the special education and related services to be provided to the child or on behalf of the child. This includes supplementary aids and services that the child needs. It also includes modifications (changes) to the program or supports for school personnel-such as training or professional development-that will be provided to assist the child.

Participation with nondisabled children.
The IEP must explain the extent (if any) to which the child will not participate with nondisabled children in the regular class and other school activities.

Participation in state and district-wide tests.
Most states and districts give achievement tests to children in certain grades or age groups. The IEP must state what modifications in the administration of these tests the child will need. If a test is not appropriate for the child, the IEP must state why the test is not appropriate and how the child will be tested instead.

Dates and places.
The IEP must state when services will begin, how often they will be provided, where they will be provided, and how long they will last.

States and school systems have a great deal of flexibility about the information they require in an IEP. Some states and school systems have chosen to include in the IEP additional information to document their compliance with other state and federal requirements. (Federal law requires that school districts maintain documentation to demonstrate their compliance with federal requirements.) Generally speaking, extra elements in IEPs may be included to document that the state or school district has met certain aspects of federal or state law, such as:
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IEP Forms in Different Places
While the law tells us what information must be included in the IEP, it does not specify what the IEP should look like. No one form or approach or appearance is required or even suggested. Each state may decide what its IEPs will look like. In some states individual school systems design their own IEP forms.

Thus, across the United States, many different IEP forms are used. What is important is that each form be as clear and as useful as possible, so that parents, educators, related service providers, administrators, and others can easily use the form to write and implement effective IEPs for their students with disabilities.

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Transition service needs.
Beginning when the child is age 14 (or younger, if appropriate), the IEP must address (within the applicable parts of the IEP) the courses he or she needs to take to reach his or her post-school goals. A statement of transition services needs must also be included in each of the child's subsequent IEPs.

By law, certain individuals must be involved in writing a child's Individualized Education Program. These are identified in the figure at the left. Note that an IEP team member may fill more than one of the team positions if properly qualified and designated. For example, the school system representative may also be the person who can interpret the child's evaluation results.
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These people must work together as a team to write the child's IEP. A meeting to write the IEP must be held within 30 calendar days of deciding that the child is eligible for special education and related services.

Each team member brings important information to the IEP meeting. Members share their information and work together to write the child's Individualized Education Program. Each person's information adds to the team's understanding of the child and what services the child needs.

Parents are key members of the IEP team. They know their child very well and can talk about their child's strengths and needs as well as their ideas for enhancing their child's education. They can offer insight into how their child learns, what his or her interests are, and other aspects of the child that only a parent can know. They can listen to what the other team members think their child needs to work on at school and share their suggestions. They can also report on whether the skills the child is learning at school are being used at home. (See box on page 12 regarding parents' possible need for an interpreter.)

Teachers are vital participants in the IEP meeting as well. At least one of the child's regular education teachers must be on the IEP team if the child is (or may be) participating in the regular education environment. The regular education teacher has a great deal to share with the team. For example, he or she might talk about:

the general curriculum in the regular classroom;

the aids, services or changes to the educational program that would help the child learn and achieve; and

strategies to help the child with behavior, if behavior is an issue.

The regular education teacher may also discuss with the IEP team the supports for school staff that are needed so that the child can:

To help decide what special education and related services the student needs, generally the IEP team will begin by looking at the child's evaluation results, such as classroom tests, individual tests given to establish the student's eligibility, and observations by teachers, parents, paraprofessionals, related service providers, administrators, and others. This information will help the team describe the student's "present levels of educational performance" -in other words, how the student is currently doing in school. Knowing how the student is currently performing in school will help the team develop annual goals to address those areas where the student has an identified educational need.
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The IEP team must also discuss specific information about the child. This includes:

In addition, the IEP team must consider the "special factors" described in the box below.

It is important that the discussion of what the child needs be framed around how to help the child:

Based on the above discussion, the IEP team will then write the child's IEP. This includes the services and supports the school will provide for the child. If the IEP team decides that a child needs a particular device or service (including an intervention, accommodation, or other program modification), the IEP team must write this information in the IEP. As an example, consider a child whose behavior interferes with learning. The IEP team would need to consider positive and effective ways to address that behavior. The team would discuss the positive behavioral interventions, strategies, and supports that the child needs in order to learn how to control or manage his or her behavior. If the team decides that the child needs a particular service (including an intervention, accommodation, or other program modification), they must include a statement to that effect in the child's IEP.

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Special Factors To Consider
In addition, the child's placement (where the IEP will be carried out) must be decided. The placement decision is made by a group of people, including the parents and others who know about the child, what the evaluation results mean, and what types of placements are appropriate. In some states, the IEP team serves as the group making the placement decision. In other states, this decision may be made by another group of people. In all cases, the parents have the right to be members of the group that decides the educational placement of the child.
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Placement decisions must be made according to IDEA's least restrictive environment requirements-commonly known as LRE. These requirements state that, to the maximum extent appropriate, children with disabilities must be educated with children who do not have disabilities.

The law also clearly states that special classes, separate schools, or other removal of children with disabilities from the regular educational environment may occur only if the nature or severity of the child's disability is such that education in regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily.

What type of placements are there? Depending on the needs of the child, his or her IEP may be carried out in the regular class (with supplementary aids and services, as needed), in a special class (where every student in the class is receiving special education services for some or all of the day), in a special school, at home, in a hospital and institution, or in another setting. A school system may meet its obligation to ensure that the child has an appropriate placement available by:

providing an appropriate program for the child on its own;

contracting with another agency to provide an appropriate program; or

utilizing some other mechanism or arrangement that is consistent with IDEA for providing or paying for an appropriate program for the child.

The placement group will base its decision on the IEP and which placement option is appropriate for the child. Can the child be educated in the regular classroom, with proper aids and supports? If the child cannot be educated in the regular classroom, even with appropriate aids and supports, then the placement group will talk about other placements for the child.

Depending on the needs of the child, the IEP team needs to consider what the law calls special factors. These include:
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When the IEP has been written, parents must receive a copy at no cost to themselves. The IDEA also stresses that everyone who will be involved in implementing the IEP must have access to the document. This includes the child's:

Each of these individuals needs to know what his or her specific responsibilities are for carrying out the child's IEP. This includes the specific accommodations, modifications, and supports that the child must receive, according to the IEP.

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Parents' Permission
Before the school can provide a child with special education and related services for the first time, the child's parents must give their written permission.

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Once the IEP is written, it is time to carry it out-in other words, to provide the student with the special education and related services as listed in the IEP. This includes all supplementary aids and services and program modifications that the IEP team has identified as necessary for the student to advance appropriately toward his or her IEP goals, to be involved in and progress in the general curriculum, and participate in other school activities. While it is beyond the scope of this guide to discuss in detail the many issues involved in implementing a student's IEP, certain suggestions can be offered.
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Every individual involved in providing services to the student should know and understand his or her responsibilities for carrying out the IEP. This will help ensure that the student receives the services that have been planned, including the specific modifications and accommodations the IEP team has identified as necessary.

Teamwork plays an important part in carrying out the IEP. Many professionals are likely to be involved in providing services and supports to the student. Sharing expertise and insights can help make everyone's job a lot easier and can certainly improve results for students with disabilities. Schools can encourage teamwork by giving teachers, support staff and/or paraprofessionals time to plan or work together on such matters as adapting the general curriculum to address the student's unique needs. Teachers, support staff, and others providing services for children with disabilities may request training and staff development.

Communication between home and school is also important. Parents can share information about what is happening at home and build upon what the child is learning at school. If the child is having difficulty at school, parents may be able to offer insight or help the school explore possible reasons as well as possible solutions.

It is helpful to have someone in charge of coordinating and monitoring the services the student receives. In addition to special education, the student may be receiving any number of related services. Many people may be involved in delivering those services. Having a person in charge of overseeing that services are being delivered as planned can help ensure that the IEP is being carried out appropriately.

The regular progress reports that the law requires will help parents and schools monitor the child's progress toward his or her annual goals. It is important to know if the child is not making the progress expected-or if he or she has progressed much faster than expected. Together, parents and school personnel can then address the child's needs as those needs become evident.

If the child's behavior interferes with his or her learning or the learning of others, the IEP team will consider strategies and supports to address the child's behavior.

The IEP team must review the child's IEP at least once a year. One purpose of this review is to see whether the child is achieving his or her annual goals. The team must revise the child's individualized education program, if necessary, to address:
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the child's progress or lack of expected progress toward the annual goals and in the general curriculum;

information gathered through any reevaluation of the child;

information about the child that the parents share;

information about the child that the school shares (for example, insights from the teacher based on his or her observation of the child or the child's classwork);

the child's anticipated needs; or

other matters.

Although the IDEA requires this IEP review at least once a year, in fact the team may review and revise the IEP more often. Either the parents or the school can ask to hold an IEP meeting to revise the child's IEP. For example, the child may not be making progress toward his or her IEP goals, and his or her teacher or parents may become concerned. On the other hand, the child may have met most or all of the goals in the IEP, and new ones need to be written. In either case, the IEP team would meet to revise the IEP.

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Look at Those Factors Again!
When the IEP team is meeting to conduct a review of the child's IEP and, as necessary, to revise it, members must again consider all of the factors discussed on page 11. This includes:

The IEP team must also consider the "special factors," as listed earlier.

There are times when parents may not agree with the school's recommendations about their child's education. Under the law, parents have the right to challenge decisions about their child's eligibility, evaluation, placement, and the services that the school provides to the child. If parents disagree with the school's actions-or refusal to take action-in these matters, they have the right to pursue a number of options. They may do the following:
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OSEP Monitoring
The U.S. Department of Education's Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) regularly monitors states to see that they are complying with IDEA. Every two years OSEP requires that states report progress toward meeting established performance goals that, at a minimum, address the performance of children on assessments, drop-out rates, and graduation rates. As part of its monitoring, the Department reviews IEPs and interviews parents, students, and school staff to find out:

whether, and how, the IEP team made the decisions reflected in the IEP;

whether those decisions and the IEP content are based on the child's unique needs, as determined through evaluation and the IEP process;

whether any state or local policies or practices have interfered with decisions of the IEP team about the child's educational needs and the services that the school would provide to meet those needs; and

The IEP is the cornerstone of special education. Writing and implementing an effective IEP involves many people, many different steps, and collaborative decision making.
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The information provided in this guide about the IEP has been fairly general. To help you get better acquainted with the various parts of the IEP, a sample IEP form is presented on the next pages. The sample IEP form includes space for all of the information that an IEP must contain under federal law. (Remember that IEP forms in your area may require more information that may be of value to the student and those implementing the IEP.) The different parts of the sample are paired with direct quotes from the law, so that you can easily see:

how the law defines what type of information goes into the various parts of a child's IEP, and

how this information goes together to create an educational program for a particular child.

Attachment A presents the IDEA's regulations for "Individualized Education Programs" (§§300.340-300.350). Under §300.347, where "IEP content" is described, we have included additional information primarily from Appendix A and Attachment 1 of the regulations. This information can be very useful in developing a fuller understanding of what type of information is important to capture about a child in the IEP.

whether the school has provided the services listed in the IEP.

This guide is intended to help states and school districts write IEPs that comply with IDEA. Writing effective IEPs is a very important first step in improving educational results for children with disabilities.

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Use of this IEP form, or any other form, will not, in and of itself, ensure compliance with IDEA's Part B requirements. Whether or not a state or local education agency chooses to require or recommend that teams use this form for IEPs, all IEP team participants including parents need to receive clear guidance and training regarding Part B requirements and to understand the importance of the IEP in focusing instruction to meet the unique needs of each child with a disability. TOP Individualized Education Program (IEP)
Student Name [ Space to write ]

Date of Meeting to Develop or Review IEP [ Space to write ]

Note: For each student with a disability beginning at age 14 (or younger, if appropriate), a statement of the student's transition service needs must be included under the applicable parts of the IEP. The statement must focus on the courses the student needs to take to reach his or her post-school goals.

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From the Regulations:
If you would like more information about special education, children with disabilities, the IEP process, or the IDEA, contact your state education agency or your local education agency. Additional sources of information include the following:
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Office of Special Education Programs
Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services
U.S. Department of Education
400 Maryland Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20202-7100
(202) 245-7531 (Voice/TTY)
Web: www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/osep/

National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities (NICHCY)
P.O. Box 1492
Washington, DC 20013
(800) 695-0285 (Voice/TTY); (202) 884-8200 (V/TTY)
E-mail: nichcy@aed.org
Web: www.nichcy.org

Technical Assistance for Parent Centers--the Alliance
PACER Center
4826 Chicago Avenue South
Minneapolis, MN 55417-1098
(888) 248-0822; (612) 827-2966
(612) 827-7770 (TTY)
E-mail: alliance@taalliance.org
Web: www.taalliance.org

The IDEA Partnership Projects

Associations of Service Providers Implementing IDEA Reforms in Education (ASPIIRE)
The Council for Exceptional Children
1920 Association Drive
Reston, VA 20191-1589
(888) 232-7733; (703) 264-9456
(703) 264-9446 (TTY)
E-mail: ideapractices@cec.sped.org

Families and Advocates Partnerships for Education (FAPE)
PACER Center
4826 Chicago Avenue South
Minneapolis, MN 55417-1098
(888) 248-0822; (612) 827-2966; (612) 827-7770 (TTY)
E-mail: fape@pacer.org
Web: www.fape.org
Final Regulations for IEPs:
§§ 300.340--300.350 TOP
Attachment A presents the Federal regulations for Individualized Education Programs (IEP). These regulations cover areas such as IEP meetings; the IEP team; parent participation; and the development, review, and revision of the IEP.

Under §300.347--"Content of IEP"--we have included additional guidance on the various parts of the IEP. Generally, this guidance comes from Appendix A and Attachment 1 of the federal regulations for IDEA, which were published March 12, 1999, in the Federal Register.

This extra information is intended to highlight and clarify what information needs to be included in a child's IEP.

Individualized Education Programs

§ 300.340 Definitions related to IEPs.

(a) Individualized education program. As used in this part, the term individualized education program or IEP means a written statement for a child with a disability that is developed, reviewed, and revised in a meeting in accordance with §§ 300.341-300.350.

(b) Participating agency. As used in § 300.348, participating agency means a State or local agency, other than the public agency responsible for a student's education, that is financially and legally responsible for providing transition services to the student.

(Authority: 20 U.S.C. 1401(11), 1312(a)(10)(B))

§ 300.341 Responsibility of SEA and other public agencies for IEPs.

(a) The SEA shall ensure that each public agency-

(1) Except as provided in §§ 300.450-300.462, develops and implements an IEP for each child with a disability served by that agency; and

(2) Ensures that an IEP is developed and implemented for each eligible child placed in or referred to a private school or facility by the public agency.

(b) Paragraph (a) of this section applies to-

(1) The SEA, if it is involved in providing direct services to children with disabilities, in accordance with 300.370(a) and (b)(1); and

(2) Except as provided in § 300.600(d), the other public agencies described in § 300.2, including LEAs and other State agencies that provide special education and related services either directly, by contract, or through other arrangements.

(Authority: 20 U.S.C. 1412(a)(4), (a)(10)(B))

§ 300.342 When IEPs must be in effect.

(a) General. At the beginning of each school year, each public agency shall have an IEP in effect for each child with a disability within its jurisdiction.

(b) Implementation of IEPs. Each public agency shall ensure that-

(1) An IEP-

(i) Is in effect before special education and related services are provided to an eligible child under this part; and

(ii) Is implemented as soon as possible following the meetings described under § 300.343;

(2) The child's IEP is accessible to each regular education teacher, special education teacher, related service provider, and other service provider who is responsible for its implementation; and

(3) Each teacher and provider described in paragraph (b)(2) of this section is informed of-

(i) His or her specific responsibilities related to implementing the child's IEP; and

(ii) The specific accommodations, modifications, and supports that must be provided for the child in accordance with the IEP.

(c) IEP or IFSP for children aged 3 through 5.

(1) In the case of a child with a disability aged 3 through 5 (or, at the discretion of the SEA a 2-year-old child with a disability who will turn age 3 during the school year), an IFSP that contains the material described in section 636 of the Act, and that is developed in accordance with 300.341- 300.346 and 300.349-300.350, may serve as the IEP of the child if using that plan as the IEP is-

(i) Consistent with State policy; and

(ii) Agreed to by the agency and the child's parents.

(2) In implementing the requirements of paragraph (c)(1) of this section, the public agency shall-

(i) Provide to the child's parents a detailed explanation of the differences between an IFSP and an IEP; and

(ii) If the parents choose an IFSP, obtain written informed consent from the parents.

(d) Effective date for new requirements. All IEPs developed, reviewed, or revised on or after July 1, 1998 must meet the requirements of §§ 300.340- 300.350.

(Authority: 20 U.S.C. 1414(d)(2)(A) and (B), Pub. L. 105-17, sec. 201(a)(2)(A), (C)

§ 300.343 IEP meetings.

(a) General. Each public agency is responsible for initiating and conducting meetings for the purpose of developing, reviewing, and revising the IEP of a child with a disability (or, if consistent with § 300.342(c), an IFSP).

(b) Initial IEPs; provision of services. (1) Each public agency shall ensure that within a reasonable period of time following the agency's receipt of parent consent to an initial evaluation of a child-

(i) The child is evaluated; and

(ii) If determined eligible under this part, special education and related services are made available to the child in accordance with an IEP.

(2) In meeting the requirement in paragraph (b)(1) of this section, a meeting to develop an IEP for the child must be conducted within 30 days of a determination that the child needs special education and related services.

(c) Review and revision of IEPs. Each public agency shall ensure that the IEP team-

(1) Reviews the child's IEP periodically, but not less than annually, to determine whether the annual goals for the child are being achieved; and

(2) Revises the IEP as appropriate to address-

(i) Any lack of expected progress toward the annual goals described in § 300.347(a), and in the general curriculum, if appropriate;

(ii) The results of any reevaluation conducted under § 300.536;

(iii) Information about the child provided to, or by, the parents, as described in 300.533(a)(1);

(iv) The child's anticipated needs; or

(v) Other matters.

(Authority: 20 U.S.C. 1413(a)(1), 1414(d)(4)(A))

§ 300.344 IEP team.

(a) General. The public agency shall ensure that the IEP team for each child with a disability includes-

(1) The parents of the child;

(2) At least one regular education teacher of the child (if the child is, or may be, participating in the regular education environment);

(3) At least one special education teacher of the child, or if appropriate, at least one special education provider of the child;

(4) A representative of the public agency who-

(i) Is qualified to provide, or supervise the provision of, specially designed instruction to meet the unique needs of children with disabilities;

(ii) Is knowledgeable about the general curriculum; and

(iii) Is knowledgeable about the availability of resources of the public agency;

(5) An individual who can interpret the instructional implications of evaluation results, who may be a member of the team described in paragraphs (a)(2) through (6) of this section;

(6) At the discretion of the parent or the agency, other individuals who have knowledge or special expertise regarding the child, including related services personnel as appropriate; and

(7) If appropriate, the child.

(b) Transition services participants. (1) Under paragraph (a)(7) of this section, the public agency shall invite a student with a disability of any age to attend his or her IEP meeting if a purpose of the meeting will be the consideration of-

(i) The student's transition services needs under § 300.347(b)(1);

(ii) The needed transition services for the student under § 300.347(b)(2); or

(iii) Both.

(2) If the student does not attend the IEP meeting, the public agency shall take other steps to ensure that the student's preferences and interests are considered.

(3)(i) In implementing the requirements of 300.347(b)(2), the public agency also shall invite a representative of any other agency that is likely to be responsible for providing or paying for transition services.

(ii) If an agency invited to send a representative to a meeting does not do so, the public agency shall take other steps to obtain participation of the other agency in the planning of any transition services.

(c) Determination of knowledge and special expertise. The determination of the knowledge or special expertise of any individual described in paragraph (a)(6) of this section shall be made by the party (parents or public agency) who invited the individual to be a member of the IEP.

(d) Designating a public agency representative. A public agency may designate another public agency member of the IEP team to also serve as the agency representative, if the criteria in paragraph (a)(4) of this section are satisfied.

(Authority: 20 U.S.C. 1401(30), 1414(d)(1)(A)(7), (B))

§ 300.345 Parent participation.

(a) Public agency responsibility-general. Each public agency shall take steps to ensure that one or both of the parents of a child with a disability are present at each IEP meeting or are afforded the opportunity to participate, including-

(1) Notifying parents of the meeting early enough to ensure that they will have an opportunity to attend; and

(2) Scheduling the meeting at a mutually agreed on time and place.

(b) Information provided to parents. (1) The notice required under paragraph (a)(1) of this section must-

(i) Indicate the purpose, time, and location of the meeting and who will be in attendance; and

(ii) Inform the parents of the provisions in 300.344(a)(6) and (c) (relating to the participation of other individuals on the IEP team who have knowledge or special expertise about the child).

(2) For a student with a disability beginning at age 14, or younger, if appropriate, the notice must also-

(i) Indicate that a purpose of the meeting will be the development of a statement of the transition services needs of the student required in 300.347(b)(1); and

(ii) Indicate that the agency will invite the student.

(3) For a student with a disability beginning at age 16, or younger, if appropriate, the notice must-

(i) Indicate that a purpose of the meeting is the consideration of needed transition services for the student required in § 300.347(b)(2);

(ii) Indicate that the agency will invite the student; and

(iii) Identify any other agency that will be invited to send a representative.

(c) Other methods to ensure parent participation. If neither parent can attend, the public agency shall use other methods to ensure parent participation, including individual or conference telephone calls.

(d) Conducting an IEP meeting without a parent in attendance. A meeting may be conducted without a parent in attendance if the public agency is unable to convince the parents that they should attend. In this case the public agency must have a record of its attempts to arrange a mutually agreed on time and place, such as-

(1) Detailed records of telephone calls made or attempted and the results of those calls;

(2) Copies of correspondence sent to the parents and any responses received; and

(3) Detailed records of visits made to the parent's home or place of employment and the results of those visits.

(e) Use of interpreters or other action, as appropriate. The public agency shall take whatever action is necessary to ensure that the parent understands the proceedings at the IEP meeting, including arranging for an interpreter for parents with deafness or whose native language is other than English.

(f) Parent copy of child's IEP. The public agency shall give the parent a copy of the child's IEP at no cost to the parent.

(Authority: 20 U.S.C. 1414(d)(1)(B)(i))

§ 300.346 Development, review, and revision of IEP.

(a) Development of IEP. (1) General. In developing each child's IEP, the IEP team, shall consider-

(i) The strengths of the child and the concerns of the parents for enhancing the education of their child;

(ii) The results of the initial or most recent evaluation of the child; and

(iii) As appropriate, the results of the child's performance on any general State or district-wide assessment programs.

(2) Consideration of special factors. The IEP team also shall-

(i) In the case of a child whose behavior impedes his or her learning or that of others, consider, if appropriate, strategies, including positive behavioral interventions, strategies, and supports to address that behavior;

(ii) In the case of a child with limited English proficiency, consider the language needs of the child as those needs relate to the child's IEP;

(iii) In the case of a child who is blind or visually impaired, provide for instruction in Braille and the use of Braille unless the IEP team determines, after an evaluation of the child's reading and writing skills, needs, and appropriate reading and writing media (including an evaluation of the child's future needs for instruction in Braille or the use of Braille), that instruction in Braille or the use of Braille is not appropriate for the child;

(iv) Consider the communication needs of the child, and in the case of a child who is deaf or hard of hearing, consider the child's language and communication needs, opportunities for direct communications with peers and professional personnel in the child's language and communication mode, academic level, and full range of needs, including opportunities for direct instruction in the child's language and communication mode; and

(v) Consider whether the child requires assistive technology devices and services.

(b) Review and Revision of IEP. In conducting a meeting to review, and, if appropriate, revise a child's IEP, the IEP team shall consider the factors described in paragraph (a) of this section.

(c) Statement in IEP. If, in considering the special factors described in paragraphs (a)(1) and (2) of this section, the IEP team determines that a child needs a particular device or service (including an intervention, accommodation, or other program modification) in order for the child to receive FAPE, the IEP team must include a statement to that effect in the child's IEP.

(d) Requirement with respect to regular education teacher. The regular education teacher of a child with a disability, as a member of the IEP team, must, to the extent appropriate, participate in the development, review, and revision of the child's IEP, including assisting in the determination of-

(1) Appropriate positive behavioral interventions and strategies for the child; and

(2) Supplementary aids and services, program modifications or supports for school personnel that will be provided for the child, consistent with

300.347(a)(3).

(e) Construction. Nothing in this section shall be construed to require the IEP team to include information under one component of a child's IEP that is already contained under another component of the child's IEP.

(Authority: 20 U.S.C. 1414(d)(3) and (4)(B) and (e))

§ 300.347 Content of IEP.

"(a) General. The IEP for each child with a disability must include-

"(1) A statement of the child's present levels of educational performance, including-

"(i) How the child's disability affects the child's involvement and progress in the general curriculum (i.e., the same curriculum as for nondisabled children); or

"(ii) For preschool children, as appropriate, how the disability affects the child's participation in appropriate activities;

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Additional Guidance
An IEP must include measurable annual goals that relate to meeting the child's needs that result from the child's disability to enable the child to be involved in and progress in the general curriculum, and to meeting each of the child's other educational needs that result from the child's disability [34 CFR §300.347(a)(2)]. Thus, if a child's unique needs require goals that address the child's present levels of educational performance in nonacademic areas of instructional need, such as behavioral skills, communication and language skills, self-determination skills, job-related skills, independent living skills, or social skills, the statement of present levels of educational performance in the child's IEP should provide information regarding the child's present levels of educational performance in those areas.

**********

"(2) A statement of measurable annual goals, including benchmarks or short-term objectives, related to-

"(i) Meeting the child's needs that result from the child's disability to enable the child to be involved in and progress in the general curriculum (i.e., the same curriculum as for nondisabled children), or for preschool children, as appropriate, to participate in appropriate activities; and

"(ii) Meeting each of the child's other educational needs that result from the child's disability;

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Additional Guidance
Each annual goal must include either short-term objectives or benchmarks. The purpose of both is to enable a child's teacher(s), parents, and others involved in developing and implementing the child's IEP, to gauge, at intermediate times during the year, how well the child is progressing toward achievement of the annual goal. [Appendix A to 34 CFR Part 300-Notice of Interpretation (Appendix A), Response to Question 1, 64 Federal Register, page 12471 (March 12, 1999).]

An IEP team may use either short-term objectives (that generally break the skills described in the annual goal down into discrete components) or benchmarks (which can be thought of as describing the amount of progress the child is expected to make within specified segments of the year), or a combination of the two, depending on the nature of the annual goals and the needs of the child. [Appendix A to 34 CFR Part 300-Notice of Interpretation (Appendix A), Response to Question 1, 64 Federal Register, page 12471 (March 12, 1999).]

A child's IEP must include measurable annual goals that relate to meeting the child's needs that result from the child's disability to enable the child to be involved in and progress in the general curriculum, and to meeting each of the child's other educational needs that result from the child's disability [34 CFR §300.347(a)(2)]. This may, depending on the child's needs, include annual goals that relate to the child's needs in such areas as behavioral skills, communication, self-determination skills, job-related skills, independent living skills, or social skills.

A public agency is not required to include in an IEP annual goals that relate to areas of the general curriculum in which the child's disability does not affect the child's ability to be involved in and progress in the general curriculum. If a child needs only modifications or accommodations in order to progress in an area of the general curriculum, the IEP does not need to include a goal for that area; however the IEP would need to specify those modifications or accommodations. [Appendix A, Response to Question 4, 64 Federal Register, page 12472 (March 12, 1999).]

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"(3) A statement of the special education and related services and supplementary aids and services to be provided to the child, or on behalf of the child, and a statement of the program modifications or supports for school personnel that will be provided for the child-

"(i) To advance appropriately toward attaining the annual goals;

"(ii) To be involved and progress in the general curriculum in accordance with paragraph (a)(1) of this section and to participate in extracurricular and other nonacademic activities; and

"(iii) To be educated and participate with other children with disabilities and nondisabled children in the activities described in this section;

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Additional Guidance
The type and amount of services to be provided must be stated in the IEP, so that the level of the agency's commitment of resources will be clear to parents and other IEP team embers. [Appendix A, Response to Question 35, 64 Federal Register, page 12479 (March 12, 1999).]

The amount of time to be committed to each of the various services to be provided must be appropriate to the specific service and stated in the IEP in a manner that is clear to all who are involved in both the development and implementation of the IEP. [Appendix A, Response to Question 35, 64 Federal Register, page 12479 (March 12, 1999).]

The amount of a special education or related service to be provided to a child may be stated in the IEP as a range (e.g., speech therapy to be provided three times a week for 30-45 minutes per session) only if the IEP team determines that stating the amount of the services as a range is necessary to meet the unique needs of the child. For example, it would be appropriate for the IEP to specify, based upon the IEP team's determination of the student's unique needs, that particular services are needed only under specific circumstances, such as the occurrence of a seizure or of a particular behavior. A range may not be used because of personnel shortages or uncertainty regarding the availability of staff. [Appendix A, Response to Question 35, 64 Federal Register, page 12479 (March 12, 1999).]

The term "on behalf of the child" includes, among other things, services that are provided to the parents or teacher of the child with a disability to help them to more effectively work with the child. . . Supports for school personnel could also include special training for a child's teacher. However, in order for the training to meet the requirements of §300.347(a)(3), it would normally be targeted directly to on assisting the teacher to meet a unique and specific need of the child, and not simply to participate in an inservice training program that is generally available in a public agency. [Attachment 1-Analysis of Comments and Changes (Attachment 1), 64 Federal Register, page 12593 (March 12, 1999).]

If the IEP team determines that a child with a disability needs extended school year services to receive a free appropriate public education , the public agency must ensure that the child receives those services. A public agency may not-(i) Limit extended school year services to particular categories of disability; or (ii) Unilaterally limit the type, amount, or duration of those services. 34 CFR §300.309(a).

Section 300.346(a)(1) requires that, in developing each child's IEP, the IEP team, shall consider-(i) The strengths of the child and the concerns of the parents for enhancing the education of their child; (ii) The results of the initial or most recent evaluation of the child; and (iii) As appropriate, the results of the child's performance on any general State or district-wide assessment programs.

Section 300.346(a)(2) requires that the IEP team also:

i. In the case of a child whose behavior impedes his or her learning or that of others, consider, if appropriate, strategies, including positive behavioral interventions, strategies, and supports to address that behavior;

ii. In the case of a child with limited English proficiency, consider the language needs of the child as those needs relate to the child's IEP;

iii. In the case of a child who is blind or visually impaired, provide for instruction in Braille and the use of Braille unless the IEP team determines, after an evaluation of the child's reading and writing skills, needs, and appropriate reading and writing media (including an evaluation of the child's future needs for instruction in Braille or the use of Braille), that instruction in Braille or the use of Braille is not appropriate for the child;

iv. Consider the communication needs of the child, and in the case of a child who is deaf or hard of hearing, consider the child's language and communication needs, opportunities for direct communications with peers and professional personnel in the child's language and communication mode, academic level, and full range of needs, including opportunities for direct instruction in the child's language and communication mode; and

v. Consider whether the child requires assistive technology devices and services.

**********

"(4) An explanation of the extent, if any, to which the child will not participate with nondisabled children in the regular class and in the activities described in paragraph (a)(3) of this section;

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Additional Guidance
The IEP team must consider the extent, if any, to which the child will not participate with nondisabled children in the regular class; the general curriculum; and in extracurricular and other nonacademic activities. If the IEP team determines that the child cannot participate full time with nondisaled children in the regular classroom, the general curriculum, and in extracurricular and other nonacademic activities, the IEP must include a statement that explains why full participation is not possible. [Attachment 1, 64 Federal Register, page 12593 (March 12, 1999).]

The IEP team must consider whether or not the child's education can be achieved satisfactorily in the regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services. The IEP team must consider the full range of supplementary aids and services that if provided, would facilitate the student's placement in the regular classroom. [Appendix A, Response to Question 1, 64 Federal Register, page 12471 (March 12, 1999).]

In determining the extent, if any, to which a child with a disability will be removed from the regular educational environment, a public agency must ensure that:

(1) such removal occurs only if the nature or severity of the child's disability is such that education in regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily [34 CFR §300.550(b)(2)];

(2) a child with a disability is not removed from education in age-appropriate regular classrooms solely because of needed modifications in the general curriculum [34 CFR §300.552(e)]; and

(3) each child with a disability participates with nondisabled children in nonacademic and extracurricular services and activities to the maximum extent appropriate (34 CFR §300.553).

**********

"(5)(i) A statement of any individual modifications in the administration of State or district-wide assessments of student achievement that are needed in order for the child to participate in the assessment; and

"(ii) If the IEP team determines that the child will not participate in a particular State or district-wide assessment of student achievement (or part of an assessment), a statement of-

"(A) Why that assessment is not appropriate for the child; and

"(B) How the child will be assessed;

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Additional Guidance
The IEP for a child with a disability must include a statement of any needed modifications in the administration of State or district-wide assessments, and must, if the IEP team determines that it is not appropriate for the child to participate in a particular assessment, provide a statement of why the particular assessment is not appropriate for the child and how the child will be assessed [34 CFR §300.347(a)(5)]. If the IEP does not indicate any needed modifications or that the particular assessment is not appropriate for the child, this is an indication that the IEP team has determined that the child will participate without modifications in the assessment.

**********

"(6) The projected date for the beginning of the services and modifications described in paragraph (a)(3) of this section, and the anticipated frequency, location, and duration of those services and modifications; and

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Additional Guidance
An IEP that clearly states how often, how long and in what location the public agency will provide the specified services and modifications, and when services and/or modifications will begin meets the requirements of 34 CFR §300.347(a)(6).

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"(7) A statement of-

"(i) How the child's progress toward the annual goals described in paragraph (a)(2) of this section will be measured; and

"(ii) How the child's parents will be regularly informed (through such means as periodic report cards), at least as often as parents are informed of their nondisabled children's progress, of-

"(A) Their child's progress toward the annual goals; and

"(B) The extent to which that progress is sufficient to enable the child to achieve the goals by the end of the year.

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Additional Guidance
Each public agency may determine the appropriate method for informing parents of their child's progress. However, the agency "must ensure that whatever methods, or combination of methods, is adopted provides sufficient information to enable parents to be informed of (1) their child's progress toward the annual goals, and (2) the extent to which that progress is sufficient to enable the child to achieve the goals by the end of the year." [Attachment 1, 64 Federal Register, page 12594 (March 12, 1999).]

Generally, reports to parents are not expected to be lengthy or burdensome. The statement of the annual goals and short-term objectives or benchmarks in the child's current IEP could serve as the base document for briefly describing the child's progress. [Attachment 1, 64 Federal Register, page 12594 (March 12, 1999).]

The IEP team must revise the IEP to address any lack of expected progress toward the annual goals and in the general curriculum [34 CFR §300.343(c)(2)(i)].

**********

"(b) Transition services. The IEP must include-

"(1) For each student with a disability beginning at age 14 (or younger, if determined appropriate by the IEP team), and updated annually, a statement of the transition service needs of the student under the applicable components of the student's IEP that focuses on the student's courses of study (such as participation in advanced-placement courses or a vocational education program); and

"(2) For each student beginning at age 16 (or younger, if determined appropriate by the IEP team), a statement of needed transition services for the student, including, if appropriate, a statement of the interagency responsibilities or any needed linkages.

**********
Additional Guidance
The IEP team, in determining appropriate measurable annual goals (including benchmarks or short term objectives) and services for a student, must determine what instruction and educational experiences will assist the student to prepare for transition for secondary education to post-secondary life. [Appendix A, Response to Question 11, 64 Federal Register, page 12474 (March 12, 1999).]

Although the focus of the transition planning process may shift as the student approaches graduation, the IEP team must discuss specific areas beginning at least at age of 14 years, and review these areas annually. [Appendix A, Response to Question 11, 64 Federal Register, page 12474 (March 12, 1999). ]

If a participating agency, other than the public agency, fails to provide the transition services described in the IEP in accordance with 34 CFR §300.347(b)(1), the public agency shall reconvene the IEP team to identify alternative strategies to meet the transition objective for the student set out in the IEP [34 CFR §300.348(a)].

Nothing in Part B relieves any participating agency, including a State vocational rehabilitation agency, of the responsibility to provide or pay for any transition service that the agency would otherwise provide to students with disabilities who meet the eligibility criteria of that agency [34 CFR §300.348(b)].

If during the course of the IEP meeting, the team identifies additional agencies that are likely to be responsible for providing or paying for transition services for the student, the public agency must determine how it will meet the requirements of §300.344. [Appendix A, Response to Question 13, 64 Federal Register, page 12475 (March 12, 1999).]

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"(c) Transfer of rights. In a State that transfers rights at the age majority, beginning at least one year before a student reaches the age of majority under State law, the student's IEP must include a statement that the student has been informed of his or her rights under Part B of the Act, if any, that will transfer to the student on reaching the age of majority, consistent with § 300.517.

**********
Additional Guidance
If the public agency receives notice of the student's legal incompetence, so that no rights transfer to the student at the age of majority, the IEP need not include this statement. Attachment 1, 64 Federal Register, page 12594 (March 12, 1999).

The IEP could include a description of the rights that have been transferred, but it need not.

**********

"(d) Students with disabilities convicted as adults and incarcerated in adult prisons. Special rules concerning the content of IEPs for students with disabilities convicted as adults and incarcerated in adult prisons are contained in § 300.311(b) and (c).

(Authority: 20 U.S.C. 1414(d)(1)(A) and (d)(6)(A)(ii))

§ 300.348 Agency responsibilities for transition services.

(a) If a participating agency, other than the public agency, fails to provide the transition services described in the IEP in accordance with § 300.347(b)(1), the public agency shall reconvene the IEP team to identify alternative strategies to meet the transition objectives for the student set out in the IEP.

(b) Nothing in this part relieves any participating agency, including a State vocational rehabilitation agency, of the responsibility to provide or pay for any transition service that the agency would otherwise provide to students with disabilities who meet the eligibility criteria of that agency.

(Authority: 20 U.S.C. 1414(d)(5); 1414(d)(1)(A)(vii))

§ 300.349 Private school placements by public agencies.

(a) Developing IEPs. (1) Before a public agency places a child with a disability in, or refers a child to, a private school or facility, the agency shall initiate and conduct a meeting to develop an IEP for the child in accordance with §§ 300.346 and 300.347.

(2) The agency shall ensure that a representative of the private school or facility attends the meeting. If the representative cannot attend, the agency shall use other methods to ensure participation by the private school or facility, including individual or conference telephone calls.

(b) Reviewing and revising IEPs. (1) After a child with a disability enters a private school or facility, any meetings to review and revise the child's IEP may be initiated and conducted by the private school or facility at the discretion of the public agency.

(2) If the private school or facility initiates and conducts these meetings, the public agency shall ensure that the parents and an agency representative-

(i) Are involved in any decision about the child's IEP; and

(ii) Agree to any proposed changes in the IEP before those changes are implemented.

(c) Responsibility. Even if a private school or facility implements a child's IEP, responsibility for compliance with this part remains with the public agency and the SEA.

(Authority: 20 U.S.C. 1412(a)(10)(B))

§ 300.350 IEP-accountability.

(a) Provision of services. Subject to paragraph (b) of this section, each public agency must-

(1) Provide special education and related services to a child with a disability in accordance with the child's IEP; and

(2) Make a good faith effort to assist the child to achieve the goals and objectives or benchmarks listed in the IEP.

(b) Accountability. Part B of the Act does not require that any agency, teacher, or other person be held accountable if a child does not achieve the growth projected in the annual goals and benchmarks or objectives. However, the Act does not prohibit a State or public agency from establishing its own accountability systems regarding teacher, school, or agency performance.

(c) Construction-parent rights. Nothing in this section limits a parent's right to ask for revisions of the child's IEP or to invoke due process procedures if the parent feels that the efforts required in paragraph (a) of this section are not being made.

(Authority: 20 U.S.C. 1414(d)); Cong. Rec. at H7152 (daily ed., July 21, 1975))

IDEA Local Implementations by Local Administrators (ILIAD)
The Council for Exceptional Children
1920 Association Drive
Reston, VA 20191-1589
(877) CEC-IDEA; (703) 264-9418; (703) 264-9480 (TTY)
E-mail: ideapractices@cec.sped.org

The Policy Maker Partnership (PMP) for Implementing IDEA 97
National Association of state Directors of Special Education
1800 Diagonal Road, Suite 320
Alexandria, VA 22314
(703) 519-3800; (703) 519-7008 (TTY)
E-mail: nasdse@nasdse.org
Web: www.nasdse.org

Regional Resource Centers

Northeast Regional Resource Center (NERRC)
Learning Innovations
20 Winter Sport Lane
Williston, VT 05495
(802) 951-8226; (802) 951-8213 (TTY)
E-mail: nerrc@aol.com
Web: www.wested.org/nerrc/

Serving: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, and Vermont.

Mid-South Regional Resource Center (MSRRC)
Human Development Institute
University of Kentucky
126 Mineral Industries Building
Lexington, KY 40506-0051
(859) 257-4921; (859) 257-2903 (TTY)
E-mail: msrrc@ihdi.uky.edu
Web: www.ihdi.uky.edu/msrrc

Serving: Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, Washington, DC, and West Virginia.

Southeast Regional Resource Center (SERRC)
School of Education
Auburn University Montgomery
P.O. Box 244023
Montgomery, AL 36124
(334) 244-3100; (334) 244-3800 (TTY)
E-mail: ebeale@mail.aum.edu
Web: edla.aum.edu/serrc/serrc.html

Serving: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Puerto Rico, Texas, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

Great Lakes Area Regional Resource Center (GLARRC)
OSU Center for Special Needs
700 Ackerman Road, Suite 440
Columbus, OH 43202
(614) 447-0844; (614) 447-8776 (TTY)
E-mail: daniels.121@osu.edu
Web: www.csnp.ohio-state.edu/glarrc.htm

Serving: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin.

Mountain Plains Regional Resource Center (MPRRC)
Utah state University
1780 North Research Parkway, Suite 112
Logan, UT 84341
(435) 752-0238; (435) 753-9750 (TTY)
E-mail: cope@cc.usu.edu
Web: www.usu.edu/mprrc

Serving: Arizona, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Colorado, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming.

Western Regional Resource Center (WRRC)
1268 University of Oregon
Eugene, OR 97403-1268
(541) 346-5641; (541) 346-0367 (TTY)
E-mail: wrrc@oregon.uoregon.edu
Web: interact.uoregon.edu/wrrc/wrrc.html

Serving: Alaska, American Samoa, California, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Federated states of Micronesia, Guam, Hawaii, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, Republic of the Marshall Islands, Republic of Palau, and Washington.

Statement of Transition Service Needs--34 CFR §300.347(b)(1)

"The IEP must include...[f]or each student with a disability beginning at age 14 (or younger, if determined appropriate by the IEP team), and updated annually, a statement of the transition service needs of the student under the applicable components of the student's IEP that focuses on the student's courses of study (such as participation in advanced- placement courses or a vocational education program);"

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Present Levels of Educational Performance

[ Space to write ]

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From the Regulations:

Statement of Present Levels of Educational Performance--34 CFR §300.347(a)(1)

"The IEP for each child with a disability must include . . . a statement of the child's present levels of educational performance, including

"(i) How the child's disability affects the child's involvement and progress in the general curriculum (i.e., the same curriculum as for nondisabled children); or

"(ii) For preschool children, as appropriate, how the disability affects the child's participation in appropriate activities;"

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[ Page 1 of 5 ]

Measurable Annual Goals (Including Benchmarks or Short-Term Objectives)

[ space to write ]

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From the Regulations:

Statement of Measurable Annual Goals, Including Benchmarks or Short-Term Objectives--34 CFR §300.347(a)(2)

"The IEP for each child with a disability must include . . . a statement of measurable annual goals, including benchmarks or short-term objectives, related to

"(i) Meeting the child's needs that result from the child's disability to enable the child to be involved in and progress in the general curriculum (i.e., the same curriculum as for nondisabled children), or for preschool children, as appropriate, to participate in appropriate activities; and

"(ii) Meeting each of the child's other educational needs that result from the child's disability;"

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Special Education and Related Services [ space to write ]

Supplementary Aids and Services [ space to write ]

Program Modifications or Supports for School Personnel [ space to write ]

**********

From the Regulations:

Statement of the Special Education and Related Services, Supplementary Aids and Services, Program Modifications, and Supports For School Personnel--34 CFR §300.347(a)(3)

"The IEP for each child with a disability must include... a statement of the special education and related services and supplementary aids and services to be provided to the child, or on behalf of the child, and a statement of the program modifications or supports for school personnel that will be provided for the child

"(i) To advance appropriately toward attaining the annual goals;

"(ii) To be involved and progress in the general curriculum in accordance with 34 CFR §300.347(a)(1) and to participate in extracurricular and other nonacademic activities; and

" (iii) To be educated and participate with other children with disabilities and nondisabled children in the activities described in this section;"

--ALSO--

Beginning Date, Frequency, Location, and Duration of Services and Modifications--34 CFR §300.347(a)(6)

"The IEP for each child with a disability must include . . . the projected date for the beginning of the services and modifications described in 34 CFR §300.347(a)(3), and the anticipated frequency, location, and duration of those services and modifications;"

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[ Page 2 of 5 ]

Explanation of Extent, if Any, to Which Child Will Not Participate with Nondisabled Children

[ space to write ]

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From the Regulations:

Explanation of Extent, if Any, to Which Child Will Not Participate with Nondisabled Children 34 CFR §300.347(a)(4)

"The IEP for each child with a disability must include . . . an explanation of the extent, if any, to which the child will not participate with nondisabled children in the regular class and in the activities described in 34 CFR §300.347(a)(3);"

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Administration of State and District-wide Assessments of Student Achievement

Any Individual Modifications In Administration Needed For Child To Participate In State Or District-wide Assessment(s)

[ space to write ]

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From the Regulations:

Statement Of Any Individual Modifications in Administration of State or District-wide Assessments 34--CFR §300.347(a)(5)(i)

"The IEP for each child with a disability must include . . . a statement of any individual modifications in the administration of State or district-wide assessments of student achievement that are needed in order for the child to participate in the assessment;"

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If IEP Team Determines That Child Will Not Participate In A Particular State Or District-Wide Assessment

Why isn't the assessment appropriate for the child?[ space to write ]

How will the child be assessed?[ space to write ]

**********

From the Regulations:

If Child Will Not Participate in State or District-wide Assessment--34 CFR §300.347(a)(5)(ii)

"If the IEP team determines that a child with a disability will not participate in a particular State or district-wide assessment of student achievement (or part of an assessment), the IEP must include a statement of

"(A) Why that assessment is not appropriate for the child; and

"(B) How the child will be assessed;"

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[ Page 3 of 5 ]

How Child's Progress Toward Annual Goals Will Be Measured

[space to write ]

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From the Regulations:

How Child's Progress Will Be Measured--34 CFR §300.347(a)(7)(i)

"The IEP for each child with a disability must include . . .

a statement of how the child's progress toward the annual goals described in 34 CFR §300.347(a)(2) will be measured;"

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How Child's Parents Will Be Regularly Informed Of Child's Progress Toward Annual Goals And Extent To Which Child's Progress Is Sufficient To Meet Goals By End of Year

[ space to write ]

**********

From the Regulations:

How Parents Will Be Informed of Their Child's Progress--34 CFR §300.347(a)(7)(ii)

"The IEP for each child with a disability must include . . . a statement of how the child's parents will be regularly informed (through such means as periodic report cards), at least as often as parents are informed of their nondisabled children's progress, of

"(A) Their child's progress toward the annual goals; and

"(B) The extent to which that progress is sufficient to enable the child to achieve the goals by the end of the year."

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[ Page 4 of 5 ]

(Beginning at age 16 or younger if determined appropriate by IEP team)

Statement of Needed Transition Services, Including, If Appropriate, Statement Of Interagency Responsibilities Or Any Needed Linkages

[ space to write ]

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From the Regulations:

Statement of Needed Transition Services--34 CFR §300.347(b)(2)

"The IEP must include . . . for each student with a disability beginning at age 16 (or younger, if determined appropriate by the IEP team), a statement of needed transition services for the student, including, if appropriate, a statement of the interagency responsibilities or any needed linkages."

Definition of "Transition Services"--34 CFR §300.29

"(a) As used in [Part B], "transition services" means a coordinated set of activities for a student with a disability that:

"(1) Is designed within an outcome-oriented process, that promotes movement from school to post-school activities, including post-secondary education, vocational training, integrated employment (including supported employment), continuing and adult education, adult services, independent living, or community participation;

"(2) Is based on the individual student's needs, taking into account the student's preferences and interests; and

"(3) Includes: (i) Instruction; (ii) Related services; (iii) Community experiences; (iv) The development of employment and other post-school adult living objectives; and (v) If appropriate, acquisition of daily living skills and functional vocational evaluation.

"(b) Transition services for students with disabilities may be special education, if provided as specially designed instruction or related services, if required to assist a student with a disability to benefit from special education."

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(In a state that transfers rights to the student at the age of majority, the following information must be included beginning at least one year before the student reaches the age of majority)

The student has been informed of the rights under Part B of IDEA, if any, that will transfer to the student on reaching the age of majority. Yes [box to check]

**********

From the Regulations:

Age of Majority--34 CFR §300.347(c)

"In a State that transfers rights at the age majority, beginning at least one year before a student reaches the age of majority under State law, the student's IEP must include a statement that the student has been informed of his or her rights under Part B of the Act, if any, that will transfer to the student on reaching the age of majority, consistent with 34 CFR §300.517."

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[ Page 5 of 5 ]

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If the child has limited proficiency in English, the IEP team will consider the child's language needs as these needs relate to his or her IEP.

If the child is blind or visually impaired, the IEP team must provide for instruction in Braille or the use of Braille, unless it determines after an appropriate evaluation that the child does not need this instruction.

If the child has communication needs, the IEP team must consider those needs.

If the child is deaf or hard of hearing, the IEP team will consider his or her language and communication needs. This includes the child's opportunities to communicate directly with classmates and school staff in his or her usual method of communication (for example, sign language).

The IEP team must always consider the child's need for assistive technology devices or services.

For more information about these special factors, see §300.346.

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Will Parents Need an Interpreter in Order to Participate Fully?
If the parents have a limited proficiency in English or are deaf, they may need an interpreter in order to understand and be understood. In this case, the school must make reasonable efforts to arrange for an interpreter during meetings pertaining to the child's educational placement. For meetings regarding the development or review of the IEP, the school must take whatever steps are necessary to ensure that parents understand the meetings--including arranging for an interpreter. This provision should help to ensure that parents are not limited in their ability to participate in their child's education because of language or communication barriers.

Therefore, if parents need an interpreter for a meeting to discuss their child's evaluation, eligibility for special education or IEP, they should let the school know ahead of time. Telling the school in advance allows the school to make arrangements for an interpreter so that parents can participate fully in the meeting.

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Supports for school staff may include professional development or more training. Professional development and training are important for teachers, administrators, bus drivers, cafeteria workers, and others who provide services for children with disabilities.

The child's special education teacher contributes important information and experience about how to educate children with disabilities. Because of his or her training in special education, this teacher can talk about such issues as:

Beyond helping to write the IEP, the special educator has responsibility for working with the student to carry out the IEP. He or she may:

work with the student in a resource room or special class devoted to students receiving special education services;

team teach with the regular education teacher; and

work with other school staff, particularly the regular education teacher, to provide expertise about addressing the child's unique needs.

Another important member of the IEP team is the individual who can interpret what the child's evaluation results mean in terms of designing appropriate instruction. The evaluation results are very useful in determining how the child is currently doing in school and what areas of need the child has. This IEP team member must be able to talk about the instructional implications of the child's evaluation results, which will help the team plan appropriate instruction to address the child's needs.

The individual representing the school system is also a valuable team member. This person knows a great deal about special education services and educating children with disabilities. He or she can talk about the necessary school resources. It is important that this individual have the authority to commit resources and be able to ensure that whatever services are set out in the IEP will actually be provided.

The IEP team may also include additional individuals with knowledge or special expertise about the child. The parent or the school system can invite these individuals to participate on the team. Parents, for example, may invite an advocate who knows the child, a professional with special expertise about the child and his or her disability, or others (such as a vocational educator who has been working with the child) who can talk about the child's strengths and/or needs. The school system may invite one or more individuals who can offer special expertise or knowledge about the child, such as a paraprofessional or related services professional. Because an important part of developing an IEP is considering a child's need for related services (see the list of related services in the box on the previous page), related service professionals are often involved as IEP team members or participants. They share their special expertise about the child's needs and how their own professional services can address those needs. Depending on the child's individual needs, some related service professionals attending the IEP meeting or otherwise helping to develop the IEP might include occupational or physical therapists, adaptive physical education providers, psychologists, or speech-language pathologists.

When an IEP is being developed for a student of transition age, representatives from transition service agencies can be important participants. (See the box below for more information about transition.) Whenever a purpose of meeting is to consider needed transition services, the school must invite a representative of any other agency that is likely to be responsible for providing or paying for transition services. This individual can help the team plan any transition services the student needs. He or she can also commit the resources of the agency to pay for or provide needed transition services. If he or she does not attend the meeting, then the school must take alternative steps to obtain the agency's participation in the planning of the student's transition services.

And, last but not least, the student may also be a member of the IEP team. If transition service needs or transition services are going to be discussed at the meeting, the student must be invited to attend. More and more students are participating in and even leading their own IEP meetings. This allows them to have a strong voice in their own education and can teach them a great deal about self-advocacy and self-determination.

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The Regular Education Teacher as Part of the IEP Team
Appendix A of the federal regulations for Part B of IDEA answers many questions about the IEP. Question 24 addresses the role of the regular education teacher on the IEP team. Here's an excerpt from the answer:

"...while a regular education teacher must be a member of the IEP team if the child is, or may be, participating in the regular education environment, the teacher need not (depending upon the child's needs and the purpose of the specific IEP team meeting) be required to participate in all decisions made as part of the meeting or to be present throughout the entire meeting or attend every meeting. For example, the regular education teacher who is a member of the IEP team must participate in discussions and decisions about how to modify the general curriculum in the regular classroom to ensure the child's involvement and progress in the general curriculum and participation in the regular education environment.

"Depending upon the specific circumstances, however, it may not be necessary for the regular education teacher to participate in discussions and decisions regarding, for example, the physical therapy needs of the child, if the teacher is not responsible for implementing that portion of the child's IEP.

"In determining the extent of the regular education teacher's participation at IEP meetings, public agencies and parents should discuss and try to reach agreement on whether the child's regular education teacher that is a member of the IEP team should be present at a particular IEP meeting and, if so, for what period of time. The extent to which it would be appropriate for the regular education teacher member of the IEP team to participate in IEP meetings must be decided on a case-by-case basis."

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Related Services
A child may require any of the following related services in order to benefit from special education. Related services, as listed under IDEA, include (but are not limited to):

Audiology services

Counseling services

Early identification and assessment of disabilities in children

Medical services

Occupational therapy

Orientation and mobility services

Parent counseling and training

Physical therapy

Psychological services

Recreation

Rehabilitation counseling services

School health services

Social work services in schools

Speech-language pathology services

Transportation

If a child needs a particular related service in order to benefit from special education, the related service professional should be involved in developing the IEP. He or she may be invited by the school or parent to join the IEP team as a person "with knowledge or special expertise about the child."

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Transition Services
Transition refers to activities meant to prepare students with disabilities for adult life. This can include developing postsecondary education and career goals, getting work experience while still in school, setting up linkages with adult service providers such as the vocational rehabilitation agency--whatever is appropriate for the student, given his or her interests, preferences, skills, and needs. Statements about the student's transition needs must be included in the IEP after the student reaches a certain age:

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Needed transition services. Beginning when the child is age 16 (or younger, if appropriate), the IEP must state what transition services are needed to help the child prepare for leaving school.

Age of majority. Beginning at least one year before the child reaches the age of majority, the IEP must include a statement that the student has been told of any rights that will transfer to him or her at the age of majority. (This statement would be needed only in states that transfer rights at the age of majority.)

Measuring progress.
The IEP must state how the child's progress will be measured and how parents will be informed of that progress.

More information will be given about these IEP parts later in this guide. A sample IEP form will be presented, along with the federal regulations describing the "Content of the IEP," to help you gain a fuller understanding of what type of information is important to capture about a child in an IEP. It is useful to understand that each child's IEP is different. The document is prepared for that child only. It describes the individualized education program designed to meet that child's needs.

The school system schedules and conducts the IEP meeting. School staff must:

contact the participants, including the parents;

notify parents early enough to make sure they have an opportunity to attend;

schedule the meeting at a time and place agreeable to parents and the school;

tell the parents the purpose, time, and location of the meeting;

tell the parents who will be attending; and

tell the parents that they may invite people to the meeting who have knowledge or special expertise about the child.

Step 6. IEP meeting is held and the IEP is written.

The IEP team gathers to talk about the child's needs and write the student's IEP. Parents and the student (when appropriate) are part of the team. If the child's placement is decided by a different group, the parents must be part of that group as well.

Before the school system may provide special education and related services to the child for the first time, the parents must give consent. The child begins to receive services as soon as possible after the meeting.

If the parents do not agree with the IEP and placement, they may discuss their concerns with other members of the IEP team and try to work out an agreement. If they still disagree, parents can ask for mediation, or the school may offer mediation. Parents may file a complaint with the state education agency and may request a due process hearing, at which time mediation must be available.

Step 7. Services are provided.
Step 8. Progress is measured and reported to parents.
The school makes sure that the child's IEP is being carried out as it was written. Parents are given a copy of the IEP. Each of the child's teachers and service providers has access to the IEP and knows his or her specific responsibilities for carrying out the IEP. This includes the accommodations, modifications, and supports that must be provided to the child, in keeping with the IEP.

The child's progress toward the annual goals is measured, as stated in the IEP. His or her parents are regularly informed of their child's progress and whether that progress is enough for the child to achieve the goals by the end of the year. These progress reports must be given to parents at least as often as parents are informed of their nondisabled children's progress.

Step 9. IEP is reviewed.

The child's IEP is reviewed by the IEP team at least once a year, or more often if the parents or school ask for a review. If necessary, the IEP is revised. Parents, as team members, must be invited to attend these meetings. Parents can make suggestions for changes, can agree or disagree with the IEP goals, and agree or disagree with the placement.

If parents do not agree with the IEP and placement, they may discuss their concerns with other members of the IEP team and try to work out an agreement. There are several options, including additional testing, an independent evaluation, or asking for mediation (if available) or a due process hearing. They may also file a complaint with the state education agency.

Step 10. Child is reevaluated.

At least every three years the child must be reevaluated. This evaluation is often called a "triennial." Its purpose is to find out if the child continues to be a "child with a disability," as defined by IDEA, and what the child's educational needs are. However, the child must be reevaluated more often if conditions warrant or if the child's parent or teacher asks for a new evaluation.
http://www.ed.gov/pubs/edpubs.html
To obtain this publication in an alternate format (braille, large print, audio cassette, or disk), please contact Katie Mincey, Director of the Alternate Format Center, at (202) 260-9895, or via e-mail at Katie_Mincey@ed.gov.

This document is also available online at:

PDF (549K) MS Word (145K)

2. Introduction

3. The Basic Special Education Process Under IDEA

4. A Closer Look at the IEP

5. Contents of the IEP

6. Additional State and School-System Content

7. The IEP Team Members

8. Writing the IEP

9. Deciding Placement

10. After the IEP is Written

11. Implementing the IEP

12. Reviewing and Revising the IEP

13. What If Parents Don't Agree With the IEP?

14. Summary

15. Sample Form

16. Information Resources

17. Attachment A

Last Modified: 08/30/2019

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individualized education programs; special education; disabilities; special needs students;

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Archived: Guide to the Individualized Education Program

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The purpose of this archived guide is to assist educators, parents, and State and local educational agencies in implementing the requirements of Part B of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) regarding Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) for children with disabilities, including preschool-aged children.