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This stauette shows the long draping that was prevalent for 5th Century Greeks. The statue shows a long draped dress that most likely features clips at the shoulder, the style of the time, as well as a long cardigan like shawl on top, perhaps a symbol of matronhood, as Demeter is the goddess of hearth and home.
(Cleveland Museum of Art)
https://www.clevelandart.org/art/1926.521

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This Greek primary source discloses that the men often stripped themselves in public while practicing gymnastic exercises. It also discusses the Olympic athletes that were mostly nude except for a belt worn around their waist.
Today's standards would deem this practice totally unacceptable.  Do you think that the people in that city-state thought it was normal to be practicing these exercises while wearing no clothing?

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The Internet Classics Archive | The History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides

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The History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides, part of the Internet Classics Archive

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On the Customs of the Persians, by Herodotus

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On the Customs of the Persians, by Herodotus

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This account of the Persians written by the Greek Herodotus reveals clothing in relation to ritual and religion. A turban is worn by human sacrifices topped with a wreath made of Myrtle.
Why do you think this recounting of the Persians could be scewed or incorrect, due to the fact that it is coming from a Greek source?

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430 BCE
By Herodotus*
Now the Persian nation is made up of many tribes. Those which Cyrus assembled and persuaded to revolt from the Medes 1 were the
principal ones on which all the others are dependent. These are the Pasargadae, the Maraphians, and the Maspians, of whom the
Pasargadae are the noblest. The Achaemenidae, from which spring all the Perseid kings, is one of their clans. The rest of the Persian
tribes are the following: the Panthialaeans, the Derusiaeans, the Germanians, who are engaged in husbandry; the Daans, the Mardians,
the Dropicans, and the Sagartians, who are nomads.`

The customs which I know the Persians to observe are the following: they have no images of the gods, no temples nor altars, and
consider the use of them a sign of folly. This comes, I think, from their not believing the gods to have the same nature with men, as
the Greeks imagine. Their wont2, however, is to ascend the summits of the loftiest mountains, and there to offer sacrifice to Zeus,
which is the name they give to the whole circuit of the firmament3. They likewise offer to the sun and moon, to the earth, to fire, to
water, and to the winds. These are the only gods whose worship has come down to them from ancient times. At a later period they
began the worship of Urania, which they borrowed from the Arabians and Assyrians. Mylitta is the name by which the Assyrians know
this goddess, whom the Arabians call Alitta, and the Persians Mitra.

To these gods the Persians offer sacrifice in the following manner: they raise no altar, light no fire, pour no libations 4; there is no sound
of the flute, no putting on of chaplets5, no consecrated barley-cake; but the man who wishes to sacrifice brings his victim to a spot of
ground which is pure from pollution, and there calls upon the name of the god to whom he intends to offer. It is usual to have the
turban encircled with a wreath, most commonly of myrtle. The sacrificer is not allowed to pray for blessings on himself alone, but he
prays for the welfare of the king, and of the whole Persian people, among whom he is of necessity included. He cuts the victim in
pieces, and having boiled the flesh, he lays it out upon the tenderest herbage that he can find, trefoil especially. When all is ready, one
of the Magi comes forward and chants a hymn, which they say recounts the origin of the gods. It is not lawful to offer sacrifice unless
there is a Magus present. After waiting a short time the sacrificer carries the flesh of the victim away with him, and makes whatever
use of it he may please.

Of all the days in the year, the one which they celebrate most is their birthday. It is customary to have the board furnished on that day
with an ampler supply than common. The richer Persians cause an ox, a horse, a camel, and an ass to be baked whole and so served
up to them: the poorer classes use instead the smaller kinds of cattle. They eat little solid food but abundance of dessert, which is set
on table a few dishes at a time; this it is which makes them say that "the Greeks, when they eat, leave off hungry, having nothing
worth mention served up to them after the meats; whereas, if they had more put before them, they would not stop eating." They are
very fond of wine, and drink it in large quantities. To vomit or obey natural calls in the presence of another is forbidden among them.
Such are their customs in these matters.

It is also their general practice to deliberate upon affairs of weight when they are drunk; and then on the morrow, when they are
sober, the decision to which they came the night before is put before them by the master of the house in which it was made; and if it
is then approved of, they act on it; if not, they set it aside. Sometimes, however, they are sober at their first deliberation, but in this
case they always reconsider the matter under the influence of wine. When they meet each other in the streets, you may know if the
persons meeting are of equal rank by the following token: if they are, instead of speaking, they kiss each other on the lips. In the case
where one is a little inferior to the other, the kiss is given on the cheek; where the difference of rank is great, the inferior prostrates
himself upon the ground. Of nations, they honor most their nearest neighbors, whom they esteem next to themselves; those who live
beyond these they honor in the second degree; and so with the remainder, the further they are removed, the less the esteem in which
they hold them. The reason is that they look upon themselves as very greatly superior in all respects to the rest of mankind, regarding

1
Medes: Ancient empire near what is now Iran
2
Wont: custom, usual habits
3
Firmament: the heavens or the sky, especially when regarded as a tangible thing
4
Libations: a drink poured out as an offering to a deity.
5
Chaplets: prayer beads
others as approaching to excellence in proportion as they dwell nearer to them; whence it comes to pass that those who are the
farthest off must be the most degraded of mankind. Under the dominion of the Medes, the several nations of the empire exercised
authority over each other in this order. The Medes were lords over all, and governed the nations upon their borders, who in their turn
governed the States beyond, who likewise bore rule over the nations which adjoined on them. And this is the order which the Persians
also follow in their distribution of honor; for that people, like the Medes, has a progressive scale of administration and government.

There is no nation which so readily adopts foreign customs as the Persians. Thus, they have taken the dress of the Medes, considering
it superior to their own; and in war they wear the Egyptian breastplate. As soon as they hear of any luxury, they instantly make it their
own: and hence, among other novelties, they have learnt unnatural lust from the Greeks. Each of them has several wives, and a still
larger number of concubines. Next to prowess in arms, it is regarded as the greatest proof of manly excellence to be the father of
many sons. Every year the king sends rich gifts to the man who can show the largest number: for they hold that number is strength.
Their sons are carefully instructed from their fifth to their twentieth year, in three things alone---to ride, to draw the bow, and to speak
the truth. Until their fifth year they are not allowed to come into the sight of their father, but pass their lives with the women. This is
done that, if the child die young, the father may not be afflicted by its loss.

They hold it unlawful to talk of anything which it is unlawful to do. The most disgraceful thing in the world, they think, is to tell a lie;
the next worst, to owe a debt: because, among other reasons, the debtor is obliged to tell lies. If a Persian has the leprosy he is not
allowed to enter into a city, or to have any dealings with the other Persians; he must, they say, have sinned against the sun.
Foreigners attacked by this disorder, are forced to leave the country: even white pigeons are often driven away, as guilty of the same
offence. They never defile a river with the secretions of their bodies, nor even wash their hands in one; nor will they allow others to do
so, as they have a great reverence for rivers. There is another peculiarity, which the Persians themselves have never noticed, but
which has not escaped my observation. Their names, which are expressive of some bodily or mental excellence, all end with the same
letter---the letter which is called San by the Dorians, and Sigma by the Ionians. Any one who examines will find that the Persian
names, one and all without exception, end with this letter.

Thus much I can declare of the Persians with entire certainty, from my own actual knowledge. There is another custom which is
spoken of with reserve, and not openly, concerning their dead. It is said that the body of a male Persian is never buried, until it has
been torn either by a dog or a bird of prey. That the Magi have this custom is beyond a doubt, for they practice it without any
concealment. The dead bodies are covered with wax, and then buried in the ground.

The Magi are a very peculiar race, different entirely from the Egyptian priests, and indeed from all other men whatsoever. The Egyptian
priests make it a point of religion not to kill any live animals except those which they offer in sacrifice. The Magi, on the contrary, kill
animals of all kinds with their own hands, excepting dogs and men. They even seem to take a delight in the employment, and kill, as
readily as they do other animals, ants and snakes, and such like flying or creeping things. However, since this has always been their
custom, let them keep to it. Buying and selling in a marketplace is a custom unknown to the Persians, who never make purchases in
open marts, and indeed have not in their whole country a single market-place.

Source:
From: William Stearns Davis, Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources, Vol. 2: Greece and the East (Boston:
Allyn and Bacon, 1912), pp. 58-61.
Scanned by Jerome S. Arkenberg, Dept. of History, Cal. State Fullerton

*Make sure to check out where Herodotus was from and what he was famous for doing- it is integral to understanding
the importance of this topic

** I included the definitions of a few words that I was confident you would need defining, that being said you are
responsible for looking up the definitions of any word you are unsure of before coming to class to discuss the text.

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430 BCE By Herodotus*Now the Persian nation is made up of many tribes. Those which Cyrus assembled and persuaded to revolt from the Medes 1 were theprincipal ones on which all the others are dependent. These are the Pasargadae, the Maraphians, and the Maspians, of whom thePasargadae are the noblest.

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Androgynous Clothing in Achaemenid Persia

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Androgynous Clothing in Achaemenid Persia

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In Achaemenid Persia, men and women dressed very similarly, the main difference being in the head pieces they wore. For instance, both men and women wore jewelry, makeup, and colored their body. In this time clothing stated class and status more than gender.
Common clothing of the time would be colorful pieces, including pants, wraps, and sometimes vests.

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This article describes ancient Persian clothing/costumes for men and women.

Persia was rich in culture and heritage. Gold jewelry was imported from Egypt, excellent ceramic from Greece. There was a wide variety of silk from China; from another land, many other materials were imported. With its growth, the Persian Empire became wealthier and along with it grew a demand for more luxurious fabrics, elaborate ornamentations, rare dyes, and intricate hand-painted designs.

Persian Clothing Style

Throughout the ancient world including Persia, both men and women used make-up, wore jewelry and colored their body parts. Moreover, their garments were both elaborate and colorful. Rather than being marked by gender, clothing styles were distinguished by class and status.

Ancient Persians wore robes which were not open in the front and were loosely fitted. They wore the robe on their head which looked as if they were putting shirts on their head. Pants were very famous in Persia. They were baggy and looked like pajama bottoms. The Greeks made fun of the Persians at their pajama pants. Tall fluted hats were worn by men in Ancient Persia.

Ancient Persia Clothing

Ancient Persian miniature paintings employ both vivid and muted colors for clothing, colors that are also available from textile dyes. Shades of brown, green, blue, red, yellow, orange, and pink were used. The dyes used for textiles were derived from animal or vegetable sources. Depending on the mordants used, both brilliant and muted shades can be obtained from a single dye source.

The study of ancient Persian paintings depicts that the clothing did not change very much for 200 years. Clothing was still a mixture of colors, still worn in layers, the robes remained full length, and at least one of the garments worn had long tight sleeves.

Ancient Persia Dressing Costumes

The necklines of the various layers were all visible at one time, and most necklines were vees, sometimes changing to round. Buttons were replaced by bows, but the clothing was still basically robes and pants, still the same basic shape.

Islamic veils were also introduced in Persia. There was a little change in the clothing style of the Persians with the arrival of Arabs and Islam in Persia. Also, there were social and religious changes. Beyond the Near East, the practice of living veiled, isolated lives appeared in classical Greece, in the Byzantine Christian world, in Persia and among the upper castes in India.

Persian Men's Clothing

Between the 16th and 18th centuries, Safavid fashion grew in popularity. Designed to rid the nation of Turkish influences, the Safavid dress emerged as an attempt to re-model fashion after ancient Persia.

The women began wearing long, drawstring trousers with tight ankles with a dress that revealed the trousers in varying degrees. They had a special favor for leaves, timber. They were polished with oil.

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Ancient Persia Clothing Dressing Costumes, Persian Clothing for men and

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This article describes ancient Persian clothing/costumes for men and women. Persia was rich in culture and heritage. Gold jewelry was imported from Egypt, excellent ceramic from Greece. There was a wide variety of silk from China; from another land, many other materials were imported.

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The second paragraph of this primary source states that, "the soldier has a crimson-colored uniform and a heavy shield of bronze; his theory being that such equipment has no sort of feminine association, and is altogether most warrior-like. It is most quickly burnished; it is least readily soiled. He further permitted those who were about the age of early manhood to wear their hair long". A good example of this description being used can be found in the contemporary movie 300.
Do you think that the crimson (red)-colored  uniforms and large equipment were meant to intimidate soldiers from the opposing side?

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Home | Ancient History Sourcebook | Medieval Sourcebook | Modern History Sourcebook | Byzantine Studies Page Other History Sourcebooks: African | East Asian | Global | Indian | Islamic | Jewish | Lesbian and Gay | Science | Women's

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Olympics in Athens, Greece (Ancient Cities)

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Olympics in Athens, Greece (Ancient Cities)

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The following is a map showing the city-state of Athens, where the Olympic Games originated.  At these games, only men were allowed to participate until 396BCE when Kyniska (daughter of a Spartan king) participated. Those who took part in the games were completely naked. No clothing was worn during any of the activities that took place.
http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/9780415498647/

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This map is representative of the closeness of the Greek and Persian empire. The Persian War, which started with the Ionian revolt on the 'Persian side' of the Aegean. The impact of this war on clothing is mostly upon representation of the enemy in art pieces from the time.
https://www.studenthandouts.com/world-history/ancient-greece/pictures/ancient-greece-fifth-century-bce-map.htm

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-Asabari: Cavalry
-Sparaba: Front line infanrty, weilded long shields
-Takabara: Second infantry, weilded short wicker half moon shields
-Thanuabra: Archers
-Arstibara: Royal Guard
-Amrtaka: Immortals ( Private force that owns their own military units, highly specialized)
Military units would impact the way one would dress going into battle and during ceremonies.

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Pictorial History of Iranian Military Uniforms
Book in 23 Chapters
Chapter 1. Index, Prologue, Terminology Legend, Susian, Median
Ahreeman X
February 23, 2012

Susa War Horse Banner Head
Used as official Standard Banner Head for Susian Military Campaigns

Chapters Index
_____________
Chapter 1. Index, Prologue, Terminology Legend, Susian, Median
Chapter 2. Achaemenian 1
Chapter 3. Achaemenian 2
Chapter 4. Achaemenian 3
Chapter 5. Achaemenian 4
Chapter 6. Achaemenian 5
Chapter 7. Achaemenian 6
Chapter 8. Achaemenian 7
Chapter 9. Parthian 1
Chapter 10. Parthian 2
Chapter 11. Sassanian 1
Chapter 12. Sassanian 2
Chapter 13. Sassanian 3
Chapter 14. Saffarid
Chapter 15. Buyyid, Qaznavid, Qurid
Chapter 16. Kharazmian
Chapter 17. Safavid
Chapter 18. Afsharid
Chapter 19. Zand
Chapter 20. Qajar
Chapter 21. Pahlavi 1
Chapter 22. Pahlavi 2
Chapter 23. Pahlavi 3, Epilogue, Bibliography, Sources

*

Karibu Shah Shushinak the 1st Shah of Iran from Susa Dynasty 3750 BC
Turned Susa City State (6000 BC - 3750 BC) to Susa Kingdom (3750 BC - 539 BC)

Prologue

The micro goal for the creation of this book is to educate the young generation of Persians to their rich military history, national history and Persian culture. The macro goal for the creation of this book is to educate the global public and to introduce them to Iran's military and national history and culture. May this document unveil the historical veils installed to obscure and cloud the Iranian history.

The present book's images have been compiled from the works of various illustrators and photographers plus my own historical photo and illustration collections and illustrations, graphic designs and art work created by me. The works of various historians, scholars, photographers, illustrators in addition to my writings, illustrations and compilations have been used to create this book. After compilation of all the information and art, the writings and information were organized and the photos and illustrations were transformed to digital images (if needed), photo shopped, graphic designed and enhanced to the best of ability and has been turned to the best digital versions possible. The complete document has been designed and programmed to ease the study for beginner history students and to satisfy the taste of the advanced scholars and history lovers. For your viewing pleasure, every single image has been digitalized, photo shopped, sharpened and enhanced to the best possible version. Each image text has been described historically accurate and simplified for ease of comprehension.

The present book is the most complete selection of the Iranian military uniforms online or offline. Enjoy the Pictorial History of Iranian Military Uniforms.

*
Terminology Legend
Throughout the book, I will use various military history and political history terminology from various historical eras of Iran. The terminology which I use will be in the Avestan Persian, Median, Ancient Persian, Parthian Pahlavi, Sassanian Pahlavi and Modern Persian languages. For your better understanding of these ancient and nostalgic Persian terms, you can review this legend:

Median Era
_________

Spada = Army
Pasti = Infantry
Rsika = Spearmen
Anuvaniya = Archers
Asabari = Cavalry

*

Achaemenian Era
______________

Important Note
Immortals = Gard-e Javidan, Elite Persian Special Forces who owned their own infantry, cavalry and naval regiments.

Achaemenid Army Organizational Chain of Command
Dathabam = Unit of 10 soldiers (Squad)
Dathapatis = Dathabam leader (Sergeant)
Satabam = Unit of 100 soldiers (Company)
Satapatis = Satabam leader (Captain)
Hazarabam = Unit of 1000 soldiers (Battalion)
Hazarapatis = Hazarabam leader (Colonel)
Baivarabam = Unit of 10,000 soldiers (Division)
Baivarapatis = Baivarabam leader (General)

Achaemenid Navy Terms
Navpatis = Naval Leader
Navban = Naval Officer
Navi = Seaman
Nav = Navy Vessel, Ship

Achaemenid State Terms
Khashtara = State
Khashtaraban= Governor
Databdara = Minister of Courthouse

*

Sassanian Era
____________

Sassanid Army Ranks
Eran Spahbod = Commander in Chief
Spahbod = Field Marshal
Padgospan = Major General, Sarlashkar
Farmandar = State Military Battlefield Commander
Paygospan = Provincial Army Commander
Marzban = Border Guards Commander
Sardar = Commander, Brigadier General
Salar = Leader, Captain
Padan = Officer

Sassanid Military Units
Paygan = Infantry
Savaran = Cavalry
Azadan Savaran = Noble Knights
Poshtiqban = Royal Guards
Grivapanavara = Heavy Cavalry
Kamandaran = Foot Archers
Zhayedan = Immortals

Sassanid Military Terms
Spah = Army
Poshtiqban = Royal Guard
Poshtiqban Salar = Royal Guards Leader
Paygan Salar = Infantry Leader
Savaran = Cavalry
Savaran Salar = Cavalry Leader
Arg = Fort, Castle
Argbod = Fort Commander
Asp = Horse
Aspbod = Cavalry Commander
Tir = Arrow
Tirbod = Archers Commander
Vuzurgan = Nobles, Greats
Vuzurg = Noble, Great
Vuzurg Sardar = Commander in Chief
Arteshtaran Salar = Leader of Warriors
Vuzurg Arteshtaran = Commander in Chief of Warriors

Sassanid State Terms
Andarzbod = Counseling Prime Minister
Satrap = State (Today's Ostan)
Satrapi = Governor (Today's Ostandar)
Farmandari = Province (Today's Farmandari)
Farmanban = Province Administrator (Today's Farmandar)
Istan = District (Today's Bakhsh)
Istandar = District Administrator (Today's Bakhshdar)

Sassanid Royal Terms
Shahanshah = Emperor, King of Kings
Shah = King (Sha)
Padeshah = Lower King
Shahbanu = Empress, Shah's Lady
Shahzad = Prince (Shahzade, Shahpour, Shapour)
Shahdokht = Princess
Shahriar = Lord

Sassanid Terms
Bezashk = Doctor

*

Please enjoy the book:

Ancient Susian Soldier from Kingdom of Susa (3750 BC - 539 BC)

Susian
Susa City State (6000 BC - 3750 BC)
Susa Kingdom (3750 BC - 539 BC)

Important Note
Susa is not Elam
Susa is not Elam. There were times that Elam, Kish, Babylon and Assyria invaded and occupied Susa. There were also times that Susa invaded and occupied Elam and Chaldea; however, Elam and Susa were two separate civilizations. Elam was a Hemitic Civilization but Susa was a None Aryan Local Iranian Civilization. Elamites were Hemitic but Susians were of the "None Aryan Local Iranian Races". Many scholars out of historical ignorance refer to Susa as Elam and refer to Susians as Elamites. Due to this ignorance, these so-called scholars have denied the existence of the Susa Civilization as the 1st Iranian Civilization. Some of these so-called scholars twist the history due to historical ignorance but others do it intentionally. The second group are Anti Iranian Historians, so for once and for all let us make it very clear that Susa is not Elam.

For more information read:
Iran Dynasties and Monarchs of 8000 Years 8000 Years of Iranian History

Iranian Susian Spearman doing Ancient Persian Salute - Susa Kingdom (3750 BC - 539 BC)
Susian Ancient Persian Salute is the further proof that Susians were not Elamites.
Susians were of Local Iranian Races but Elamites were of Semitic and Hemitic Races.
"Ancient Persian Salute" (right hand) of Susa was pre "Persian Aryan Salute" (right hand) of Achaemenids.

Susian Archer Cavalryman
From Susian domination of Elam, Chaldea, Kish, Babylon and Assyria Era when Susa was the dominating power of the region.

Susian Forces
L - R: Susian Assyrian Mercenary, Susian Commander, Iranian Female Archer

*

Median
Median Kingdom (728 BC - 559 BC)

Next Chapter
Back to Uniforms Index
Back to Photos Index
Back to History Index
Back to English Library Index

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Iran Politics Club: Iranian Military Uniforms Pictorial History 1: Susian, Median

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Pictorial History of Iranian Military Uniforms Book in 23 Chapters Chapter 1. Index, Prologue, Terminology Legend, Susian, Median Ahreeman X February 23, 2012 Susa War Horse Banner Head Used as official Standard Banner Head for Susian Military Campaigns Chapters Index _____________ Chapter 1. Index, Prologue, Terminology Legend, Susian, Median Chapter 2.

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530-510 B.C.E.
This vessel was used for storing and drinking wine. When looking at the top of this vessel, we can see that there is a battle scene from the Trojan War and scenes from mythology. There are two different groups of men in the art. They are wearing different forms of armor and clothing. We can make the assumption that the men with the full helmet and body of armor are the Greeks because we have preciously learned that the Spartans are very advanced in their war skills. We can identify the Trojans because they wore somewhat baggy clothing and little to no armor. (Cleveland Museum of Art)
https://www.clevelandart.org/art/1971.46

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480–470 B.C.E.
This is a terracotta with a drawing of the Persian War. The male on the left is  Greek and the male on the right is Persian. We can decipher those assumptions because the Greeks are known for wearing very light clothing in battle, as well as "mohawk" like helmets with no shoes. The Persian is wearing long clothing with pants and shoes. This shows a visual difference between the Persians and Greeks battle clothing.  (Metropolitan Museum)  https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/247283

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486–465 B.C.E.
This is a sculpture of the head of a Persian guard. The details show curled hair with a fluted hat, a bow with a quiver on his back. This can show us what a Achaemenid Persian guard may have looked like.  (Metropolitan Museum)  https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/324433

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Something that is mentioned frequently in this video is how the Greek's clothing differed from the Barbarians clothing. When Hilary C mentioned the Barbarians, the people she addressed were the surrounding areas of people who did not speak Greek.

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Attic Red-Figure Cup 490 - 470 B.C.E.
This woman is entertaining a man at a drinking party. She is wearing a long, mesh dress with vertical stripes on it. She is also wearing a head piece with flowers on it. (British Museum) https://www.britishmuseum.org/learn/schools/ages-7-11/ancient-greece/classroom-resource-greek-women

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In this article it explains the reasoning for different lengths of Persian clothing. The main reason for this being that clothing depended on the hides available. If there were not many animals available or the animals were smaller, the clothing lengths would be shorter. In this way, having longer, or grander hides was a sign of class.

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Ancient costume and fashion history of Asia Minor. The Persians, Medes, Scythians, Parthians, Sarmatians, Dacians, and Illyrians.
Asia Minor.
I DO not, under this head, mean to notice the Chinese, the Hindoos, or other more remote eastern nations, who were hardly known by name to the Greeks, who were never represented on their monuments, and whose costume can be of little use to the historical painter. I only wish to offer a few observations, with regard to those less distant inhabitants of Asia, who, under the name of Medes, Persians, and Parthians, Amazons, Phrygians, Lycians, and Syrians, though a race totally distinct from the Greeks, had with these European neighbours some intercourse, and whose representations not unfrequently recur in their paintings and sculpture.

Over this vest was most frequently worn a wide sleeveless tunic of a different texture and pattern, clasped on the shoulders, confined by a girdle round the waist, and when long, gathered up a second time by means of another ligature lower down; and of this tunic the skirts reached to about the middle of the thigh.

Of the male attire of the different nations inhabiting the region now called Asia Minor, the prevailing features seem to have been a vest with long tight sleeves reaching down to the wrists, and long pantaloons descending to the ankles, nay, often hanging over the instep, and losing themselves withinside the shoes or sandals. These pantaloons clothe those masculine ladies the Amazons, whenever they are represented on some warlike expedition; though at other times, when at home and engaged in peaceful pursuits, they appear (as on one of my fie tile vases) in petticoats like other females. Sometimes these pantaloons were made of the skins of animals, at others of rich and fine tissues, embroidered or painted in sprigs, spots, stripes, checks, zig-zags, lozenges, or other ornaments. Sometimes they fit tight; at others they hang loose, and fall in large wrinkles over the shoes. The vest, always of the same stuff and design with the pantaloons, seems like our modern waistcoats to have opened in front, and to have been closed by means of clasps or buttons placed at considerable distances from each other.

To this thus far light and airy dress, aged and dignified persons still added a mantle or peplum, different from that of the Greeks in being edged round with a regular and distinct fringe, not interwoven with the body of the stuff, but purposely tacked on; and this studied enrichment, never observable in Grecian dresses, is in fact represented by Eschylus as a peculiarity characteristic of the peplum of the barbarians, or Asiatic nations.

The Parthian, and other more inland sovereigns of Asia, are sometimes, though seldom, represented on their coins beheaded, with their long hair and bushy beards most finically dressed and curled. Often they wear a cylindrical cap, rather wider at the top than at the bottom, called mitra by the Greeks. Sometimes this cap was encircled by a diadem, and at others loaded with different emblematic ornaments. Its shape is to this day preserved in that worn by the Armenian priests.

The Medes and Persians seem more generally to have worn the cidaris, or conical cap, sometimes terminating in a sharp point, at others truncated, and mostly loaded with ornament.

The prevailing male head-dress of the Asiatics, bordering on the Euxine and the Archipelago, appears to have been that which is generally known by the name of the Phrygian bonnet, and of which the characteristic features are its point or top bent down forward, and its long flaps descending on the shoulders. Sometimes this covering scorns to have been a more loose cap of the most soft and pliant stuff: unable to support itself upright, and hanging down in large wrinkles; at others it appears to have formed a helmet of the most hard and inflexible substance of leather, or even of metal-standing quite stiff and smooth, and enriched with embossed ornaments.

In many of these helmets the flaps descending on the shoulders are four in number, and probably were cut out of the legs of the animals whose hide or skin formed the body of the casque. In most of the lighter caps we only discern one single pair of flaps, which are often tucked up, and confined by a string round the crown.

In the figures of Amazons we often see the beak of the helmet terminate in the bill of a griffin, and the spine or back of the casque rise in the jagged crest of that fabulous animal. When thus shaped this covering may be considered as a sort of trophy, worn in consequence of the defeat, and formed out of the very spoil of some of those griffins with whom the Amazons are represented as constantly at war. Minerva herself sometimes appears in a Phrygian helmet of this species, probably when represented as worshipped at Troy; and Roman likewise wears it on many Latin coins-in order, no doubt, to indicate the kindred which the Romans claimed with the Trojans. This Phrygian bonnet seems to have been retained by many of the officers of the Byzantine emperors; and to have been, in its turn, again borrowed from these by several of the dignitaries of the Turkish empire; nay, to have travelled, during the intercourse of the Venetians with the Greeks, as far westward as Venice itself, where the Doge continued to wear it to the last day of his existence.

The Asiatics often wore half-boots laced before, with four long depending flaps, shaped like those of their bonnets, and, like those, probably formed out of the legs of the animals whose skins were converted into these buskins. Frequently eastern personages appear in shoes or slippers; seldom, if ever, in mere sandals, that leave the toes bare, like those worn by the Greeks.
In war the Asiatics never seem, like the Greeks, to have worn either breast-plates or greaves, but frequently a coat or jacket, with sleeves, entirely of mail. A flap of mail frequently descended from under the helmet, to protect the neck and shoulders.

Intérieur d'un tombeau à Persépolis

Description of the the picture above
The chief defensive weapon of the Asiatics was the pelta, or small shield in the form of a crescent; sometimes with, and sometimes without its curved side divided by a point into twin concavities. The peculiar offensive weapons of the inhabitants of Asia were the bipennis, or double battle-axe, the club, and the bow and arrow, generally carried in two different partitions of the same case or quiver.

The Dacians, though inhabitants of the European shores of the Euxine, but near neighbours to, and probably of the same origin with the Asiatic nations here mentioned, seem to have deviated little from them in their costume.

They wore their shoes or soles fastened with long strings, wound several times round the ankle, and their pantaloons very wide. On the Trajan column not only many of the Dacian soldiers themselves, but even many of their horses appear entirely enveloped in a coat of mail or covering of small scales, in close contact with the body and limbs. Their helmets were conical and ended in a sharp spike.

Many of the Asiatic nations were celebrated for their constant use and skilful management of horses; and are often represented as fighting on horseback against Greeks on foot.
by Thomas Hope
The Medes and Persians.

An entirely different type of dress ( Assyrians) is met with when we turn to the Medes and Persians. In contrast to the costumes swathing the body worn by the peoples already mentioned, we now find hose or breeches and a blouse-like shirt with sleeves.

The original Persian costume was made of tanned hides, covering not only the upper part of the body, but also the legs. At a later time (about 700 B.C.) the Persians used strong but soft materials to provide suitable protection in view of the climate of the country.

The tailoring of men's clothes in ancient Persia was somewhat complicated by the fact that it had to be adapted to the size of the hides available. Therefore not only had the body of the coat to be made in two or three pieces (Fig. 44), but the sleeves also had to be cut separately and then attached to the coat. This coat reached from the neck to the knees. It was open down the front, and fastened by a girdle. The sleeves were somewhat tight, and covered the whole arm down to the wrist. The hose or breeches of the Persians (Fig. 45) were fairly wide. They reached sometimes to the knees and sometimes to the ankles, and were fastened round the waist. They were thus both simple and convenient, and their great width at the top made up for the lack of stylish cut.

The footwear of the Medes and Persians consisted either of pieces of leather or other material folded tightly round the feet and tied over the instep or of actual boots, which were just as primitively simple as the other type of foot-covering just mentioned. The Persian headdress was a fairly deep cap, coming down in front to the eyebrows and at the back to the nape of the neck. It was made of stiff material, such as felt or leather, and had side-flaps which were often long enough to be tied under the chin. The dress of Persian women differed little from that worn by the men. The primitive form of it was hides wrapped round the body. At a later time the cut was the same, but the garments were now made of fine leather or felt. The only real differences between the dress of the two sexes were that the women's coats were wider and longer than those of the men and were closed down the front except for a slit at the breast. When the Median type of dress became increasingly common among the Persians the ancient Persian female garments gradually disappeared, or were greatly modified. They were considerably lengthened and became more voluminous, and the sleeves were wider. Median styles of dress were in strong contrast to the Persian styles. In the latter the garments were close-fitting, short, and made of strong material; in the former they were wide, long, and voluminous, and were therefore made of finer materials.

The usual men's dress, called kandys, was much wider at the foot than higher up, and was so long that it had to be gathered in front and at the sides and held by a girdle (Fig. 47). The sleeves came to the wrists; they were cut very wide near the wrist, but were tighter toward the armhole. The Median coat consisted of two pieces, front and back, cut practically alike, except that the cut for the neck was in the front piece. These pieces were much narrower at the top than at the foot (Fig. 49), and were sewn together at the shoulders and down the two sides. The sleeves were quaintly shaped, and were put in at the holes left for the purpose in the side-seams. As was almost universally the case in ancient times, the sleeve-seams were in line under the arm with the side-seam of the garment (The crosses in Fig. 49 indicate how the sleeve itself was sewn.).

This type of costume was worn by Medes of all classes, and was also the ceremonial garb of the monarch and his officials. It was Cyrus who introduced this Median dress into Persia. The ancient Persian national dress was retained only by subordinate Court officials. The priests in Media and Persia, the "magicians," when performing their official duties were clothed in white. The cut of their garments varied with their rank. The only item of dress which was worn by all priests was the sacred girdle. Priests were forbidden to wear any kind of ornament during their celebrations, but they had to carry a cane rod in their hands. (See Fig. 51.)

In the ceremonies performed in honour of the sacred fire the retinue of the priests was dressed in purple. A purple robe-or at least a purple cape-seems to have been the distinctive dress of the chief priest. When officially employed he wore the Median national costume and a headdress very similar to that worn by the king. The material and cut of the clothing of the rest of the priests bore greater resemblance to the Persian costume, or consisted of an under-garment and a wrap or plaid.

Like the cape of the high priest, the priest's upper robe was made in two pieces, a front and a back. In contradistinction to the former, however, it was not sewn from top to foot, but was open at the sides. Moreover, the front and back pieces of this robe differed from those of the other both in shape and size, and the garment itself had a hood-like collar, separately sewn on (Fig. 52, c). The front and back pieces were first sewn together at the shoulders; then the rest of the width of the back piece was turned over forward. The rest of its upper edges was sewn to the sides of the front piece. The collar was also sewn to the front piece so that the seams of this sewing met the seams connecting the front piece with the back.

When the garment was being put on, the loose flaps of the front piece were fastened together underneath the back piece. Median footwear, like the Persian, consisted of laced shoes made of leather or other strong material. Those worn by wealthy people were richly embroidered, trimmed with gold, and frequently light in colour.

The Median type of hose or breeches, when worn at all, was probably in all respects like that of the Persians. On the other hand, the Median headdress was quite unlike that worn in Persia. It was a hood that not only covered the head, but entirely surrounded the face, concealing even the chin. From it hung down two broad strips, one falling over the breast and one over the back. A different form of headdress was used by the upper classes. These wore round caps varying in height and increasing slightly in diameter upward, the crown being either flat or raised. The crowns and edges of these caps, which were sometimes bestowed by the monarch as signs of distinction or of royal favour, were frequently covered with rich embroidery. The wearing of a blue and white cord round the cap was a privilege strictly confined to relatives of the royal family.

The Scythians

The dress of the Scythians, Sarmatians, and Dacians is specially interesting, because the cut and style of it show many points of resemblance to the Teutonic fashions of prehistoric and early times. The Scythians (of about 700 B.C.) wore long trousers, smock-like shirts, and cloaks very like those worn by the Teutonic peoples. All the Scythian tribes dressed in very nearly the same way. The men wore fairly wide trousers and a coat open in front and held in place by a girdle. Sometimes the coat hung down over the trousers, and sometimes it was tucked into them. The feet were shod with short top-boots fastened round the ankles (Fig. 53), The headdress was either a cap-shaped piece of material kept on by a string that passed round the head or a pointed cap like that worn by the Phrygians.

The material used by the Scythians varied with the degree of civilization attained by the different tribes. The majority of them, being nomads wandering about on the Steppes, had nothing but the material that their flocks supplied. They were exposed throughout a large part of the year to inclement weather, and therefore their clothes were made of tanned leather, the separate pieces being sewn together with narrow strips of leather. Some tribes wore clothing fashioned in the same way, but made of fur, while still others dressed themselves in material made from sheep's wool and felted.

The cut of the garments was as primitive as the material of which they were made. The coat consisted of two pieces (Fig. 54) joined by a seam running down the back. In each piece a slit was cut for the arms, and the sleeves were sewn in separately.

The trousers were made of two oblong pieces of material (see Fig. 55). Each of these was folded lengthwise and sewn up the greater part of the length. These two bag-like pieces were then sewn together where the seam in each had stopped, this junction seam running up in front and at the back and between the legs. The extra width at the top was distributed round the waist during the process of dressing and kept in place by the girdle. The headdress was a piece of leather or other material, which was given the necessary shape in the process of fulling.

As with most other Asiatic peoples, women's wear among the Scythians was almost identical with that of the men. The only difierences were that women's clothes were longer and wider, made of finer material, and more daintily worked.
Widespread and numerous as the Scythians were, only one tribe among them attained any historical importance. These were the Parthians.

The Parthians

The Parthians were a savage race of horsemen. Speaking generally, their clothing was the same as that worn by the other Scythian tribes, especially by the monarchical Scythians who were settled round the shore of the Black Sea. Like these last mentioned, the Parthians usually wore several coats one over another.

When putting on these coats they pulled the upper one, which was cut wide and was long enough to reach to the knees, up under their girdle, so that the bottom edge of the coat underneath (which was much shorter and closer fitting) could be seen (Fig. 56). They also wore long, fairly wide trousers. Their headdress was sometimes pointed and sometimes round, or shaped like the Phrygian cap. The shoes were of leather, frequently dyed a reddish purple.

The trousers were made in the same manner as those of the other Scythian tribes, but in some cases the Persian style was followed (Figs. 45, 48, 50). The Parthian coat, on the other hand, which was made of coloured, soft materials, often of fine quality, resembled the Median garment. It consisted of two pieces, front and back, shaped alike. (See Fig. 57.) These were sewn together on the shoulders and at the sides as far as the sleeve-hole.

The sleeves were conspicuously long. The hole for the head was very wide ; round it was a broad hem for the tiestring, so that the garment could be drawn tight up to the neck or allowed to lie lower on the shoulders. In this way the top of the under-garment, which was similar, but, as said above, shorter and closer-fitting, could be seen to a greater or less extent, as the wearer pleased. The upper coat either had a slit at the breast or was divided in front from the foot up to the fork; it might even be left completely open in front.

This was the ordinary Parthian dress. That of the upper classes was made of splendid material, mostly coloured and richly adorned. Over it was also occasionally worn an oblong cape, fastened at the breast with an agraffe, or clasp.

The only differences between women's dress and that of the men were in the greater length of the former and the finer material of which it was made. The clothing of women of the upper classes was much more gaily coloured and more richly adorned (Fig. 58). A frequent addition to the costume was a cloak-like wrap, and some women wore a veil fastened to the head and falling down the back. For the rest, this long-sleeved garment was close-fitting at the top. (See Fig. 59.) No girdle was worn with it.

The slit at the breast began at the neck, but was covered with bows of broad ribbon. In order to render the upper part of the garment close-fitting it was shaped at the waist, the lower part being cut considerably wider than the upper.

The Sarmatians, Dacians, and Illyrians.

The dress of the Sarmatians closely resembled that of the Parthians, but there was this difference. When the Sarmatian wore two coats he put on the shorter one above the longer one, and only the longer one (which often reached to the feet) was fitted with long sleeves. The sleeves of the shorter one never came below the elbows, and often came no lower than the middle of the upper arm. Occasionally no upper coat was worn at all, and the Sarmatian costume then consisted of the trousers, the long coat tucked high up, and a cloak, which might be long or short, rectangular or semicircular.

This cloak was fastened at the right shoulder with a pin, or brooch, or even a thorn. The long coat was kilted sometimes high, at other times low. Sometimes it was slit at the sides, or it might be closed all round. The headdress was a cap almost identical with that worn by the Phrygians. In battle a helmet was worn. The trousers and footwear were similar to those in use among the Parthians and monarchical Scythians.

The dress of Sarmatian women, who, well armed and mounted, followed their husbands into battle-among the Yaxamatians women formed the sole cavalry of their tribe, the men fighting on foot as archers-was almost the same as that of the men -viz., a long under-garment, with a shorter one over it. Both of these were sleeveless, and were girt high or low as the wearer pleased. The short upper garment sometimes had a long slit at the breast trimmed with ribbons, with which it could be tied. The female headdress was a tall cap like that worn by the Phrygians.

Dacian and Illyrian costume closely resembled that worn by the Sarmatians, and consisted of shoes, trousers, long coats, and oblong or semicircular cloaks. The main difference was in headdress. Whereas the Sarmatians wore Phrygian caps, the Dacians and Illyrians wore a fairly tall, stiff conical cap made of some kind of felt (see Fig. 61).

Another point of difference was that the Dacians, unlike the Sarmatians, did not wear several coats one over another, and, speaking generally, Dacian dress was not so long or so loose as the other.

In cut Dacian costume, made of fine or coarse woollen material, resembled that of the Parthians, but the coat, especially the upper part of it, was considerably tighter than in the Parthian type. It had a slit at the breast, and at one side or even at both was open to half-way up the thigh. Dacian trousers were shaped like those worn by the Scythians, but were not nearly so wide, and were tied round the ankles after the Sarmatian style.

The Dacian cloak was almost semicircular (Fig. 62); the curved beg had long fringes. It was held together by a clasp on the right shoulder. The chief difference between female dress in Dacia and Sarmatia was that the Dacian style had sleeves, while the Sarmatian coats had none. Dacian women followed the practice of wearing several coats; the sleeves of the over-garments were shorter than those of the under ones, and were gathered and tied just above the elbow or half-way up the upper arm. The garments were very long and very full, the over one being usually shorter than the one beneath. Both had one or two tucks, and were in this way shortened. Quite frequently the girdle was replaced by a cloak, oblong or with a rounded lower edge, worn so that the upper edge passed round the body, the comers being knotted together in front. The Dacian women had a very peculiar fashion of disposing of the great width of the upper part of their clothing. They gathered a large part of the material at the back and arranged it in a knot, pinning it to keep it in place. Round the head they tied a kerchief, which fell to the nape of the neck like a hair-net.

Battle between the Romans and the Dacians.

The clothing of the Dacian women must have been made of fine material. In cut the garments consisted of two broad oblong pieces, a front and a back. These were sewn together at the shoulders and down the sides-except, of course, the openings for the arms. The opening for the head was finished with a wide hem, through which a string was passed for fastening. The sleeves had, as usual, only one seam, and were tighter at the wrist than at the shoulder.

By Carl Kohler
Related:

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Ancient costumes and fashion history of Asia Minor.

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Asia Minor. I DO not, under this head, mean to notice the Chinese, the Hindoos, or other more remote eastern nations, who were hardly known by name to the Greeks, who were never represented on their monuments, and whose costume can be of little use to the historical painter.

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This relief carving shows two different types of mens' dress at the time. Most likely these are soldiers because most of the (remaining) art pieces are depictions of battle or royalty. The two types of dress shown here are a Median Dress, and the ankle-length Persian Dress.
https://tinyurl.com/woqbt7t

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500 B.C.E.
Women in Sparta were extremely active and fit. They had to be fit to have strong sons that could fight in the army, and strong girls that could give birth to more sons that could fight in the Spartan army. This statue shows a women running in the Olympic games. She is wearing a dress with only one sleeve and no shoes, showing her physically fit body and muscles. (British Museum)  https://www.britishmuseum.org/learn/schools/ages-7-11/ancient-greece/classroom-resource-greek-women

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https://spark.adobe.com/sp/design/video/4d475a8b-6f3c-4d49-89cc-92a8defff3df