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ROOTS & SEEDS > CARTOGRAPHY OF A GARDEN - PARIS

Cartography of a Garden - Paris

INTRODUCTION

The workshop 'Cartography of a Garden' investigates how to renew our relations to plants and how to address the plant biodiversity crisis through a multiperspective art-science approach by looking at our close environment.

What is a garden? Is it the same for a botanist, a molecular biologist, a philosopher, a visual artist, a sound artist, the owner, the gardener, a curator, for the birds nesting in the trees and bushes, for the worms, fungi and bacteria in the soil, for the plants themselves?
Which plants actually? Some of our garden plants that we believe to be "European" are actually coming from far away. What do we know about them? Are they natives or migrants? Are they invasive species or endangered by climate change and other threats? Are they old local, even endemic, species or more recently human-engineered?

This workshop, one of the three organised under the project Roots and Seeds XXI. Biodiversity Crisis and Plant Resistance gathers a limited number of participants (by invitation only) that include scientists, artists, philosophers and cultural players.
For Cartography of a Garden, we replay the 19th century expeditions but with the knowledge and approaches of the 21st. We don't go "far away to unknown places" but stay "home", litteraly in our European backyard: the garden of Leonardo/Olats headquarters (Boulogne-Billancourt/Paris area). How does vegetation growing in the middle of a dense urban fabric, in the tiny portion of soil that Humans are kind enough to grant it, resists in our surburban concrete garden?

L'atelier 'Cartography of a Garden' (Cartographie d'un jardin) explore comment reconsidérer notre relation aux plantes et comment prendre en compte la crise de la biodiversité végétale par le biais d'un examen de notre environnement proche dans une approche art-science plurielle.

Qu'est-ce qu'un jardin? Est-ce le même pour un botaniste, un biologiste moléculaire, un philosophe, un plasticien, un artiste sonore, le propriétaire, le jardinier, un conservateur, pour les oiseaux nichant dans les arbres et les buissons, pour les vers, les champignons et les bactéries dans le sol, pour les plantes elles-mêmes?
Quelles plantes en fait? Certaines des plantes de nos jardins que nous croyons être "européennes" viennent en fait de très loin. Que savons-nous d'elles? Sont-elles d'ici ou migrantes? S'agit-il d'espèces invasives ou menacées par le changement climatique et autres dangers ? S'agit-il d'anciennes espèces locales, voire endémiques, ou plus récemment créées par les êtres humains ?

Cet atelier, l'un des trois organisés dans le cadre du projet Roots and Seeds XXI. Biodiversity Crisis and Plant Resistance réunit un nombre limité de participants (sur invitation uniquement) qui incluent des scientifiques, des artistes, des philosophes et des acteurs culturels. Pour Cartographie d'un jardin, nous réinterprétons les expéditions du 19e siècle mais avec les connaissances et les approches du 21e. Nous n'allons pas "au-delà des mers vers des lieux inconnus" mais nous restons "chez nous", littéralement dans notre arrière-cour européenne: le jardin du siège de Leonardo/Olats (Boulogne-Billancourt/région parisienne). Comment la végétation qui pousse au milieu d'un tissu urbain dense, dans la minuscule portion de sol que les Humains ont la gentillesse de lui accorder, résiste-t-elle dans notre jardin de bitume et béton?

PARTICIPANTS

Sommaire

Karine BONNEVAL, Artist

Se planter

This expression means to fail in French. However, being anchored to the ground goes with plants' great capacity for analysis, adaptation and complex interactions with the world around them.
After a reference to the projects Breathing with a tree and Listening to the soil, I will talk about Vertimus, an ongoing research about the movement of plants and our shared perceptions. In order to change our ways of thinking about the plants we might focus on what we do have in common. We are the living defending ourselves (B. Morisot).

Born in 1970 in La Rochelle. Lives and works in Pesselières, Cher.
Karine Bonneval's work proposes ways of being in the world shared by plants and humans. In her installations, we are immersed into a world of organic and fictional forms, where hybridisations between art and science sometimes mischievously divert technology to propose pieces with an aesthetic coming from the world of handmade, vernacular.
By developing projects to breathe with a tree, listen to the soil, move with plants, the artist imagines installations to be experienced as translators, to live for a moment a time shared with the plants, in dialogue with the air, the ground, gravity.
In collaboration with teams of scientists in plant ecophysiology and pedology, her projects seek ways to interact differently with the rest of the living world: Institut Diversité, Ecologie et Evolution du Vivant and neuroPsi, Orsay University, Paris-Saclay / Rillig Lab, Freïe Universität Berlin / INRAE PIAF, Clermont-Ferrand / Soil and crops science section, Cornell University, USA.
After graduating from the Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Beaux Arts d'Angoulème and the Ecole Supérieure des Arts Décoratifs de Strasbourg, Karine exhibited in France (Nuit Blanche / Domaine de Chaumont sur Loire / Micro-Onde / la Maréchalerie / la Graineterie / le Transpalette), Germany (Bourse Perspektive / Botanical museum Berlin), Latvia (Un/Green Exhibition), Denmark (AroS contemporary art museum, Haarus), USA (Cornell experimental gallery), Argentina (Centro Cultural Recoleta, Buenos Aires), Sri Lanka (Cinnamon Colomboscope).
With scientist Eric Badel (INRAE PIAF) and Studio Décalé, she won the Carasso Foundation's grant "Composer les savoirs" in 2019.

url : https://www.karinebonneval.com/

Annick BUREAUD

Directrice Leonardo/Olats, Roots & Seeds XXI team

Dr.Lucie CAMPAGNOLO, Independent consultant for space companies, Apollo Moment Consulting

Un jardin dans l'espace / A Garden in Space

Nov. 28, 2019 --- NASA astronauts (left to right) Christina Koch and Jessica Meir harvested Mizuna mustard greens on Thanksgiving day inside the ESA (European Space Agency) laboratory module's VEGGIE facility.

Source: NASA

Why growing plants in outer Space has elicited so much interest over the past decades? We are going to investigate the role of crops, vegetables and flowers in the human exploration history.

In the early ages of Space Exploration, the scientists were focused on the study of plant growth in space, and in particular on the effect of gravity (or the absence of) on root development under artificial lighting, optimized soil media, controlled atmosphere and radiative environnement.
They were particularly interested in understanding whether plant growth patterns are innate or environmentally driven, but also which gene expression is affected under space environment-induced oxidative stress. Besides fundamental scientific questions, plants were also cultivated in space to serve as possible nutrient sources for astronauts in order to supplement stored foods when space mission distances and durations increase, such as for long term bases on the Moon and Mars.
Very sophisticated green houses have also been developed as parts of Life-Support Systems, which are closed-loop artificial ecosystems able to create an artificial environnement where human can live in. In this case, plants can play multiple roles, from air purification to water filtration or waste management.
Finally, plants are an essential components to our humanity, and can be used as psychological countermeasures against isolation and loneliness, as shown by the experiment EKLO sent to the International Space Station, where Thomas Pesquet has to take care of a fragile flower.
Lucie Campagnolo is an independent consultant for space companies pursuing high impact ventures. NewSpace and Human Spaceflights Expert, she is passionate about reaching new frontiers and participates in several Think Tanks and knowledge groups in the field of technological development in space and terrestrial medicine.
She has spent ten years as project manager at MEDES, the Institute for Space Medicine and Physiology. Since its creation in 1989, MEDES has been striving to maintain and help develop French competence in space medicine and physiology and to promote the application of space research in the field of health. MEDES achieves this through its work in three main sectors: support in space medicine and physiology for space exploration, clinical research, and lastly e-health and support for epidemiological monitoring.
She also acted as Head of Healthcare applications at the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES) to promote and foster innovation between the healthcare and space industrial sectors.
Prior to this, Lucie was payload ops engineer at CNES where she worked as an Experimental Manager to help scientists to prepare and conduct a broad range of experiments in microgravity, be it aboard the International Space Station, Airbus A300 Zero-G, or Ground Analogs.

url :https://fr.linkedin.com/in/lucie-campagnolo-53832a4b

Références bibliographiques
https://www.nasa.gov/content/growing-plants-in-space
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SgpU08WJm0c
Plants in Space, T W Halstead, and, and F R Dutcher Annual Review of Plant Physiology 1987 38:1, 317-345

Laura CINTI, Artist

The Living Dead: On the Trail of a Female (2021)

Wood's Cycad (
Encephalartos woodii), taken on 30 April 2021, sitting in the Temperate House, Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, Photo taken by Rachel Lucas, Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew

The Living Dead: On the Trail of a Female is an artwork that draws attention to an extinct (in the wild) plant that, isolated from its habitat and unable to naturally reproduce, partakes in the global quest for the search of a female mate for one of the rarest plants in the world. It investigates narratives surrounding the plant's documented histories, anthropological journeys and scientific approaches to locate - or create - a female partner.
It focuses on the story, perhaps a sort of love story, involving a male Wood's Cycad ( Encephalartos woodii) endemic to the Ngoye Forest of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa - that recently went extinct in the wild. It was found in 1895 on a steep south-facing slope on the fringes of the Ngoye forest in South Africa. These are the only Encephalartos woodii plants ever found and all of them are male plants originating from one plant. Being dioecious it requires a female partner to reproduce. Unless a female specimen is found - it will never naturally reproduce again. These trees can be found in botanical gardens around the world but they are all cloned males only able to produce the pollen-bearing male cones. Unable to reproduce and not found in the wild, to me this is an astonishing example of a 'living dead'. One of these 'lonely' cloned males arrived in Royal Botanical Gardens in Kew (UK) in 1899 and it produced male cones for the first time ever in 2004 but with no female around it is unable to reproduce.
This is where the artwork begins in the quest for the female.
Laura Cinti is an internationally recognised research-based artist working with biology and artist and co-director of C-LAB - together with Howard Boland. C-LAB is an award-winning bio art collective that engages with interdisciplinary use of cutting edge science, technology and art to bring life concepts on the fridges of innovation. Their works use unconventional material and emerging technologies to create unique art experiences. C-LAB's practice has been focused on the modification of biological matter to create living works. Living material offers exciting ways of experiencing art and the life world. Their approach incorporates scientific methods and tools in order to manipulate living material as a way of experiencing deeper and often inaccessible spaces. C-LAB's works have been exhibited and presented worldwide.

url : http:/www.c-lab.co.uk

Références bibliographiques
1. A description of the discovery of the plant by J.M. Wood
Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew), Vol. 1914, No. 7 (1914), pp. 250-251
2. Mabey, Richard. The Cabaret of Plants: Botany and the Imagination. United Kingdom, Profile, 2015, pp. 83 - 88
3. Kew Science, Encephalartos woodii
http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:297146-1

Claire DAMESIN
Researcher in plant ecology, University of Paris-Saclay

Coupling understanding and perception of tree respiration: a potential evolutive step towards a respectful interaction with nature.

Forest ecosystems play a major role in the carbon cycle and climate regulation at the global and regional scales. Two main biological mechanisms determined the forest carbon balance: photosynthesis and respiration. The apparent lifeless woody compartemnt of the trees (trunks, branches, large roots) takes an important part in the respiration component. It exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide gaz with the atmosphere at every moment. Whatever the tree species, the diversity of their form and functioning, the respiration is a common basis that we also share with them and all living being. Coupling the scientific knowledge with an awareness of our breathing could help to connect with deep root of life and thus to drive an evolution of human posture towards respectfuf relationships with nature.

Claire Damesin is a reseacher at the university of Paris-Saclay in plant Ecology, more precisely in tree ecophysiology. She is interested in carbon functioning of the forest trees. Among her questions: how does the woody compartment take part in the tree life? How do trees respire and adjust their growth according to climate?
How do they cope with the environmental constraints like droughts? Her approach is an experimental one with measurements generally achieved in the field on mature forest trees. In recent years, she has conducted art-science collaborations around human-tree interactions through respiration and microcosm. Now, she is also conducting a research in human ecology by developping an introspective ecology at the individual level.

urls : https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Claire-Damesin
https://www.ese.universite-paris-saclay.fr/personnel/claire-damesin/
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCJYufTghbcJwKSgyLzCoA4Q/about

Kim DOAN QUOC, Artist

The conservation of organic life forms : sculptural and virtual gardens

Kim Doan Quoc,
Havres Gardés n.3, photogrammetry of the garden, 2021

Presentation of the series of works Havres Gardés. Havres Gardés is a series of installations involving a garden, sculptures, videos, VR and petrified plants. This series of work were created with the scientific support of the CBNBL (Conservatoire Botanique National de Bailleul / National Botanical Conservatory of Bailleul). Havres Gardés are immersive and interactive installations, meant as safe resting and playful spaces. This series is an invitation for collective reflection on the garden as a domestic space and a conservation space. Starting with the notion of preservation, this series inherently has perspectives about power balance and the end of civilization. What are protecting these samples and data from and why preserving them?
Kim Doan Quoc is a multi-disciplinary artist from Lille, France, where she graduated with an MFA of visual arts in 2016. Her work ranges from photography, video, immersive installation and projection mapping to writing and performance. Since 2015, her work as a visual artist and a performer has been shown internationally in places like Budapest (Trafo theater), Paris (Le Wonder), Brussels (Le Nova), Mexico City (TTT 2018), Berlin (Fashion Week SS2018) and New York City (Queens Museum)...
Her body of works uses various representations of the body, gender and landscape to question the place of human beings in nature, the relationship between culture and nature. She collaborates with other artists and, more recently, with scientists to explore these notions. Her most recent works are immersive visual sculptural pieces that can be activated with performances. These installations are the occasion to invite other artists to perform and scientists and thinkers to give lectures, organising a multi disciplinary and collective thinking within the artwork.

url : http://www.kimdoanquoc.studio/

Eva FIGUERAS FERRER

Professor of Engraving, Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Barcelona, Roots & Seeds XXI team
Field of Work and Research: Liminal poetics and sustainability.

Teresa GARNATJE ROCA

Senior researcher at the Botanical Institute of Barcelona (CSIC), Roots & Seeds XXI team
Field of Work and Research: Ethnobotany, Evolutionary biology, Genome evolution

Lauranne GERMOND, Directrice COAL

For a Sensitive Approach to the Living

Thierry Boutonnier,
Appel d'Air, la ppinire appel d'air Vive les Groues, 2018. Photo Julie Bourges.

The unprecedented context of the massive erosion of biodiversity poses new challenges of perception, representation and understanding of the environment. How to make tangible what disappears or which has already disappeared? How can we bear witness to the complex phenomenon of the collapse of living things? How can we offer solutions that are not technical but that accompany changes in behavior? How to encourage commitment to the preservation of biodiversity by arousing emotion and wonder rather than guilt and fear? Cultural approaches have the power to share experience sensitive to ecological issues and thus contribute to a deep awareness, the only real engine of action at the individual and collective level. This is the conviction that underlies the many projects carried or supported by the association such as Appel d'Air, a project by Thierry Boutonnier attempting to create an intimate link between the inhabitants and the trees of Greater Paris, the European cooperation program "The Table and the Territory" which supports ultra local imitatives mixing culture and agriculture, the "Nature in Solidum" artistic residency program in the Haut Jura regional park or the "Nuits des Forts" festival which tries to reconcile the multi-functionalities of the forest.
Lauranne Germond, art historian and curator, is co-founder and director since its origin in 2008, of the COAL association, dedicated to the emergence of a new culture of ecology and nature. A graduate of the Louvre School in History of Art and Museology, she specialized in contemporary art in relation to nature and ecology. COAL is at the origin of nearly fifty contemporary art exhibitions and cultural programs around the ecological transition for important structures and public actors throughout France (UNESCO, La Villette, La Gat Lyrique, FIAC , Domaine de Chamarande, National Museum of Natural History, Museum of Hunting and Nature, Socit du Grand Paris, Condition Publique, Banks of the Seine, CEAAC, Haut-Jura Regional Park, Sundgau Tourist Office, Office French for Biodiversity ...). COAL awards the COAL Art and Environment Prize each year, and participates in the knowledge and dissemination of the theme through European cooperation, advice, and the organization of numerous workshops and conferences. COAL notably carried the Cultural Agenda of COP21 in 2015 and in 2020-21, "Vivant", a Cultural Season for Biodiversity for the IUCN World Conservation Congress. Since its creation, Lauranne Germond has been the artistic director of the Coal Art and Environment Prize and the curator of all the exhibitions and cultural programs carried by the association. In 2020 she also co-founded the festival and the association of the same name: "Les Nuits des forts".

projetcoal.fr

Références bibliographiques

1 - http://www.projetcoal.org/coal/2021/01/25/lauranne-germond-invit%c3%a9e-dans-le-dernier-num%c3%a9ro-de-lobservatoire-la-revue-des-politiques-culturelles/
2 - http://www.projetcoal.org/coal/2020/09/25/klaxon-13-%e2%80%93-agir-avec-le-vivant/
3 - http://www.projetcoal.org/coal/2020/09/12/catalogue-dexposition-courants-verts/

Loc LE NOAN, Le Paysan Urbain (The Urban Farmer non-profit organisation)
Educational and R&D manager at Le Paysan Urbain

Le Paysan Urbain (The Urban Farmer)

Le Paysan Urbain is an urban agricultural structure created in 2015 developing agro-ecological, economically viable and socially responsible urban farms by being part of the social and solidarity economy.
In 2020, Le Paysan Urbain settled on a 6700m2 plot above the non-potable water reservoirs of Charonne in the 20th arrondissement. It has set up a 660m2 organic climate greenhouse in which it cultivates microgreens, around fifty tubs in which it produces herbs and edible flowers, an educational henhouse and a refuge area to accommodate wild flora and fauna.

Inspired from an early age by his grandfather cultivating his vegetable garden with passion and having grown up in a house on the edge of the forest, Loc Le Noan was quickly drawn to nature and agriculture. After studying ethnobotany and herbalism, he discovered a passion for environmental education. Within the Urban Ecology Agency of the City of Paris, I train young and old in organic gardening and raise awareness about the preservation of urban biodiversity.
In 2007, he co-founded "Ville en Herbes", a non-profit organisation working with social rejected people who did not have access to nature and gardening. In 2011, he joined the Education League to develop a citizen action program in the fields of agriculture and urban ecology. In 2019, he became a technical teacher in urban agriculture in a Closed Educational Center (CEF) welcoming repeat offenders minors (PJJ - Ministry of Justice). In October 2020, he joined the Urban Farmer team.

https://lepaysanurbain.fr/

Tatiana KOUROCHKINA

Director and co-founder of Quo Artis, Roots & Seeds XXI team

Michael MARDER, Philosopher

The diaspora of seed

Sometimes, right on its semantic surfaces, language relieves the burden of repression that has built up over the millennia of metaphysical thought. This is the case with the word diaspora. An obdurately entrenched popular conviction that plants are immobile is a symptom for the repression of insights-practical intuitions more than elaborate theories, to be sure-into vegetal motility. And yet, one of our main figures for the effects of human migration borrows a technical term from botanical discourse, where diaspore refers to seeds or spores, plus the plant's anatomical structures fitted for their dispersal. A fruit with its seeds is a diaspore, as is the white dandelion puff ball and tumbleweed rolling across wind-swept plains. Diasporic communities are the residues of human migratory flows, imagined by analogy to the movement of plants.

Michael Marder is IKERBASQUE Research Professor in the Department of Philosophy at the University of the Basque Country (UPV-EHU), Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain. He holds a PhD in Philosophy from The New School for Social Research in New York. Prior to coming to the Basque Country, he taught at universities in the United States (Georgetown, George Washington, and Duquesne Universities) and in Canada (University of Toronto & University of Saskatchewan). In addition, Marder has been a visiting professor at the University of Bristol (UK), University of Lisbon, Nova University of Lisbon, and University of Coimbra (Portugal), University of Sichuan (China), Diego Portales University (Chile), and Forum on Contemporary Theory (India). His writings span the fields of phenomenology, political thought, and environmental philosophy. He is the author of numerous scientific articles and fifteen monographs, including Plant-Thinking: A Philosophy of Vegetal Life (2013); Phenomena-Critique-Logos: The Project of Critical Phenomenology (2014); The Philosopher's Plant: An Intellectual Herbarium (2014); Pyropolitics: When the World Is Ablaze (2015), Dust (2016), Energy Dreams: Of Actuality (2017), Heidegger: Phenomenology, Ecology, Politics (2018), Political Categories: Thinking Beyond Concepts (2019), and Dump Philosophy: A Phenomenology of Devastation (2020) among others.

url : michaelmarder.org

Références bibliographiques
1. Michael Marder, Plant-Thinking: A Philosophy of Vegetal Life (Columbia UP, 2013) [French translation: La pensée végétale - Une philosophie de la vie des plantes (Paris: Les Presses du réel, 2020)]
2. Michael Marder, "The Sense of Seeds, or Seminal Events," Environmental Philosophy, April 2015, DOI: 10.5840/envirophil201542920
3. Hegel, "Plant Nature", in Hegel's Philosophy of Nature (Oxford, 2004)

Ramuntcho MATTA, Artist, Founding Director of the cultural project of Lizières

From Qualm to Augmented Consciouness: a Gymnastic of Luck (De l'tat d'me la conscience augmente : une gymnastique de la chance)

From the birth of a place to the making of a method for augmented consciousness.
How to make a utopia tangible and participate in the making of a present present.
Encounter as generators of experiences.
From John Cage to Humberto Maturana via Brion Gysin, Louise Bourgeois, Laurie Anderson, Flix Guattari and Don Cherry.

Ramuntcho Matta was described by Chris Marker as a Multimedium. He works as well with sounds, music, interactive spectrum, visuals and situations. His main interest is on collaborations.

He has developped ventures with Don Cherry, Brion Gysin, Louise Bourgeois, Humberto Maturana, Richard Nonas, Felix Guattari... among others. His main occupation is to run a space near Paris. Lizieres, centre de cultures et de ressources. This plateform generates actions in the fields of transmissions, body, education and residencies.

url : http://www.lizieres.org

Références bibliographiques
1 - De Chazal Malcolm, L'Homme et la connaissance, Editions Jean-Jacques Pauvert, 1974
2 - Mabille Pierre, Le miroir du merveilleux, Editions de Minuit, 1962 (first edition : Editions du Sagittaire, 1940)
3 - Ramon Llull, ars magna, 1515,
( https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k82239p.image)

Marit MIHKLEPP, Artist

Mineral, Soil, Root Spaces

Marit Mihklepp, Tree Reader

screenshot from video, 2018 (supported by MoKS and Cultural Endowment of Estonia)

Building on my recent work around geologic time and stones, I plan to move towards the underground - often unnoticed space inhabited by countless living beings, time scales, roots, minerals. Inspired by the writings of Maria Puig de la Bellacasa and Robert Macfarlane I wish to turn our senses into the poetics of soil ecologies, and the relational compounds we are all part of. How to experience the slow movements of rocks and roots? How are microbes and minerals connected to plant diversity? How to think of audiences beyond the human in artistic and scientific practice?

Marit Mihklepp

© ENE / Jean-Sébastien Veilleux photographer

Marit Mihklepp is an Estonian artist, currently based in The Netherlands. She holds a MA degree of ArtScience (Royal Academy of Art, The Hague) and a BA degree of Textile Design (Estonian Academy of Arts). She focuses on the existing and speculative languages between humans and other-than-humans, and develops works in collaboration with stones, trees, bacteria and ordinary objects. In 2021, she continues moving with geologic bodies in the collaborative research platform OTHERWISE (Switzerland), online residency Changing Landscapes (Brazil/Netherlands) and research residency Black Earth at Valley of the Possible (Chile). She is the recipient of the Roots and Seeds XXI Maison Malina Residency.
url : maritmihklepp.com

Références bibliographiques
1 - Sylacauga/Hodges meteorite (an extremely rare case of a meteorite landing on a human being)
2 - 'Lake Superior' by Lorine Niedecker (poem)
3 - 'Eyes of the Skin' by Juhani Pallasmaa (book)
4 - 'Underland' by Robert Macfarlane (book)

Sophie NADOT, Botanist specialised in flower evolution and polinisation, professor at University Paris-Saclay

The potential of ordinary plants in urban ecosystems

Classification of floral and pollinator morphotypes. Full lines between floral and pollinator morphotypes indicate that the pollinators can potentially access both pollen and nectar (except nectar robbing). Dashed lines indicate that the pollinators can potentially access only pollen. The drawings represent morphotypes that can belong to any of the five insect orders that include floral visitors (
Hymenoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and Heteroptera)

When it comes to biodiversity, much attention is usually paid to natural ecosystems, particularly to ecosystems that are highly impacted by global changes, such as the spectacular tropical rain forests, or wetlands, which are threatened in many temperate countries including France. Urban biodiversity has become to attract attention relatively recently and is now the object of various research projects or actions, including citizen science programs. This talk will focus on two aspects of my work, research and mediation. In the first part I will present the main results of a research project that I have supervised, on how urbanization (in the Paris regions) may affect the reproductive characteristics and ecological affinities of street plant communities. In the second part, I will present an online course that we conceived and produced together with the association Tela Botanica, the MOOC Herbes Folles. This MOOC (massive open online course) aims to educate a wide audience about the diversity of weeds, in order to show their ecological specifities and highlight their interest as part of the unfairly neglected biodiversity.
Sophie Nadot is a professor at Université Paris-Saclay where she teaches botany and coordinates a master program on ecological landscape management. Her research focuses on the evolution of flowering plants. She has worked on the evolution of pollen morphology in relation with pollen early development. She is particularly interested in flower evolution. Floral symmetry is one of the traits that she is interested in, along with other features. She has a special interest in the buttercup family, which displays an extraordinary variation in floral traits. She is also interested in how urbanisation may affect plant and pollinator communities.

url : https://www.ese.universite-paris-saclay.fr/personnel/sophie-nadot/

Références bibliographiques
1 - Sauvages de ma rue
https://www.vigienature.fr/fr/flore/sauvages-de-ma-rue

2 - MOOC Tela Botanica https://mooc.tela-botanica.org/

3 - Eric Lenoir, Petit traité du jardin punk - apprendre à désapprendre, Terre vivante, 2018

Cyrille PRESTIANNI, Paleobotanist

Mar REDONDO AROLAS

Lecturer, Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Barcelona, Roots & Seeds XXI team
Field of Work and Research: Photography and Visual Arts. Liminal poetics and sustainability.

Meredith ROOT-BERNSTEIN, Ethnobiologist, ecologist, conservation scientist, CNRS researcher at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris

With What Methods Can We Understand Landscapes?

Landscapes are both pragmatically the scale at which my research takes place, and an interesting theoretical concept. I describe first how I understand the composition and transformation of landscapes. Then I describe what kinds of methods I use to understand landscapes. Starting from my position that art and science are just different kinds of methods, I further ask what kinds of methods are implicated in landscape making and how those are related to art and ecological science.

Meredith Root-Bernstein is an ethnobiologist, ecologist, and interdisciplinary conservation scientist. She is a CNRS researcher at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle since 2020. Meredith works on ecosystem succession (transformation), degradation, restoration and rewilding. She works mainly in Chile, where she did her PhD, and where she co-founded the NGO Kintu for rewilding the guanaco (wild llama) (Lama guanaco) in central Chile. She has also participated in field collaborations in Italy (the Po Delta), Lesotho, and soon in Sudan. She also researches animal behavior from time to time and teaches "Human-animal interaction" for the masters in GEODesign at Eindhoven Design Academy. In addition, Meredith has had a long-standing interest in environmental art. Most notably, she collaborated with artist Cecilia Vicuña, and participated in the Fondazione Zegna/ Cittadellarte-Fondazione Pistoletto/ Unidee art residency "Expanded body #2_ Inhabiting Time" in 2018, after which she continued to collaborate with several of the other invited artists. In 2019-2020 she did a diploma in Art Research and Experimentation.

Références bibliographiques
1 - Root-Bernstein, M. 2020. "L'ange Gabriel dans la forêt du centre du Chili", Special Issue "Forêt et paysage", Projets de Paysage, 22.
2 - Root-Bernstein, M., & Ladle, R. 2019. Ecology of a Widespread Large Omnivore, Homo sapiens, and its Impacts on Ecosystem Processes. Ecology and Evolution, 9(19), 10874-10894.
3 - Root-Bernstein, M., Valenzuela, R., Huerta M., Armesto, J., Jaksic, F. 2017. Acacia caven nurses endemic sclerophyllous trees along a successional pathway from silvopastoral savanna to forest. Ecosphere 8(2).

Marc-André SELOSSE, Professor at the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris

Plant nature is dynamic

Wood's Cycad (
Encephalartos woodii), taken on 30 April 2021, sitting in the Temperate House, Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, Photo taken by Rachel Lucas, Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew

The plant is an evolutionary dynamic and for it there is no permanence, no ideal adaptation, no state of reference. Interactions with the other species which surround it, parasites or mutualists, impose a perpetual evolution on it: it is subjected to the race of the Red Queen and, in this, it is an organism like any other. But we often find it hard to imagine that it evolved before us, sometimes with us, if not even after us.
Marc-André Selosse is professor at the National Museum of Natural History in Paris and professor at the universities of Gdansk (Poland) and Kunming (China). His research focuses on the ecology and evolution of mutually beneficial associations (symbioses). Mycologist and botanist, he works in particular on the mycorrhizal symbioses which unite soil fungi to the roots of plants. Former President of the Botanical Society of France, President of BioGée and member of the French Academy of Agriculture, he is editor of four international scientific journals and of Espèce a journal of vulgarisation. He has published more than 190 research articles and 190 popularization articles, downloadable from http://isyeb.mnhn.fr/fr/annuaire/marc-andre-selosse-404. About a hundred different videos are also available on YouTube. He has published books for the general public on microbiota ( Jamais Seul, 2017) and tannins ( Les tastes et les couleurs du monde, 2019) at Actes Sud. In March 2021, he published a comic strip about the soil with Mathieu Burniat ( Sous Terre, Dargaud).

Références bibliographiques
1 - M.-A. SELOSSE, 2017. Jamais seul. Ces microbes qui construisent les plantes, les animaux et les civilisations. Actes Sud.
2 - M.-A. SELOSSE, 2019. Les goûts et les couleurs du monde. Une histoire naturelle des tannins, de l'écologie à la santé. Actes Sud.
3 - M.-A. SELOSSE, 2021. L'origine du monde. Une histoire naturelle du sol à l'attention de ceux qui le piétinent. Actes Sud.

Jean-Luc SORET

Anaïs TONDEUR, Artist

Companion Plant, Guide Plant (Plante compagne, Plante Guide)

Anaïs Tondeur, S
eed of Linum usitatissimum, Exclusion Zone, Chernobyl, Radiation level: 1.7 µSv/h

From the human breaths to the plants' breath, we will delve in the meshwork which interlaces our existences to the vegetal lives, exploring ways plants can guide us to other modes of being to the world.
Stemming from the process of creation of Chernobyl Herbarium, a series of rayograms for which I gather at the surfaces of photosensitive plates the imprint of the body of plants growing in the radioactive soils of the Exclusion zone, I propose to reflect on the notion of exposure, permeability and adaptability.
In letting ourselves guided by accomplice beings, we will explore means plants can open ways in mending the broken threads between our lives and the cycles of the biosphere. Through this endeavour, assumed as political, I will share my explorations directed towards the elaboration of an ethics rooted in the material and symbolic continuities between human existence and that of the living world.
Anaïs Tondeur is a French visual artist based in Paris. She creates speculative narratives and investigations through which she experiments other conditions of being to the world and other modes of cohabitation with the other-than-humans: plants, rocks, air, water. Here, she searches for a renewal of our modes of perception, and explores, beyond the separation of nature and culture, ways to disrupt the grand narrative of the Anthropocene.
Collaborating with geologists, oceanographers, physicists, philosophers, and anthropologists, her protocols of research took her in expeditions on the traces of particles of black carbon with scientists, through Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, across the Atlantic Ocean or along major frontiers between tectonic plates.
Graduate from Central Saint Martin (2008) and Royal College of Arts (2010) in London, she was awarded Ars Electronica Cyber Arts Honorable Mention (2019). She has presented and exhibited her work in international institutions such as the Centre Pompidou (Paris), La Gaîté Lyrique (Paris), MEP (Paris), Frac Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Serpentines Galleries (London), Bozar (Brussels), Biennale Di Venezia, Pavillon French, (Lieux Infinis), Houston Center of Photography (United States) or the Nam June Paik Art Center (Seoul).

url : https://anaistondeur.com

Références bibliographiques
1 - Lieutaghi Pierre, La plante compagne: pratique et imaginaire de la flore sauvage en Europe occidentale, Arles, Actes Sud 1998 (première édition 1991)
2 - Marder Michael, Tondeur Anaïs, The Chernobyl Herbarium: Fragments of an Exploded Consciousness, 2016 Link to download pdf : http://www.openhumanitiespress.org/books/titles/the-chernobyl-herbarium/
3 - Dhôtel André, Le grand rêve des floraisons, Klincksieck, De Natura Rerum, 2018

Joan VALLÈS XIRAU

Professor of Botany at the Universitat de Barcelona and member of the Institut d'Estudis Catalans (Catalan Academy of Sciences and Humanities), Roots & Seeds XXI team
Field of Work and Research: Ethnobotany, Plant systematics and evolution, History of Botany, Botanical terminology

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fondements culturels de la mondialisation

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olats.org - ROOTS & SEEDS - CARTOGRAPHY OF A GARDEN - PARIS

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olats.org, Leonardo / OLATS : Leonardo/OLATS - Observatoire Leonardo des arts et des technosciences : Art Spatial / Space Art : Les artistes du XXe sicle, pionniers et prcurseurs dans les arts et techno-sciences. FCM : Programme de recherche et d'dition sur la mondialisation dans ses fondements intellectuels et artistiques, historiques et actuels.

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http://www.antennae.org.uk/back-issues-2020/4594999697

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Bibliographical reference of Mar Redondo Arolas.

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Bibliographical reference of Mar Redondo Arolas.

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Bibliographical reference of Eva Figueras Ferrer.

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Fontcuberta, Joan (1982-1985) Herbarium. Bibliographical reference of Mar Redondo Arolas.

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Bibliographical reference of Eva Figueras Ferrer.

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Bibliographical reference of Anaïs Tondeur.

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Ciència fricció | Exposicions | CCCB - Bibliographical reference of Eva Figueras Ferrer.

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Exposició

Vida entre espècies companyes

És possible imaginar altres històries terrestres? Podem pensar altres maneres de viure entre espècies diferents? L'exposició explora aquestes qüestions a través d'una selecció d'obres artístiques i de peces de divulgació científica. Planteja un canvi de mentalitat i de sensibilitat que qüestiona la supremacia de l'espècie humana i aposta per una visió del món entès com un ecosistema on conviuen totes les espècies del planeta.

"Si, com sostenen Haraway i Margulis, tota la Terra està viva, és hora d'abandonar el mite de la supremacia i reprendre el contacte amb les nostres nombroses companyes terrestres.", Maria Ptqk

L'exposició "Ciència fricció. Vida entre espècies companyes" parteix de l'evidència científica que totes les espècies terrestres estan unides per relacions simbiòtiques i interdependents. En la natura no hi ha organismes autònoms o independents; tots formem part d'ecosistemes integrats els uns en els altres. Les espècies configurem una xarxa de col·laboracions, mutacions i intercanvis en la qual convivim com a companyes.

Aquest canvi de paradigma implica que l'espècie humana no és una espècie excepcional ni superior. En última instància, la simbiosi posa en qüestió la supremacia humana, la idea que el conjunt de la natura i tots els éssers vius estan al servei del nostre benestar.

Per relatar aquest canvi de perspectiva, l'exposició s'inspira en l'obra de dues figures clau en la cultura científica contemporània: Donna Haraway i Lynn Margulis. Totes dues destaquen per la importància que atorguen a la simbiosi i la col·laboració entre espècies, així com pel seu interès en la comunicació i la narrativa científica.

Artistes, pensadors, científics i activistes

La transició de l'antropocentrisme -una visió del món centrada en l'humà- al biocentrisme -l'humà s'entén com a part d'un ecosistema- recorre tota l'exposició. El visitant hi trobarà una selecció d'obres artístiques en suports diversos, com les instal·lacions immersives audiovisuals i sonores, la realitat virtual, la pintura, el dibuix i el cinema d'avantguarda, a més de peces de divulgació científica.

La comissària de la mostra, Maria Ptqk, hi ha aplegat una sèrie de creadors, pensadors i científics d'arreu del món que exploren les relacions entre espècies i persuadeixen de la urgència d'inventar altres ciències f(r)icció i històries fabuladores o especulatives que ampliïn l'imaginable i ens ajudin a situar-nos en l'emergent paradigma interespècies.

L'evolució dels drets de la natura

L'exposició culmina amb Time-Life-Time de Jaime Serra (2021), una instal·lació artística produïda especialment per a la mostra i dedicada al moviment pels drets de la natura. D'acord amb aquests drets, les espècies animals i vegetals, així com rius, muntanyes, valls o ecosistemes, han de ser protegits pel seu valor intrínsec, al marge de la seva utilitat per als humans.

Amb aquesta instal·lació, alhora epíleg i peça autònoma de la mostra, l'autor fa una revisió molt personal d'aquest corrent actual de l'ecologisme a través d'una trentena de peces en diversos suports i registres gràfics (collages, fotografies i objectes diversos). D'una banda, és un recorregut històric per les fites que han marcat l'evolució dels drets de la natura des de mitjan segle XX fins a l'actualitat. D'altra banda, d'una manera irònica i suggeridora, l'autor fa dialogar aquestes fites amb elements presents a la pròpia exposició i amb d'altres provinents de la cultura popular i els mitjans de masses, tot dibuixant un recorregut fet de paradoxes i trobades inesperades.

L'exposició del CCCB representa la culminació d'un cicle de recerca més ampli iniciat el 2017 amb una exposició produïda per l'espai virtual del Centre d'arts visuals Jeu de Paume de París.

La mostra ha comptat amb la col·laboració i l'assessoria científica de Ricard Guerrero, catedràtic de microbiologia de la Universitat de Barcelona, i Rubén Duro Pérez, divulgador científic.

Es presenta en el marc de la Biennal Ciutat i Ciència 2021.

Comissariat: Maria Ptqk

Participants: Cleve Backster, Louis Bec, Paula Bruna, Ernesto Casero, Vinciane Despret, David Domingo (aka Stanley Sunday), Shoshanah Dubiner, Rubén Duro Pérez, John Feldman, Walon Green, Gustafsson & Haapoja, Donna Haraway, Marley Jarvis, Laurel Hiebert i Kira Treibergs, Dominique Koch, Christie Lyons, Mary Maggic, Petra Maitz, Marshmallow Laser Feast (MLF), Stefano Mancuso, Lynn Margulis, Joan Martínez Alier, Terence McKenna, Museo del Hongo, Dimas Paredes, Richard Pell, Mercè Piqueras, Max Reichmann, Quimera Rosa, Toni Serra (Abu Ali), Jaime Serra Palou, Maria Sibylla Merian, Saša Spačal, Susana Talayero, Paulo Tavares, Helen Torres, Diana Toucedo, Pinar Yoldas

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Àmbits de l'exposició

Simbiosi

L'exposició arrenca amb una introducció a la figura de Lynn Margulis (1938-2011). Margulis afirma que el nostre origen bacterià i tota la història de la vida a la Terra es fonamenten en la simbiosi, principal motor de l'evolució. Enfront del corrent neodarwinista, que sosté que els canvis evolutius provenen de la competició entre organismes independents, ella ofereix una història protagonitzada per multituds d'éssers interdependents, units en totes les escales de la vida.

Amb: Christie Lyons, Shoshanah Dubiner, David Domingo, John Feldman, Dominique Koch i Petra Maitz.

Espècies companyes

Simbiosi significa literalment convivència. En un sentit més ampli, el terme també al·ludeix a la vida en comú dels organismes que comparteixen hàbitat o existència i que evolucionen junts a partir dels vincles que estableixen. És per aquesta raó que la científica Donna Haraway parla d' espècies companyes quan es refereix als vincles com els que creen els insectes amb les flors -de les quals s'alimenten, alhora que en faciliten la reproducció- o com els que uneixen els éssers humans amb alguns vegetals i animals essencials en la història de la civilització.

Amb: Susana Talayero, Maria Sibylla Merian, Toni Serra/Abu-Ali, Gustafsson&Haapoja, Mary Maggic i Richard Pell / Center for PostNatural History.

Xarxes de consciència bioquímica

Aquest capítol està dedicat a les plantes i als fongs, els casos més paradigmàtics de vida en xarxa. Els fongs es fonen amb animals, bacteris i plantes i creen complexos sistemes d'intercanvi. Sota terra reparteixen nutrients i en el sotabosc, aliats amb insectes i altres microorganismes, transformen les deixalles en cicle de reciclatge. Pel que fa a les plantes, capturen l'energia del sol i l'ofereixen als altres terrestres, perceben la llum, la humitat, la gravetat o els camps electromagnètics i s'estima que tenen els nostres cinc sentits i quinze més.

Amb: Dimas Paredes Armas, Marshmallow Laser Feast, Saša Spačal, Mirjan Švagelj, Anil Podgornik i Tadej Droljc, Quimera Rosa, Terence McKenna, Max Reichmann i Museo del Hongo.

Històries dels orígens

Si acceptem que la simbiosi qüestiona les velles concepcions antropocèntriques, també podem reimaginar el passat, el present i el futur de la història de la Terra i dels seus éssers. Aquest apartat aplega projectes que especulen amb altres possibles històries de les relacions entre espècies, posant un èmfasi especial en el cas dels pops, un dels camps emergents en l'estudi de la intel·ligència no-humana.

Amb: Diana Toucedo, Donna Haraway i Vinciane Despret, Louis Bec, Marley Jarvis, Laurel Hiebert i Kira Treibergs, i Pinar Yoldas.

El contracte natural

L'exposició es tanca amb un capítol dedicat als drets de la natura: les espècies animals i vegetals, així com rius, muntanyes, valls o ecosistemes, són protegits pel seu valor intrínsec, al marge de la seva utilitat per als humans. El contracte social que relega el món a l'estatus d'objecte inert ha de ser substituït per un contracte natural, obert a una política postantropocèntrica, més enllà del que és humà, que respongui al repte d'entendre la vida com una xarxa d'interdependències.

Amb: Jaime Serra Palou, Paulo Tavares i Ernesto Casero.

L'evolució dels drets de la natura

A mode d'epíleg, l'exposició presenta Time-Life-Time (2021), una instal·lació artística de nova creació de Jaime Serra que fa un recorregut per l'evolució dels drets de la natura des de mitjan segle xx fins a l'actualitat. Les fites que han marcat el moviment estableixen un diàleg amb referents de la cultura popular i dels mitjans de masses, així com amb alguns elements procedents de l'exposició mateixa.

Amb: Jaime Serra Palou

Entrevistes

El recorregut de l'exposició inclou una sèrie d'entrevistes fetes a representants de la cultura, la ciència i l'activisme com Rubén Duro Pérez, Helen Torres, Paula Bruna, Associació Zuhari, Joan Martínez-Alier, Fabiola Leyton, Mercè Piqueras, Joan Romanyà i Ricard Guerrero.

Data i horari

12 juny - 28 novembre 2021
De dimarts a diumenge i festius
11.00 - 20.00
Dilluns no festius
Tancat

Preus

6€ / 4€ reduït
8€ / 6€ reduït (entrada combinada amb "World Press Photo")
El diumenge de 15.00 a 20.00 la visita és gratuïta amb reserva prèvia.
Les visites comentades tenen el mateix preu que l'entrada general.

Espai

Sales d'exposicions

El visitant haurà d'utilitzar els seus propis auriculars durant la visita.

Disposem de servei de bucle magnètic per a les visites comentades. Cal sol·licitar-lo a Taquilles amb antelació.
Descarrega't els textos en format accessible

Amb la teoria endosimbiòtica, publicada el 1967, Lynn Margulis afirma que les cèl·lules eucariotes (cèl·lules amb nucli), de les quals provenen totes les plantes, els fongs i els animals, van sorgir de la fusió simbiòtica de bacteris primitius (organismes procariotes, dotats de cèl·lules sense nucli).
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Serafín Álvarez | Roc Jiménez de Cisneros

Una conversa entre dos artistes per explorar els límits del llenguatge i les taxonomies d'allò que es viu.
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És possible imaginar altres històries terrestres? Podem pensar altres maneres de viure entre espècies diferents? L'exposició explora aquestes qüestions a

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Bibliographical reference of Anaïs Tondeur.

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Bibliographical reference of Anaïs Tondeur.

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Bibliographical reference of Joan Vallès

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Bibliographical reference of Joan Vallès

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"Anaïs Tondeur is building a new form of political art. Instead of seeking to restore the shattered utopias of yesterday, she engages with the world both politically and concretely"... "Dressing the world's wound to better re-think it and re-include humans, with others - animals, plants, rocks, waters - is one of the foundations of the creation of Tondeur. "

"Anaïs Tondeur construit une nouvelle forme d'art engagé. Loin des utopies qui ont volé en éclats, il est un engagement dans le monde, d'autant plus politique que concret"..."Panser le monde pour mieux le re-penser et y ré-inclure l'humain, avec les autres -animaux, plantes, roches, eaux- est un des soubassements de la création de Tondeur."

Annick Bureaud, ArtPress

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"Anaïs Tondeur is building a new form of political art. Instead of seeking to restore the shattered utopias of yesterday, she engages with the world both politically and concretely"... "Dressing the world's wound to better re-think it and re-include humans, with others - animals, plants, rocks, waters - is one of the foundations of the creation of Tondeur.

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Bibliographical reference of Joan Vallès

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Bibliographical reference of Marc-André Selosse.

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Bibliographical reference of Marc-André Selosse.

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Bibliographical reference of Marc-André Selosse.

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L'UMR 7205 a pour objectif de répondre aux questions concernant l'origine de la biodiversité, les modalités de diversification des espèces, la mise en place des communautés animales en lien avec l'évolution spatio-temporelle des taxons. L'unité est un des pôles européens de systématique et contribue de manière importante à la taxonomie et à la biologie de l'évolution.

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Bibliographical reference of Teresa Garnatje.

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The Earth BioGenome Project is a moonshot for biology that aims to sequence, catalog, and characterize the genomes of all of Earth's eukaryotic biodiversity over a period of 10 years.

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Bibliographical reference of Teresa Garnatje.

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Dzivula Gube
Marine Conservationist & Underwater Photographer, Kenya

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iNaturalist is a social network for naturalists! Record your observations of plants and animals,
share them with friends and researchers, and learn about the natural world.

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Root-Bernstein, M., & Ladle, R. 2019. Ecology of a Widespread Large Omnivore, Homo sapiens, and its Impacts on Ecosystem Processes. Ecology and Evolution, 9(19), 10874-10894. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ece3.5049

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Root-Bernstein, M., & Ladle, R. 2019. Ecology of a Widespread Large Omnivore, Homo sapiens, and its Impacts on Ecosystem Processes. Ecology and Evolution, 9(19), 10874-10894. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ece3.5049

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Bibliographical reference of Meredith Root-Bernstein.

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Meredith Root-Bernstein , Richard Ladle ,

School of Science and Health, Federal University of Alagoas, Alagoas, Brazil

School of Geography and the Environment, Oxford University, Oxford, UK
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Corresponding Author

Section for Ecoinformatics & Biodiversity, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity, Santiago, Chile

UMR Sciences pour l'Action et le Développement, Activités, Produits, Territoires, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Thiverval-Grignon, France

Center of Applied Ecology and Sustainability (CAPES), Santiago, Chile
Correspondence
Meredith Root-Bernstein, AgroParisTech, Paris, France.

Email: mrootbernstein@gmail.com
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First published:

Abstract

1. Discussions of defaunation and taxon substitution have concentrated on megafaunal herbivores and carnivores, but mainly overlooked the particular ecological importance of megafaunal omnivores. In particular, the Homo spp. have been almost completely ignored in this context, despite the extinction of all but one hominin species present since the Plio-Pleistocene. Large omnivores have a particular set of ecological functions reflecting their foraging flexibility and the varied disturbances they create, functions that may maintain ecosystem stability and resilience. Here, we put the ecology of Homo sapiens in the context of comparative interspecific ecological roles and impacts, focusing on the large omnivore guild, as well as comparative intraspecific variation, focusing on hunter-gatherers.

2. We provide an overview of the functional traits of H. sapiens, which can be used to spontaneously provide the functions for currently ecologically extinct or endangered ecosystem processes. We consider the negative impacts of variations in H. sapiens phenotypic strategies, its possible status as an invasive species, and the potential to take advantage of its learning capacities to decouple negative and positive impacts.

3. We provide examples of how practices related to foraging, transhumance, and hunting could contribute to rewilding-inspired programs either drawing on hunter-gatherer baselines of H. sapiens, or as proxies for extinct or threatened large omnivores. We propose that a greater focus on intraspecific ecological variation and interspecific comparative ecology of H. sapiens can provide new avenues for conservation and ecological research.

1 INTRODUCTION

In this paper, we take the unusual position of talking about Homo sapiens in ecological terms in exactly the same way that an ecologist would talk about nonhuman species. We do so because we have observed that H. sapiens is systematically considered within the ecological literature as an exception to normal ecological processes. Specifically, ecologists use different terminology to write about H. sapiens, generating a unique set of hypotheses and predictions. Indeed, it is almost as though H. sapiens were not an animal (for an explicit statement of this see Ellis, 2015). One could engage in a philosophical debate about whether the unique things H. sapiens does eclipse and negate the ways in which it is an animal, ecologically speaking. However, we find this approach overly conceptual and, instead, adopt an empirical, data-based approach. There are already many ways of researching H. sapiens. We would like to contribute an additional, complementary, form of academic discourse about H. sapiens, centered modestly on the ecological processes in which H. sapiens may participate. Although we are not the first to make many of these points (see Bliege Bird & Nimmo, 2018; Castilla, 1999), this perspective remains challenging to address and develop.

Perhaps the most central and most challenging issue is addressing both interspecific and intraspecific considerations. We attempt this through a comparative framework (Figure 1). At the interspecific level, we present the argument that there is a large range of overlap between H. sapiens ecology and the ecology of nonhuman species, which allows us to discuss H. sapiens in ecological terms. Our challenge in this paper is to examine the ways in which H. sapiens can be a subject of ecological enquiry, while not antagonizing researchers who either believe (a) H. sapiens is incomparable to nonhuman species because it has proved itself to be evolutionarily unique and any discussion must give priority to all of these differences (primarily ecologists); or (b) H. sapiens is infinitely more variable and flexible than ecology is willing to account for, and any discussion must therefore consider all of these variations (primarily anthropologists). Indeed, within ecology there may be a tendency to give relatively little emphasis to intraspecific variation in reproductive life-histories, foraging strategies and diets, physiology, development, and social organization, such that the discovery of the importance of such variation is noteworthy and surprising (e.g., in animal ecology see Ford et al., 1997; Hebblewhite & Merrill, 2007, 2011). We also note that there is no equivalent general term within ecology and evolution comparable to the terms "lifeway," "livelihood," or "subsistence strategy," except possibly "phenotype," in the sense of the expression of genes and epigenetic factors, and their plastic interactions with the environment, including development and physiology, behaviors, and morphology. We will use the term phenotype in this broad sense (not limited to gene expression as morphology) in the rest of the paper (Jablonka & Lamb, 2007; Piersma & Van Gils, 2011; West-Eberhard, 1989). 2009; Montgomery et al., 2018; Putman & Flueck,

For the purposes of this paper, we deliberately generalize about H. sapiens in exactly the same way that ecologists generalize about nonhuman species. This is intended as a provocation: What happens, intellectually, to our understanding of H. sapiens ecology if we generalize in an ecological style, rather than particularizing in an anthropological style (see Gremillion, Barton, & Piperno, 2014)? Generalizing in an ecological style specifically does not mean that we are following in the footsteps of other ecologists, who claim about H. sapiens, for example, that their impacts on the environment are "not biological" (Ellis, 2015) and that the paleohistory of their impacts on the global environment constitutes a "single event" (Chase-Dunn & Lerro, 2013) without significant intraspecific variation in those impacts (Ellis, 2015). Indeed, our claim is that, far from being "romantic" or naive to view H. sapiens as an animal (Ellis, 2015), it is rather eminently scientific and rational: It is a removal of the anthropocentric exceptionalism bias and thus a claim to treat all data the same without prejudice. We hope to raise questions as to what forms of knowledge are made available to or occluded from ecological enquiry by treating species (or some species, but not others) at the intraspecific level as either uniform and phenotypically inflexible in their interactions with the environment, or vice versa, as so variable and flexible as to defy ecological generalizations about their interactions with the environment. We propose that valid ecological generalizations about all species would take into account both inter- and intraspecific variation.

We believe that taking a provocatively recentered view of H. sapiens ecology is important for at least two reasons: (a) A move away from an implicit position of human exceptionalism can help form new interdisciplinary connections based on commonalities between H. sapiens and nonhuman species across the life and environmental sciences; (b) the world can be different because it already is (Gibson-Graham, 2006): as suggested by this famous claim, recognizing hidden realities can open up new bases for future action-here, we are thinking specifically of sustainability and conservation approaches. To again cite Ellis ( 2015), only because it is exceptionally explicit, the orthodox ecological view is that H. sapiens is enacting its "single event" destiny, following a unidirectional path of cultural development without significant intraspecific variation in its ecological impacts, leading to global destruction. Though many ecologists repeatedly claim that if only we understood the relevant variables better we could engineer positive socio-ecological outcomes, one honestly has to ask whether their own reasoning provides any theoretical basis for their claim that the future can be radically different from all of the past (which they claim forms a single trajectory). Shifting the frame away from this exceptionalist discourse that denies significance to both interspecific comparison and intraspecific variation, toward an empirically based attention to the range of possible ecological roles and impacts of H. sapiens, opens up new theoretical grounds for practical conservation work.

We opened the paper by stating that we want to move from overly conceptual debates to empirical data, so why are we now calling for a critical shift in conceptualization? Our claim is that this shift will refocus how we attend to empirical data. A good example of how a shift in perspective can reveal unexpected empirical observations and new research directions is Bond and Keeley ( 2005). This review paper reframed fire as a type of herbivory, leading to novel insights about the role of fire in ecosystems and in interactions with (animal) herbivores, its "naturalness," and its role in evolution, with important impacts on the field of fire ecology. Another example comes from Marx's environmental writings (Foster, 1999). Marx had the insight, during the English soil fertility crisis of the mid-1800s, that the migration of peasants to urban industrial centers meant that nutrients were exported, as food, from agricultural lands to cities, and then not returned to the ecosystems of origin since urban human feces were channeled through sewage systems to the sea, leading to a gradual loss in soil fertility. This early reframing of agriculture, industrialization, and social change as nutrient dynamics contributed to Marx's critique of capitalism. More prosaically, Root-Bernstein and Svenning ( 2018) suggest that new approaches to managing overuse of nature tourism trails could emerge from refocusing this issue on the ecology of how and when H. sapiens and small mammal trails, which they demonstrate have similar effects, positively affect plant biodiversity.

Here, we consider a reframing of H. sapiens as an ecological actor through the lens of its potential roles in ecological restoration. We first discuss the ecological theoretical context in which we frame this discussion; we then consider the phenotypes and niches of H. sapiens, other Homo species, and large omnivores, and their possible ecological impacts. Finally, we consider some possible impacts of H. sapiens as a taxon substitute for the considered ecological impacts where they have been lost, and provide a general overview of approaches to doing so. This subject is so vast that we do not claim to have written a review paper; it is rather the outline for a giant interdisciplinary review project that could take years, if not decades.

2 CONTEXT OF ECOLOGICAL THEORY

Species extinctions are one of the most urgent conservation threats today. A large "extinction debt" is thought to already exist, with many species possibly fated to disappear (Kuussaari et al., 2009; Tilman, May, Lehman, & Nowak, 1994). Long before species entirely disappear, however, their ecological functions may go extinct (Janzen, 2001; Valiente-Banuet et al., 2015). The loss of ecological functions can result when a species is at too low a density or too few in number to significantly carry out an ecological process. In biodiverse ecosystems, multiple species with similar ecological roles are expected to be functionally redundant, acting as buffers so that environmental perturbations and ecological and/or evolutionary extinctions do not immediately impact the ecosystem (Tylianakis, Laliberté, Nielsen, & Bascompte, 2010). Nevertheless, many ecological communities eventually suffer "ecological downsizing" in which successively smaller species are extirpated or go extinct (Norkko, Villnas, Norkko, Valanko, & Pilditch, 2013; Pérez-Méndez, Jordano, & Valido, 2015). This defaunation contributes to degradation by altering the spatiotemporal patterns of many ecological processes (Bruun & Fritzbøger, 2002; Dirzo et al., 2014; Root-Bernstein et al., 2016). Contemporary defaunation is not the only baseline for restoration, however. Various baselines for defining a functioning ecosystem may be proposed, since the dramatic loss of species with key ecological roles has been ongoing since the late Pleistocene in many areas (Donlan et al., 2006; Martin, 1970). Loss of ecological functions due to Pleistocene extinctions may continue to affect current ecosystem dynamics (Gill, Williams, Jackson, Lininger, & Robinson, 2009; Guimarães, Galetti, & Jordano, 2008; Johnson, 2009; Martin, 1970; Rule et al., 2008).

At least two approaches exist to reverse ecological extinction. One is to reintroduce missing species to a sufficient population size that their ecological functions are restored (Seddon, Griffiths, Soorae, & Armstrong, 2014). However, when the extinct ecological functions were only carried out in a particular ecosystem by a species that is now evolutionary extinct, functionally equivalent species may be introduced to restore the ecological function, known as "taxon substitution" (Searcy, Rollins, & Shaffer, 2016). Rewilding has developed as one conservation and restoration approach that may use either reintroduction or taxon substitution to restore functions that underlie ecological processes (Lorimer et al., 2015; Root-Bernstein, Galetti, & Ladle, 2017; Svenning et al., 2015). Implicit in the rewilding approach is the goal or intention to establish self-managing ecosystems whose biodiversity and ecosystem processes are maintained spontaneously and endogenously by the species and abiotic elements in the ecosystem (Lorimer et al., 2015; Root-Bernstein et al., 2017; Svenning et al., 2015). Increasing recognition of ecological extinction, and attempts to reverse it through reintroductions and taxon substitutions, has contributed to a recent focus on functional ecology, and on the ecology of many extinct and endangered large and medium-sized mammals (Andriuzzi & Wall, 2018; Galetti, Pires, Brancalion, & Fernandez, 2017; Johnson et al., 2018; Naundrup & Svenning, 2015; Root-Bernstein & Svenning, 2016; Sanderson et al., 2008).

However, we observe a rather startling set of underdeveloped areas in this literature: What are or were the ecological roles of H. sapiens, its recently extinct congeneric clade members, and extant guild members (omnivores)? In what follows, we consider the phenotypes and ecological extinctions of these species, their functional ecology, and possible ecological impacts, and consider some approaches to restoring potentially missing ecological functions attributable to them.

3 THE PHENOTYPES AND ECOLOGICAL EXTINCTIONS OF HOMO SAPIENS, HOMININS, AND LARGE OMNIVORES

To develop our comparative framework, we first describe the phenotypes in the broad sense of H. sapiens, then those of the extinct species from the genus Homo, and finally those of other large omnivores that can be considered to form an ecological guild including H. sapiens.

The genus Homo includes one extant species ( Homo sapiens Linnaeus) listed globally as Least Concern (IUCN Red List, accessed 2014). Homo sapiens has the largest distribution of any terrestrial mammal, has populations in many protected areas, and is regulated under Appendix II of CITES as well as a number of species-specific international treaties and national laws. There is debate about its native status across its range, implications for which we discuss below. H. sapiens is megafaunal by some definitions, at >44 kg (Martin, 1984; Stuart, 1991). It is an omnivore, defined as acting as both a predator and an herbivore (Bonhommeau et al., 2013; Kratina, LeCraw, Ingram, & Anholt, 2012). Homo sapiens is also a habitat generalist that uses cultural innovations unusually extensively in the acquisition and processing of resources, and is notable for the exceptional magnitude and breadth of its niche constructing effects (Boivin et al., 2016; Burnside et al., 2012; Ellis, 2015; Rowley-Conwy & Layton, 2011; Sullivan, Bird, & Perry, 2017). Indeed, due to its extensive and pervasive role in many ecosystems Homo sapiens has been argued to be a "hyperkeystone" species (Worm & Paine, 2016).

Homo sapiens populations have at least two distinct phenotype clusters, not in the morphological sense, but in the broader sense of life-history strategies, foraging, diet and physiological strategies, and social organizations: the hunter-gatherer strategy and the agriculture strategy (Gremillion et al., 2014; Kelly, 1995). Here, we include pastoralism within agriculture (Diamond, 2002; Grigg, 1974), although some researchers consider this as a separate strategy. These two (or three) strategies form the extreme ends of a gradient, with agriculturalists often performing some hunting or gathering activities, and hunter-gatherers often performing some plant and animal tending (Harris, 2012). As we move toward the agriculture strategy, ecological interactions become, in general, limited to a smaller number of interacting species, higher intensity, more predictable (less flexible) in space and time, and involving a greater number of less flexible partitions in ecological roles between individuals, compared to a hunter-gatherer strategy within the same habitat (Gepts et al., 2012). Both strategies involve populations at low density engaged in a highly variable suite of disturbance activities, mutualisms, and ecosystem engineering/niche construction activities. The hunter-gatherer strategy, while varying widely, can be characterized by a common specialization of males as functional carnivores, while females remain functional omnivores, that is, they both hunt game and gather animal, plant, and fungal foods (Allendorf & Hard, 2009; Bleige Bird, Codding, & Bird, 2009; Estioko-Griffin, 1986; Kelly, 1995). Another way to describe this is that males tend to specialize in high-variance forms of foraging that result in unpredictable "windfall" harvests; this usually means hunting large mobile prey (Bleige Bird et al., 2009). The agriculturalist strategy, which emerged only in the last 10,000 years (Gremillion et al., 2014), generally also includes sex-based differentiation in ecological roles (though what the roles are varies), as well as individuals who, though they depend on agriculture sensu stricto for food, have facultative behavioral specializations that may not involve food production, and inhabit complex, ecosystem-engineered and constructed habitats at high population densities. Hunter-gatherer and agriculturalist H. sapiens often co-occur (Bharucha & Pretty, 2010).

Homo sapiens is well known to demonstrate significant phenotypic plasticity and environment-phenotype interactions (Collard & Wood, 2007; Gilbert & Epel, 2009; Ross, Moate, Marett, Cocks, & Hayes, 2013; Rowley-Conwy & Layton, 2011). All species have some combination, which varies across species, of fixed species-specific genetic control over the phenotype, and epigenetic and environmentally induced variation and plasticity (Gilbert, 2001; Tinbergen, 1989). For H. sapiens, there are debates over how this integration works (Hawkes & Coxworth, 2013; Jones, 2015; Kelly, 1995; Loo, Hawkes, & Kim, 2017; Marlowe, 2005; Svizzero & Tisdell, 2015). Though sometimes unproductive, due to the difficulty of distinguishing between the nature of the different influences on the phenotype in the broad sense, these debates put a particular emphasis on within-species variation, which, as we noted in the Introduction, is sometimes underappreciated in ecological studies of nonhuman species. The loss of phenotypic intraspecific variation-variation in foraging, diet and physiological strategies, social organization, and life-history strategies-is potentially just as important to ecological extinction as the loss of entire species (Booke, 1981; Brown, Agee, & Franklin, 2004; Jesmer et al., 2018). Within H. sapiens, the hunter-gatherer end of the life-history strategy gradient, with its many regional and local variants, is currently threatened with biocultural extinction (Rapport & Maffi, 2010).

Up to 15 hominins (the clade more closely related to Homo sapiens than to chimpanzees and bonobos) evolved and went extinct between the Plio-Pleistocene and the Holocene (Table 1; Wood, 2017; Wood & Lonergan, 2008; Wood & Richmond, 2000). We arbitrarily choose the Plio-Pleistocene here as our starting point. All known extinct hominins were likely to have been group-living omnivores, some of which coexisted, at least temporarily (Klein, 2005; Pickering, 2006). Although many snapshots of hominin species' diets in particular places and times are emerging (Blasco & Peris, 2012; Boschian & Saccà, 2015; Ferraro et al., 2013; Hardy & Moncel, 2011; Henry, Brooks, & Piperno, 2014; Macho, 2014), compared to living species, less is known about the ancient hominin niche and their phenotypes in the broad sense (Richards, 2002).

The guild of large omnivores shares (by definition) some niche and phenotype features with H. sapiens, including flexible and generalist feeding strategies, and a suite of disturbance and ecosystem engineering/niche construction behaviors, though at lower intensities and complexities than found in H. sapiens. We discuss specific examples of these below. Similarly to H. sapiens, other large omnivores are opportunistic foragers, targeting areas with nonmobile prey and hunting for mobile prey as they encounter it (Bastille-Rousseau, Fortin, Dussault, Courtois, & Ouellet, 2011; Kelly, 1995). There does not seem to be any literature on sex-based specialization in foraging strategies in large omnivores other than H. sapiens. We are also not aware of studies on intraspecific variation in phenotypic strategies in large omnivores, though this may be a lacuna in the data rather than a unique feature of H. sapiens.

Omnivores have a high proportion of historical extinction and contemporary threat, with one third (32%) of terrestrial Pleistocene/Holocene large omnivores extinct, and of those remaining, half (51%) classed as at least "vulnerable to extinction" (Table 2). Large omnivores are not present in all ecosystems, but they are widespread (Terradas & Penuelas, 2011; Thompson, Hemberg, Starzomski, & Shurin, 2007). Despite considerable attention and debate about the outcomes of top predator loss and megaherbivore defaunation (Ripple et al., 2014, 2015), there seem to be few equivalent field studies of the effects of defaunation on large omnivore loss, or the effects of large omnivore loss on ecological functioning.

Order

Family

Genus

Species

Terrestrial

Freshwater

Marine

Flying

Size (g)

Trophic Level

Mass (kg)

Diet

Density

Status

Note

Omnivores are listed in order of increasing mass. The columns "Terrestrial," "Marine," "Freshwater," "Flying," "Size," and "Trophic level" come from MammalDIET, while "Mass," "Diet," and "Density" come from PANtheria. While 2 indicates omnivory in the trophic level classification of MammalDIET, PANtheria lists the number of trophic levels eaten from under "Diet." "Status" refers to IUCN extinction risk status. Extinct species are shaded. Some animals that are typically considered not be omnivores are included here, such as hippopotamus; our table simply reflects the source databases.

We thus identify a set of interrelated underdeveloped areas in the literature on ecological extinction and defaunation. Next, we briefly consider evidence for the kinds of ecological functions and processes that may be missing: those of the omnivore guild where it experiences defaunation, of the Homo genus, and of the H. sapiens hunter-gatherer phenotype where it has been or is being lost. The historical presence of different H. sapiens phenotypes in the broad sense, hominins, and other large omnivore species varies with location and is not equivalent in all areas (Faurby & Svenning, 2015; Sandom, Faurby, Sandel, & Svenning, 2014). We argue that especially where they existed on longer time scales, their loss may have had ecological consequences that have been inadequately considered.

4 THE NICHES AND FUNCTIONAL ECOLOGY OF LARGE OMNIVORES, HOMININS, AND HOMO SAPIENS

Functional traits are phenotypic traits of organisms that enable and control the rates and distributions of ecosystem processes (Díaz et al., 2007). Functional ecology is the study of the links between species phenotypes and ecological processes. Research on animal functional traits is somewhat underdeveloped (Hortal et al., 2015); for example, there are no authoritative lists of animal functional traits and their relationship to ecosystem processes comparable to those existing for plants. However, animal functional traits are extremely interesting due to the many ecosystem processes that animals affect, through trophic and nontrophic interactions such as creating intermediate disturbances, herbivory, predation and associated cascading effects, or ecosystem engineering and niche construction (Vanni, 2002; Wall & Moore, 1999). Understanding the key functional traits and resulting ecological functions and spatiotemporal patterns that are lost to defaunation or extinction is thus critical to selecting the most ecologically equivalent proxy species, when the lost species itself cannot be reintroduced (Chalcraft & Resetarits, 2003; Searcy et al., 2016).

We first consider the ecological functions of omnivores, to provide a basis for ecological comparisons between the omnivore guild in general, and specific functions of Homo sapiens and the extinct species of the Homo genus.

Omnivores appear to have some distinctive ecological functions (Figure 2). Omnivores often maintain multiple weak links across trophic levels, which contribute to long-term persistence and resilience of food webs (Gellner & McCann, 2011; Kratina et al., 2012; Stouffer & Bascompte, 2010). Due to their ability to exploit spatially and temporally discrete resources, omnivores can damp resource pulses at both the primary and secondary trophic levels (Shaner & Macko, 2011; Visser, Mariani, & Pigolotti, 2012). For illustrative and comparative purposes, here we provide some specific examples of the ecological roles of selected large omnivores. Bears eat grasses, forbs, ferns, fruits, roots and tubers, insects, honey, birds, ungulates (particularly neonates), and mammal carrion, in different proportions across the year, and across habitats (Laurie & Seidensticker, 1977; Munro, Nielsen, Price, Stenhouse, & Boyce, 2006; Noyce, Kannowski, & Riggs, 1997; Servheen, 1983). Bears predate large as well as a range of medium-sized and small prey species (Stirling & Derocher, 1990). Pigs also eat fruits, seeds, invertebrates, eggs, reptiles, birds and mammals, carrion, roots, and grasses (Ghiglieri, Butynski, & Struhsaker, 1982; Leus & MacDonald, 1997; Skinner, Breytenbach, & Maberly, 1976). These represent some of the species, taxonomic groups, functional traits, or nutrient pools that these large omnivores may regulate. Omnivores also provide a range of ecological disturbances. While foraging, large omnivores may dig in the soil, overturn rocks, and help to break down fallen trees, affecting soil processes for example (Andriuzzi & Wall, 2018; Ghiglieri et al., 1982; Laurie & Seidensticker, 1977; Munro et al., 2006; Skinner et al., 1976). Sus scrofa is considered an ecosystem engineer due to the impacts of its extensive disturbances created during foraging (Barrios-Garcia & Ballari, 2012). Grizzly bear digging for lily bulbs has an ecosystem engineering effect increasing soil nitrogen and promoting the growth of lilies (Tardiff & Stanford, 1998). Black bears Ursus americanus and brown bears Ursus arctos in a wide range of habitats excavate dens, which provide an insulated microhabitat (LeCount, 1980; Miller, 1990). Grizzly bears and wild boar create nests from depressed vegetation (Barrios-Garcia & Ballari, 2012; Munro et al., 2006) affecting microhabitat structure, the microclimate, and potentially the accumulation of plant litter. Bears and pigs both scratch trees (Heinken, Schmidt, Oheimb, Kriebitzsch, & Ellenberg, 2006; Laurie & Seidensticker, 1977; Skinner et al., 1976), damaging the bark and providing a niche for molds and fungi, which may contribute to tree death and forest succession (Schmidt, 2006). Pigs may make and use trails (Blouch, 1988), which can affect plant and animal biodiversity and seed and nutrient dispersal patterns. Trails could also act as natural fire breaks, while foraging by digging in leaf litter and soil can reduce fuel loads: These functions will affect fire intensity and distribution and thus successional dynamics (Johnson et al., 2018). Both bears and pigs act as seed dispersers (Ghiglieri et al., 1982; Heinken et al., 2006; McConkey & Galetti, 1999). Large omnivores are also often habitat generalists, or inhabit habitat mosaics, and thus could be implicated in landscape mosaic dynamics (Munro et al., 2006; Saunders & Giles, 1995; Servheen, 1983). Large omnivores could also be important long-distance link species (Lundberg & Moberg, 2003); salmon-eating brown bears, for example, are a key link moving oceanic nutrients into terrestrial forests (Gende, Miller, & Hood, 2007; Holtgrieve, Schindler, & Jewett, 2009). Brown bears are adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions and thus may create ecological connections between distinct habitats through foraging and dispersal (Fergusen & McLoughlin, 2000). Wild boars flexibly adjust their home ranges depending on ecological conditions (Morelle et al., 2014). While bears tend to be solitary, pigs often form fission-fusion social structures (Ghiglieri et al., 1982). These social structures and territorial patterns will lead to different spatial distributions of ecological functions and processes.

Hominins, as large omnivores, almost certainly had similar ecological functions and characteristics. For example, they certainly varied in their trophic level, with Neanderthals obtaining most of their protein from larger herbivores, while comparable Homo sapiens populations in Europe ate a wider variety of smaller herbivores and fish (Richards & Trinkaus, 2009). Hominin trophic levels and diets also changed with location and time (Weyrich et al., 2017). During the Pleistocene, Homo spp. evolved a hunter-gatherer strategy concurrent with the evolution of cognitive and social adaptations for group hunting, meat and plant part processing, and food storage (Ungar, Grine, & Teaford, 2006). Gatherable, slow-maturing, overexploitable species such as tortoises and shellfish were supplemented, by the Pleistocene-Holocene transition, with hunting and trapping of fast-moving small game with rapid population growth, such as lagomorphs and small birds (Stiner, 2002). While bears hibernate and wild pigs dig for tubers to survive winter food shortages, Homo spp. in temperate climates may have primarily relied on hunting high-fat adult ungulates, a foraging tactic in some cases dominated by males as in contemporary Homo sapiens hunter-gatherers (Stiner, 2002). Kuhn et al. ( 2006) argue that this sex-based specialization in foraging emerged only around 50,000 years ago. Prior to this, hominins, including Neanderthals, appear to have lived in highly cooperative groups without clear specializations in foraging. The male specialization for hunting large prey, nevertheless, developed before the Late Pleistocene/early Holocene megafaunal extinctions in which it may have played a critical role (Sandom et al., 2014). Kuhn et al. ( 2006) also emphasize that even within modern H. sapiens societies with sex-based foraging specializations, foraging strategies are flexible, and roles are exchangeable between sexes under various circumstances, and may change over the lifetime of an individual. This intraspecific and indeed intra-individual variation is important to keep in mind and suggests that Homo spp. foraging strategies are not, on the whole, significantly different from those of other large omnivores. We can thus assume that the now-extinct hominins had comparable ecological functions and affected ecological processes in ways similar to those discussed above, for other omnivores.

Homo sapiens hunter-gatherers have roles in a wide range of ecosystem processes. Since a comprehensive review of H. sapiens hunter-gatherer ecological roles would include the entire fields of ethnography, human ecology, and archaeology, we do not claim to be exhaustive. However, it should be noted that not only do hunter-gatherers have many different kinds of ecological roles, there is a strong functional trait x environment interaction (Kelly, 1995), and also variation among the outcomes of all these different interactions, ranging from very positive to neutral to very negative outcomes, at various scales (see also next section). The hunter-gatherer phenotype (as well as along the gradient toward agricultural strategies) has many commensal and mutualistic species, which benefit from H. sapiens disturbances and niche construction (Diamond, 2002; Keller, 2007; Lundholm & Richardson, 2010). For some plants, H. sapiens appears to have emerged as a substitute mutualistic partner after the extinction of megafauna (Kistler et al., 2015). Homo sapiens gathering can create trophic cascades that favor increased biodiversity (Castilla, 1999). Comberti, Thornton, Echeverria, and Patternson ( 2015) have described as "services to ecosystems" a suite of ecological roles performed by H. sapiens in the Amazon, including coevolution, facilitation, seed dispersal, niche construction of aquatic or inundation-free sites, burning, soil improvement, and habitat creation for other species. Although there is more research on the ecological roles of H. sapiens than for the extinct species of the Homo genus or for the omnivore guild, this area of research is still patchy and not well integrated with standard ecological approaches.

In Table 3, we have attempted to summarize some key ecological processes contributed to by H. sapiens, and the functional traits of H. sapiens that support them. We approached the task of summarizing H. sapiens hunter-gatherer ecological functions and functional traits comparatively, by consulting papers on nonhuman animal functional traits, and indicatively, drawing on the literature on H. sapiens hunter-gatherers. While there is no morphological difference underlying the different ecological functions across agriculturalist and hunter-gatherer strategies, their functional traits nonetheless interact with the environment differently, given their phenotypes in the broad sense; we did not attempt to summarize agriculturalist ecological roles, which are not as a whole endangered (though of course many agricultural practices are in decline, such as transhumance; we do not wish to minimize the importance of the loss of traditional small-scale agricultural practice diversity, but it is, perhaps arbitrarily, outside the scope of this paper). We indicate functional traits for seed dispersal, soil formation and disturbance, interactions with fire, changes to the hydrological cycle and the nutrient cycle, population control of various taxa, and mutualisms affecting the ecological functions of other species. We can recognize at least three major kinds of ecological roles of H. sapiens that can have positive (biodiversity increasing) outcomes: niche construction/coevolution, facilitation/mutualism, and disturbance/predation.

Trait

Associated process

Type of process

Suggested measure

Indicative specific examples or review papers

Fruit-eating

Seed dispersal via endozoochory

Facilitation/mutualism

Gape width

Incisor length

Fruit-opening technology

Tree climbing height

Basket technology

Volume of basket relative to fruit, fruit load

Home range

Oswalt ( 1972)

Defecation microhabitat

Overlap with germination microhabitat

Hairiness

Seed dispersal via ectozoochory (epi-anthropochory)

Facilitation/mutualism

Height

Hair density

Hair length

Rantala ( 2010)

Clothing

Clothing material (adhesiveness)

Clothing area

Clothing height

Bee keeping

Pollination mutualisms

Facilitation/mutualism

Bee population

Bee-pollinated plant populations

Dale and Ashley ( 2010)

Fire technology

Fire regulation: area affected and intensity

Disturbance/predation

Type of technology

Home range (dispersal)

Frequency of use

Trail formation

Area, frequency, density

Johnson et al. ( 2018)

Digging in soil and litter

Area, frequency, density

Terra preta or trash heaps

Soil formation

Niche construction/coevolution

Rate of accumulation

Volume formed

Dams, canals, drainage

Hydrological cycling

Niche construction/coevolution

Associated practices and technologies

Williams et al. ( 2014)

Defecation microhabitat

Nutrient flux

Niche construction/coevolution

Habitat distribution of each

Burial microhabitat

Brandt ( 1988)

Trampling

Bioperturbation

Disturbance/predation

Area, frequency, density

Trail formation

Area, frequency, density

Digging in soil and litter

Area, frequency, density, digging tool technology

Hunting and gathering

Herbivore (bird, mammal, reptile, fish, mollusk, etc.) population control

Disturbance/predation

Hunting technology, species richness hunted, rate of kill

Body size

Running speed, endurance, limb length

Diet

Tooth morphology

Hunting and gathering

Carnivore (bird, mammal, fish, etc.) population control

Disturbance/predation

Hunting technology, species richness hunted, rate of kill

Body size

Running speed, limb length

Diet

Tooth morphology

Hunting and gathering

Arthropod control

Disturbance/predation

Diet

Scavenging

Disease and parasite lifecycle control

Niche construction/coevolution

Frequency

Time to clean carcass

Volume consumed

Tooth/tool morphology

Defecation microhabitat

Distance to food preparation, gathering

Distance to water

Medicinal ethnobotany

Number of species uses known

Elanchezhian, Kumar, Beena, and Suryanarayana ( 2007)

Planting

Plant community succession

Facilitation/mutualism

Species richness planted

Weeding

Species richness weeded

Clearing (swidden)

Frequency, area, density

Tool use

Association with "beater" birds or honeyguides

Feeding mutualisms or other mutualisms

Facilitation/mutualism

Frequency

Whelan, Wenny, and Marquis ( 2008)

Domestication

Frequency

Abundance

Larson et al. ( 2012)

Note

Some "traits" that Homo sapiens make or build are also included (cf. the "extended phenotype" or "constructed niche"). Quantitative measures are suggested wherever possible. "Control" may refer either to increase or decrease. The "indicative specific examples" column contains at least one example of a paper primarily from the ecology literature or a closely related literature, attending to this set of traits and/or the ecological processes it contributes to. There are obviously hundreds if not thousands of ethnographic examples for each category but it was beyond our capacity to cite all of these. For the types of processes, "niche construction/coevolution" refers to interactions linking biotic and abiotic processes, and feeding back to evolution; "facilitation/mutualism" refers to interactions that allow or increase ecological processes, and "disturbance/predation" refers to ecological processes characterized by destruction/conversion of biomass.

By contrast, the widespread, negative ecological impacts of the agriculturalist phenotype cluster, or specifically, the variant that is currently most abundant ("conventional agriculture"), are well known and abundantly researched. Negative impacts include reduction in coevolved ecological interactions, reduction in degree of H. sapiens omnivory, increases in environmental disturbances leading to degradation, and reduction in the frequency and extent of other agriculturalist strategies (at different points along the gradient) with lower risks of degradation impacts. Many of the existing ecological interactions within agricultural strategies, some of them involving coadaptations between species, are currently at risk of ecological extinction, leading to loss of agrobiodiversity (Gepts et al., 2012). Within H. sapiens, the emergence of agriculturalist populations and the increasing dominance of agriculture as a life-history strategy had the effect of exposing H. sapiens to acute and chronic malnutrition, resulting in a low mean trophic level, equivalent to a reduction in degree of omnivory (Benyshek & Watson, 2006; Pearson, 1997). The trophic level is now rising globally with the expansion and continued development of the agriculturalist H. sapiens constructed niche, notably the emergence of the so-called "conventional agriculture" strategy, which however comes at the cost of a regime of severe chronic and pulse disturbances and environmental degradation (Bonhommeau et al., 2013; Darimont, Fox, Bryan, & Reimchen, 2015; Pearson, 1997; Richards, 2002).

Various approaches to estimating the impact of H. sapiens on the global environment have been proposed (Ellis et al., 2013). A new era, the Anthropocene, has been proposed to indicate the period of H. sapiens' planetary impact, starting around 1945, but with important antecedents since the emergence of the Homo genus (Crutzen, 2002; Foley et al., 2013). These impacts are largely attributable to the more extreme end of the agriculturalist phenotype gradient, although significant debates are ongoing about the contribution and roles of other phenotype clusters along this gradient. While there is a tendency to view this as an irreversible and accelerating ecological/evolutionary transition toward unsustainable environmental destruction, various scholars have pointed out that variations in H. sapiens behaviors with different ecological impacts are still possible (Roelvink, St. Martin, & Gibson-Graham, 2015; Svizzero & Tisdell, 2015).

5 NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE IMPACTS OF REINTRODUCING SOME H. SAPIENS ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS

Restoration of the ecosystem functions discussed above, where they are missing, is broadly expected to have positive ecosystem impacts, although as with any restoration, reintroduction, or rewilding context, the scale and habitat specificity of the reinstated trophic and nontrophic interactions need to be carefully considered to ensure that negative impacts are avoided or minimized. The native status or temporal depth of large omnivore, hominin, and hunter-gatherer H. sapiens populations in different areas will play a part in determining the expected historical and future impacts of their ecological roles (Faurby & Svenning, 2015; Sandom et al., 2014). In many cases, restoration of ecosystem functions may be possible through improved species- and population-focused conservation actions or reintroductions. However, in the remainder of the paper we concentrate on another possibility that we think is promising where such traditional approaches fail or are not feasible, that of H. sapiens acting as a substitute for lost ecological functions.

Research on proxy species and taxon substitutes for various restoration scenarios to reverse defaunation, as discussed in the Section 2, has considered a wide range of candidate taxa, notably tortoises (Griffiths, Zuel, Jones, Ahamud, & Harris, 2013) and mammalian large fauna including horses and cattle (Naundrup & Svenning, 2015; Navarro & Pereira, 2015; Taylor, 2009; Sandom, Hughes, & Macdonald, 2012; Wilder et al., 2014). This approach has been criticized with the argument that proxy species introductions, like invasive species introductions, could reduce biodiversity, damage ecosystem and evolutionary processes, and put H. sapiens populations at risk (Nogues-Bravo, Simberloff, Rahbek, & Sanders, 2016; Rubenstein, Rubenstein, D, Sherman, & Gavin, 2006). There is no standard definition of invasive species, but generally they are considered to be species that are outside their native range, have a rapidly increasing population or have become widespread and abundant, and harm the ecosystem (Colautti & MacIsaac, 2004). This is particularly relevant for H. sapiens as a potential proxy species. Many ecologists are accustomed to consider only the negative ecological impacts of H. sapiens and will undoubtedly be skeptical that it can safely be used as a taxon substitute. Researchers in conservation, restoration, and rewilding commonly use significant H. sapiens impact as a baseline, and seek to restore to before that impact in many cases (Corlett, 2013; Jachowski, Kesler, Steen, & Walters, 2015; Svenning et al., 2015). Here, we consider whether H. sapiens is an invasive species, and whether its negative environmental impacts can be decoupled from its positive ecosystem functions. Essentially, this is another version of an argument about whether H. sapiens has significant intraspecific variation in its ecological impacts, and/or whether the most environmentally destructive forms of agriculturalist strategy are on an irreversible path to dominating the planet and the species (whether "things can be different because they already are," or not).

The effects of H. sapiens' activities on species and landscapes are widespread, profound, and historically old (Ellis et al., 2013). However, outside Africa and southern Eurasia, these impacts are recent in an evolutionary sense (≤50,000 years in Australia; ≤15,000 years in the Americas, and <1,000 years on New Zealand and many other islands; Sandom et al., 2014). Some definitions of invasiveness include the characteristic that the species range expansion is facilitated by H. sapiens (see e.g., Lee, 2002). By this definition, the original and all subsequent range expansions of H. sapiens from Africa were cases of invasion by self-facilitation. In addition, there are undoubtedly negative impacts of H. sapiens range expansions. As noted above, the dominant varieties of agriculturalist strategy are now causing widespread negative environmental impacts (often with a considerable lag time after the original range expansion and/or due to secondary range expansions) (Bonhommeau et al., 2013; Darimont et al., 2015; Pearson, 1997; Richards, 2002). But the hunter-gatherer phenotype can also have negative ecosystem impacts. Populations of hunter-gatherer H. sapiens have been implicated in the extinction of many other species, including megafauna, island species, and others (Grayson, 2001; Holdaway et al., 2014; Kay, 1994; Koch & Barnosky, 2006; Martin, 1984; Martin & Szuter, 1999; Sandom et al., 2014). The small-scale disturbances of hunter-gatherer H. sapiens may locally minimize biodiversity at certain spatiotemporal scales (Anthony, Marriner, & Morhange, 2014; Barlow, Gardner, Lees, Parry, & Peres, 2012; Bishop, Church, & Rowley-Conwy, 2015; Feurdean et al., 2012; Kuneš, Pokorný, & Šída, 2008; Muler et al., 2014). Homo sapiens' hunting and gathering of the largest individuals within species reduces the value of large size as a defense structure and has been suggested to reduce the genetic variation needed to evolve new defense strategies (Vermeij, 2012). These negative impacts can be enough to establish the invasive status of H. sapiens of both phenotypes throughout its range, with the sole exception of some African populations (which, without being invasive, may still have negative impacts). This constitutes a serious argument against using H. sapiens as a taxon substitute (compare Nogues-Bravo et al., 2013), if we assume that these negative impacts are the result of invariant and fundamental functional traits of H. sapiens.

However, an appealing aspect of using H. sapiens as a taxon substitute is the possibility to draw selectively on its functional traits, taking advantage of its learning capacities and phenotypic flexibility. H. sapiens obviously cannot learn to perform any ecological function that exists, but of those in Table 3, individuals may be able to learn many variants. The examples of ecological functions in Table 3 in many cases have positive impacts on environmental variables (see also Angelsen et al., 2014; Barrett, Lee, & McPeak, 2005; Bauch, Sills, & Pattanayak, 2014; Belcher, Ruíz-Pérez, & Achdiawan, 2005; Milder, Hart, Dobie, Minai, & Zaleski, 2014; Root-Bernstein & Svenning, 2018; Sunderlin et al., 2005; Wunder, Angelsen, & Belcher, 2014). Projects can facilitate trait-environment interactions of H. sapiens that do not tend toward degradation and species extinctions.

Of the three main kinds of ecological functions summarized in Table 3, disturbance/predation (removal of biomass) is perhaps the kind of ecological role most likely to be expected to have negative impacts. However, the intermediate disturbance hypothesis states that high intensities reduce biomass, productivity, and species richness, but medium intensities increase it (Shea, Roxburgh, & Rauscher, 2004). This seems to be generally the case across forms of biomass destruction that could be described as either disturbance or predation, whether in terms of gathering mollusks, grazing herbaceous plants, or destruction through fire or trampling (Root-Bernstein, 2013). Intensity of disturbance is notoriously difficult to measure (Shea et al., 2004). However, we estimate that medium intensities of disturbance may occur all across the gradient of hunter-gatherer to agricultural strategies, although the impacts of those intensities should vary with environmental conditions and the ecological context. Bleige Bird ( 2015) argues that landscape-scale intermediate disturbance may drive positive ecological feedbacks and may also lead to shifts along the phenotype strategy gradient. This perspective provides an argument for case-by-case analysis of the net environmental impacts of habitat-specific H. sapiens phenotypes. As we describe in the next section, with examples, given existing documentation of positive effects of H. sapiens ecological roles, we believe it is possible for H. sapiens to learn to perform specific ecosystem functions at adjustable and appropriate rates and densities (Armitage et al., 2009; Cundill, Cumming, Biggs, & Fabricius, 2011; Folk, Hahn, Olsson, & Norberg, 2005).

The history of domination by agriculturalist H. sapiens populations and the decline or disappearance of hunter-gatherers, other hominins and many large omnivores, may have contributed to a moving baseline effect that has blinded ecologists to the ecological effects of their functional extinctions (Anderson, Kelly, Ladley, Molloy, & Terry, 2011; Papworth, Rist, Coad, & Milner-Gulland, 2009). Further research on the spatiotemporal patterns resulting from the particular foraging tactics, trophic interactions, and disturbance regimes of extant and extinct large omnivores (including Homo spp.) and H. sapiens hunter-gatherers would help to develop more specific predictions about the possible impacts of their restoration where they are missing.

Finally, we provide a broad overview of approaches to using H. sapiens as a taxon substitute and the practical forms they might take. An "adaptive" approach assumes that a project has identified a contextual variation on the H. sapiens hunter-gatherer phenotype, or a specific set of functional roles, that once had, or are expected to have, a net positive environmental impact. Secondly, the "proxy" approach is a use of specific H. sapiens behaviors and capabilities to generate a functional proxy for one of the many extinct or endangered large omnivores, including extinct hominins, in regions where they have a deep history.

We emphasize that, in our view, the appropriate way to employ H. sapiens as a taxon substitute is to facilitate, with free prior informed consent and respecting human rights (Boyle & Anderson, 1996; UNESCO, 2010), the spontaneous emergence of a self-organizing sustainably functioning ecological system not requiring coercive management interventions by conservation managers or other outside actors. Self-determination, and the integrity of culturally acquired behaviors and information are key considerations (UNESCO, 2018). However, we do not mean that populations of H. sapiens must each reinvent these ideas for themselves. We believe there is a clear role for facilitation through training, capacity building, and adaptive learning, if there is free prior informed consent for the exchange of ideas and practices (Cundill et al., 2011; Worm & Paine, 2016). Training and teaching can be coercive and unjust even when intentions are good: It is thus a responsibility of any conservation biologists wishing to implement any of our suggestions here in any kind of community to work with social scientists or development/humanitarian/social work experts, along with community members, in the design of any form of facilitation, and to take into account how knowledge frames, values, and power are interrelated (Batterbury, 2018; Borrini, Kothari, Oviedo, & Oviedo, 2004; Infield, Entwistle, Anthem, Mugisha, & Phillips, 2018; Reid et al., 2016; Stripple & Bulkeley, 2015; UNESCO, 2018). Any programs implementing any of the ideas sketched out below should be based on best practice in noncoercive exchange of ideas with self-determining communities.

Homo sapiens could be employed as a proxy for many of the species we have focused on here (Table 3). While preserving the populations of endangered large omnivores is clearly a priority in its own right, in some cases it will not always be feasible to reintroduce them across their historical ranges, and proxies may be considered. Although H. sapiens spends time in freshwater and marine habitats, it is especially well adapted to a wide range of terrestrial habitats where the greatest losses of mega-omnivores have occurred; for this reason, we focus on terrestrial contexts. Equally, where hunter-gatherer groups still exist, the priority should go toward safeguarding or improving their own capacity to carry out ecological functions.

We discuss three examples that could be implemented either through a "proxy" or an "adaptive" approach as outlined above, including foraging, transhumance, and hunting. Our discussion focuses on the ecological aspects of these roles rather than the governance, political, economic, environmental justice, or socio-ecological issues, which are very important but have been extensively treated elsewhere.

Foraging of plant parts and mushrooms (and sedentary animals or life-history stages, e.g., eggs) is an activity present throughout the ranges of H. sapiens, the hominins, and other mega-omnivores, compatible with many baselines up to the present day.There are examples of foraging for plant parts or mushrooms leading to extinctions or species endangered status, but harvest for illegal globalized markets plays a role in all or most of these (Swarts & Dixon, 2009). Thus, we do not recommend encouraging foraging for products sold on to distant, unregulated, or black markets.

Ecological functions that H. sapiens can help to reintroduce through foraging include provision of intermediate disturbance (paths and trampling) promoting biodiversity and succession (Ejrnæs, 2015) and seed dispersal (Pires et al., 2014), as well as potential food web stabilization via generalist omnivory (see above). As always, these potential benefits to ecosystem processes are habitat and context dependent. In Australia, for example, native plants do not appear to recover from Homo sapiens trampling even after a year, with potentially negative habitat impacts (Mason, Newsome, Moore, & Admiraal, 2015).

Hunting remains a very common activity of H. sapiens whether or not its primary function is to supplement the diet. Hunting strategies adapt to ecological and environmental conditions (Alves, Mendonça, Confessor, Vieira, & Lopez, 2009; Berkes & Jolly, 2002; Byers & Broughton, 2004; Gell, 1996). Thus, the local ecological knowledge (LEK) of hunters is often important to developing scientific management plans (Tidemann & Gosler, 2012; Tori, McLeod, McKnight, Moorman, & Reid, 2002). On the other hand, unregulated and illegal hunting (poaching) is a scourge for many species and has led to many extinctions or expected extinctions (Dirzo et al., 2014). We would not advocate encouraging indiscriminate hunting of the largest prey species, a phenomenon that has led to defaunation and "ecological shrinkage" throughout the tropics (Abernethy, Coad, Taylor, Lee, & Maisels, 2013; Corlett, 2013; Hansen & Galetti, 2009). Darimont et al. ( 2015) show that all contemporary H. sapiens hunters combined (sport, market, and subsistence) disproportionately target adult animals, which can also skew prey populations. Darimont et al. ( 2015) recommend emulating other predators' hunting patterns as a form of management. Here, we add that emulation of omnivore hunting patterns could contribute to restoring the lost influences of extinct or threatened large omnivores.

Comobility of H. sapiens and large herbivores, which evolved into forms of domestication, pastoralism, and transhumance (Niven et al., 2012), is a possible proxy function representing a movement along the gradient away from agriculturalist life-histories. Many relationships between H. sapiens and large herbivores lie somewhere between transhumance and hunting, such as with wild vicuñas ( Vicugna vicugna) and guanacos ( Lama guanicoe), which are captured every couple of years and shorn for their wool before being released, a practice of the Inca that has recently been revived for sustainable exploitation (Bonacic, Feber, & Macdonald, 2006; Montes, Carmanchahi, Rey, & Funes, 2006). Reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus) provide another example of herded and exploited semi-wild large herbivores, with a number of forms of interaction with H. sapiens (Ingold, 1980). Large herbivore- H. sapiens comobility is increasingly under threat (Sayre, McAllister, Bestelmeyer, Moritz, & Turner, 2013). Long-distance migrations of wild megaherbivores are also threatened by land use changes (Ito et al., 2013). Restoring large-scale comobility could contribute to a number of ecosystem processes, such as seed dispersal (Poschlod & Bonn, 1998), and top-down vegetation control. Krader ( 1955) argues that nomadic pastoralism constitutes a nearly closed symbiosis, with for example the dung of the ungulates being collected to use for fuel, rather than returning to the soil. Thus, one approach to "rewilding" pastoralism to move toward spontaneous comobility might include returning a proportion of dung, carcasses, and so on, to the local detritivores, so that less biomass production is monopolized and diverted by H. sapiens (Krausman et al., 2013).

6 CONCLUSION

Ecologists increasingly recognize that H. sapiens has always been deeply enmeshed in ecological interactions. Despite widespread concern over the increasing negative environmental impacts of agriculturalist H. sapiens, almost no attention has been paid to the extinction of other ecological roles that this uniquely flexible species once played. Here, we have briefly considered the range of threatened or extinct functional roles of hunter-gatherers, extinct hominins, and large omnivores. Conservationists will notice that our practical suggestions for using H. sapiens as a taxon substitute to replace some of these functions align closely with many existing livelihoods, conservation practices, and emerging management approaches around the world. Our suggestions thus represent minor changes in practice, but major changes in perspective. Ignoring the potential roles of H. sapiens within restoration projects overlooks their ecological roles as omnivores, their many commensalisms, mutualisms, disturbances, and niche constructions that can favor other species, their abundance and widespread distribution, and their ability to learn. It also ignores that they have previously, over evolutionary time, taken over the ecological roles of extinct species and are thus capable of doing so in the future (Kistler et al., 2015). This does not mean, in our view, that H. sapiens could or should aim to simulate and replace all or any nonhuman species' roles (Cantrell, Martin, & Ellis, 2017): Our argument is based on phenotype/niche similarities within the large omnivore guild, and the possibility of otherwise irreversible ecological extinctions. Because H. sapiens is capable of high levels of population density, trophic control, competition, and disturbance, many ecologists see it as fundamentally unlike nonhuman species, and inherently damaging to the environment. Using our comparative frame, we have attempted to show that this is a limited and biased view. Future research on reducing H. sapiens environmental harms should attend to the conditions under which H. sapiens' negative environmental impacts can be successfully decoupled from important positive ecological roles.

We argue that H. sapiens is both a fully ecological subject, fully comparable to other species in its ecology, and an excellent example of intraspecies phenotypic variation and plasticity, influenced by a wide range of environmental, developmental, and learning and behavioral factors and processes. These should not be contradictory. A focus on the ecology of H. sapiens highlights the tension within ecology between variation and plasticity on the one hand, and global, conceptual patterns and evolutionary generalities on the other. This tension is not unique to H. sapiens ecology; it is increasingly evident as new observations of nongenetic, habitat-specific forms of adaptation, and ecological response to environmental change are accumulated in various biological and ecological disciplines. Perhaps thoughtful attention to the ways in which intraspecific variation and plasticity in H. sapiens can translate into species-level ecological generalities, but also to how to translate species-level ecological generalities into habitat and community-level particularities, would be a helpful meeting point for cross-disciplinary research.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

MR-B acknowledges funding from the Danish National Research Foundation Niels Bohr professorship project Aarhus University Research on the Anthropocene (AURA). Publication of this paper was supported by the Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity and by the Center of Applied Ecology and Sustainability (CAPES), CONICYT PIA/BASAL FB0002. Many thanks to Jens-Christian Svenning for helpful and critical contributions to this work, and for his contribution to Figure 2. We also thank several anonymous reviewers who provided interesting references and constructive comments.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

None declared.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

MR-B and RL conceived of the paper, MR-B wrote the paper, and RL edited it.

As this is a conceptual paper, there are no data to share beyond the reference list.

Abstract

1. Discussions of defaunation and taxon substitution have concentrated on megafaunal herbivores and carnivores, but mainly overlooked the particular ecological importance of megafaunal omnivores. In particular, the Homo spp. have been almost completely ignored in this context, despite the extinction of all but one hominin species present since the Plio-Pleistocene. Large omnivores have a particular set of ecological functions reflecting their foraging flexibility and the varied disturbances they create, functions that may maintain ecosystem stability and resilience. Here, we put the ecology of Homo sapiens in the context of comparative interspecific ecological roles and impacts, focusing on the large omnivore guild, as well as comparative intraspecific variation, focusing on hunter-gatherers.

2. We provide an overview of the functional traits of H. sapiens, which can be used to spontaneously provide the functions for currently ecologically extinct or endangered ecosystem processes. We consider the negative impacts of variations in H. sapiens phenotypic strategies, its possible status as an invasive species, and the potential to take advantage of its learning capacities to decouple negative and positive impacts.

3. We provide examples of how practices related to foraging, transhumance, and hunting could contribute to rewilding-inspired programs either drawing on hunter-gatherer baselines of H. sapiens, or as proxies for extinct or threatened large omnivores. We propose that a greater focus on intraspecific ecological variation and interspecific comparative ecology of H. sapiens can provide new avenues for conservation and ecological research.

1 INTRODUCTION

In this paper, we take the unusual position of talking about Homo sapiens in ecological terms in exactly the same way that an ecologist would talk about nonhuman species. We do so because we have observed that H. sapiens is systematically considered within the ecological literature as an exception to normal ecological processes. Specifically, ecologists use different terminology to write about H. sapiens, generating a unique set of hypotheses and predictions. Indeed, it is almost as though H. sapiens were not an animal (for an explicit statement of this see Ellis, 2015). One could engage in a philosophical debate about whether the unique things H. sapiens does eclipse and negate the ways in which it is an animal, ecologically speaking. However, we find this approach overly conceptual and, instead, adopt an empirical, data-based approach. There are already many ways of researching H. sapiens. We would like to contribute an additional, complementary, form of academic discourse about H. sapiens, centered modestly on the ecological processes in which H. sapiens may participate. Although we are not the first to make many of these points (see Bliege Bird & Nimmo, 2018; Castilla, 1999), this perspective remains challenging to address and develop.

Perhaps the most central and most challenging issue is addressing both interspecific and intraspecific considerations. We attempt this through a comparative framework (Figure 1). At the interspecific level, we present the argument that there is a large range of overlap between H. sapiens ecology and the ecology of nonhuman species, which allows us to discuss H. sapiens in ecological terms. Our challenge in this paper is to examine the ways in which H. sapiens can be a subject of ecological enquiry, while not antagonizing researchers who either believe (a) H. sapiens is incomparable to nonhuman species because it has proved itself to be evolutionarily unique and any discussion must give priority to all of these differences (primarily ecologists); or (b) H. sapiens is infinitely more variable and flexible than ecology is willing to account for, and any discussion must therefore consider all of these variations (primarily anthropologists). Indeed, within ecology there may be a tendency to give relatively little emphasis to intraspecific variation in reproductive life-histories, foraging strategies and diets, physiology, development, and social organization, such that the discovery of the importance of such variation is noteworthy and surprising (e.g., in animal ecology see Ford et al., 1997; Hebblewhite & Merrill, 2007, 2011). We also note that there is no equivalent general term within ecology and evolution comparable to the terms "lifeway," "livelihood," or "subsistence strategy," except possibly "phenotype," in the sense of the expression of genes and epigenetic factors, and their plastic interactions with the environment, including development and physiology, behaviors, and morphology. We will use the term phenotype in this broad sense (not limited to gene expression as morphology) in the rest of the paper (Jablonka & Lamb, 2007; Piersma & Van Gils, 2011; West-Eberhard, 1989). 2009; Montgomery et al., 2018; Putman & Flueck,

For the purposes of this paper, we deliberately generalize about H. sapiens in exactly the same way that ecologists generalize about nonhuman species. This is intended as a provocation: What happens, intellectually, to our understanding of H. sapiens ecology if we generalize in an ecological style, rather than particularizing in an anthropological style (see Gremillion, Barton, & Piperno, 2014)? Generalizing in an ecological style specifically does not mean that we are following in the footsteps of other ecologists, who claim about H. sapiens, for example, that their impacts on the environment are "not biological" (Ellis, 2015) and that the paleohistory of their impacts on the global environment constitutes a "single event" (Chase-Dunn & Lerro, 2013) without significant intraspecific variation in those impacts (Ellis, 2015). Indeed, our claim is that, far from being "romantic" or naive to view H. sapiens as an animal (Ellis, 2015), it is rather eminently scientific and rational: It is a removal of the anthropocentric exceptionalism bias and thus a claim to treat all data the same without prejudice. We hope to raise questions as to what forms of knowledge are made available to or occluded from ecological enquiry by treating species (or some species, but not others) at the intraspecific level as either uniform and phenotypically inflexible in their interactions with the environment, or vice versa, as so variable and flexible as to defy ecological generalizations about their interactions with the environment. We propose that valid ecological generalizations about all species would take into account both inter- and intraspecific variation.

We believe that taking a provocatively recentered view of H. sapiens ecology is important for at least two reasons: (a) A move away from an implicit position of human exceptionalism can help form new interdisciplinary connections based on commonalities between H. sapiens and nonhuman species across the life and environmental sciences; (b) the world can be different because it already is (Gibson-Graham, 2006): as suggested by this famous claim, recognizing hidden realities can open up new bases for future action-here, we are thinking specifically of sustainability and conservation approaches. To again cite Ellis ( 2015), only because it is exceptionally explicit, the orthodox ecological view is that H. sapiens is enacting its "single event" destiny, following a unidirectional path of cultural development without significant intraspecific variation in its ecological impacts, leading to global destruction. Though many ecologists repeatedly claim that if only we understood the relevant variables better we could engineer positive socio-ecological outcomes, one honestly has to ask whether their own reasoning provides any theoretical basis for their claim that the future can be radically different from all of the past (which they claim forms a single trajectory). Shifting the frame away from this exceptionalist discourse that denies significance to both interspecific comparison and intraspecific variation, toward an empirically based attention to the range of possible ecological roles and impacts of H. sapiens, opens up new theoretical grounds for practical conservation work.

We opened the paper by stating that we want to move from overly conceptual debates to empirical data, so why are we now calling for a critical shift in conceptualization? Our claim is that this shift will refocus how we attend to empirical data. A good example of how a shift in perspective can reveal unexpected empirical observations and new research directions is Bond and Keeley ( 2005). This review paper reframed fire as a type of herbivory, leading to novel insights about the role of fire in ecosystems and in interactions with (animal) herbivores, its "naturalness," and its role in evolution, with important impacts on the field of fire ecology. Another example comes from Marx's environmental writings (Foster, 1999). Marx had the insight, during the English soil fertility crisis of the mid-1800s, that the migration of peasants to urban industrial centers meant that nutrients were exported, as food, from agricultural lands to cities, and then not returned to the ecosystems of origin since urban human feces were channeled through sewage systems to the sea, leading to a gradual loss in soil fertility. This early reframing of agriculture, industrialization, and social change as nutrient dynamics contributed to Marx's critique of capitalism. More prosaically, Root-Bernstein and Svenning ( 2018) suggest that new approaches to managing overuse of nature tourism trails could emerge from refocusing this issue on the ecology of how and when H. sapiens and small mammal trails, which they demonstrate have similar effects, positively affect plant biodiversity.

Here, we consider a reframing of H. sapiens as an ecological actor through the lens of its potential roles in ecological restoration. We first discuss the ecological theoretical context in which we frame this discussion; we then consider the phenotypes and niches of H. sapiens, other Homo species, and large omnivores, and their possible ecological impacts. Finally, we consider some possible impacts of H. sapiens as a taxon substitute for the considered ecological impacts where they have been lost, and provide a general overview of approaches to doing so. This subject is so vast that we do not claim to have written a review paper; it is rather the outline for a giant interdisciplinary review project that could take years, if not decades.

2 CONTEXT OF ECOLOGICAL THEORY

Species extinctions are one of the most urgent conservation threats today. A large "extinction debt" is thought to already exist, with many species possibly fated to disappear (Kuussaari et al., 2009; Tilman, May, Lehman, & Nowak, 1994). Long before species entirely disappear, however, their ecological functions may go extinct (Janzen, 2001; Valiente-Banuet et al., 2015). The loss of ecological functions can result when a species is at too low a density or too few in number to significantly carry out an ecological process. In biodiverse ecosystems, multiple species with similar ecological roles are expected to be functionally redundant, acting as buffers so that environmental perturbations and ecological and/or evolutionary extinctions do not immediately impact the ecosystem (Tylianakis, Laliberté, Nielsen, & Bascompte, 2010). Nevertheless, many ecological communities eventually suffer "ecological downsizing" in which successively smaller species are extirpated or go extinct (Norkko, Villnas, Norkko, Valanko, & Pilditch, 2013; Pérez-Méndez, Jordano, & Valido, 2015). This defaunation contributes to degradation by altering the spatiotemporal patterns of many ecological processes (Bruun & Fritzbøger, 2002; Dirzo et al., 2014; Root-Bernstein et al., 2016). Contemporary defaunation is not the only baseline for restoration, however. Various baselines for defining a functioning ecosystem may be proposed, since the dramatic loss of species with key ecological roles has been ongoing since the late Pleistocene in many areas (Donlan et al., 2006; Martin, 1970). Loss of ecological functions due to Pleistocene extinctions may continue to affect current ecosystem dynamics (Gill, Williams, Jackson, Lininger, & Robinson, 2009; Guimarães, Galetti, & Jordano, 2008; Johnson, 2009; Martin, 1970; Rule et al., 2008).

At least two approaches exist to reverse ecological extinction. One is to reintroduce missing species to a sufficient population size that their ecological functions are restored (Seddon, Griffiths, Soorae, & Armstrong, 2014). However, when the extinct ecological functions were only carried out in a particular ecosystem by a species that is now evolutionary extinct, functionally equivalent species may be introduced to restore the ecological function, known as "taxon substitution" (Searcy, Rollins, & Shaffer, 2016). Rewilding has developed as one conservation and restoration approach that may use either reintroduction or taxon substitution to restore functions that underlie ecological processes (Lorimer et al., 2015; Root-Bernstein, Galetti, & Ladle, 2017; Svenning et al., 2015). Implicit in the rewilding approach is the goal or intention to establish self-managing ecosystems whose biodiversity and ecosystem processes are maintained spontaneously and endogenously by the species and abiotic elements in the ecosystem (Lorimer et al., 2015; Root-Bernstein et al., 2017; Svenning et al., 2015). Increasing recognition of ecological extinction, and attempts to reverse it through reintroductions and taxon substitutions, has contributed to a recent focus on functional ecology, and on the ecology of many extinct and endangered large and medium-sized mammals (Andriuzzi & Wall, 2018; Galetti, Pires, Brancalion, & Fernandez, 2017; Johnson et al., 2018; Naundrup & Svenning, 2015; Root-Bernstein & Svenning, 2016; Sanderson et al., 2008).

However, we observe a rather startling set of underdeveloped areas in this literature: What are or were the ecological roles of H. sapiens, its recently extinct congeneric clade members, and extant guild members (omnivores)? In what follows, we consider the phenotypes and ecological extinctions of these species, their functional ecology, and possible ecological impacts, and consider some approaches to restoring potentially missing ecological functions attributable to them.

3 THE PHENOTYPES AND ECOLOGICAL EXTINCTIONS OF HOMO SAPIENS, HOMININS, AND LARGE OMNIVORES

To develop our comparative framework, we first describe the phenotypes in the broad sense of H. sapiens, then those of the extinct species from the genus Homo, and finally those of other large omnivores that can be considered to form an ecological guild including H. sapiens.

The genus Homo includes one extant species ( Homo sapiens Linnaeus) listed globally as Least Concern (IUCN Red List, accessed 2014). Homo sapiens has the largest distribution of any terrestrial mammal, has populations in many protected areas, and is regulated under Appendix II of CITES as well as a number of species-specific international treaties and national laws. There is debate about its native status across its range, implications for which we discuss below. H. sapiens is megafaunal by some definitions, at >44 kg (Martin, 1984; Stuart, 1991). It is an omnivore, defined as acting as both a predator and an herbivore (Bonhommeau et al., 2013; Kratina, LeCraw, Ingram, & Anholt, 2012). Homo sapiens is also a habitat generalist that uses cultural innovations unusually extensively in the acquisition and processing of resources, and is notable for the exceptional magnitude and breadth of its niche constructing effects (Boivin et al., 2016; Burnside et al., 2012; Ellis, 2015; Rowley-Conwy & Layton, 2011; Sullivan, Bird, & Perry, 2017). Indeed, due to its extensive and pervasive role in many ecosystems Homo sapiens has been argued to be a "hyperkeystone" species (Worm & Paine, 2016).

Homo sapiens populations have at least two distinct phenotype clusters, not in the morphological sense, but in the broader sense of life-history strategies, foraging, diet and physiological strategies, and social organizations: the hunter-gatherer strategy and the agriculture strategy (Gremillion et al., 2014; Kelly, 1995). Here, we include pastoralism within agriculture (Diamond, 2002; Grigg, 1974), although some researchers consider this as a separate strategy. These two (or three) strategies form the extreme ends of a gradient, with agriculturalists often performing some hunting or gathering activities, and hunter-gatherers often performing some plant and animal tending (Harris, 2012). As we move toward the agriculture strategy, ecological interactions become, in general, limited to a smaller number of interacting species, higher intensity, more predictable (less flexible) in space and time, and involving a greater number of less flexible partitions in ecological roles between individuals, compared to a hunter-gatherer strategy within the same habitat (Gepts et al., 2012). Both strategies involve populations at low density engaged in a highly variable suite of disturbance activities, mutualisms, and ecosystem engineering/niche construction activities. The hunter-gatherer strategy, while varying widely, can be characterized by a common specialization of males as functional carnivores, while females remain functional omnivores, that is, they both hunt game and gather animal, plant, and fungal foods (Allendorf & Hard, 2009; Bleige Bird, Codding, & Bird, 2009; Estioko-Griffin, 1986; Kelly, 1995). Another way to describe this is that males tend to specialize in high-variance forms of foraging that result in unpredictable "windfall" harvests; this usually means hunting large mobile prey (Bleige Bird et al., 2009). The agriculturalist strategy, which emerged only in the last 10,000 years (Gremillion et al., 2014), generally also includes sex-based differentiation in ecological roles (though what the roles are varies), as well as individuals who, though they depend on agriculture sensu stricto for food, have facultative behavioral specializations that may not involve food production, and inhabit complex, ecosystem-engineered and constructed habitats at high population densities. Hunter-gatherer and agriculturalist H. sapiens often co-occur (Bharucha & Pretty, 2010).

Homo sapiens is well known to demonstrate significant phenotypic plasticity and environment-phenotype interactions (Collard & Wood, 2007; Gilbert & Epel, 2009; Ross, Moate, Marett, Cocks, & Hayes, 2013; Rowley-Conwy & Layton, 2011). All species have some combination, which varies across species, of fixed species-specific genetic control over the phenotype, and epigenetic and environmentally induced variation and plasticity (Gilbert, 2001; Tinbergen, 1989). For H. sapiens, there are debates over how this integration works (Hawkes & Coxworth, 2013; Jones, 2015; Kelly, 1995; Loo, Hawkes, & Kim, 2017; Marlowe, 2005; Svizzero & Tisdell, 2015). Though sometimes unproductive, due to the difficulty of distinguishing between the nature of the different influences on the phenotype in the broad sense, these debates put a particular emphasis on within-species variation, which, as we noted in the Introduction, is sometimes underappreciated in ecological studies of nonhuman species. The loss of phenotypic intraspecific variation-variation in foraging, diet and physiological strategies, social organization, and life-history strategies-is potentially just as important to ecological extinction as the loss of entire species (Booke, 1981; Brown, Agee, & Franklin, 2004; Jesmer et al., 2018). Within H. sapiens, the hunter-gatherer end of the life-history strategy gradient, with its many regional and local variants, is currently threatened with biocultural extinction (Rapport & Maffi, 2010).

Up to 15 hominins (the clade more closely related to Homo sapiens than to chimpanzees and bonobos) evolved and went extinct between the Plio-Pleistocene and the Holocene (Table 1; Wood, 2017; Wood & Lonergan, 2008; Wood & Richmond, 2000). We arbitrarily choose the Plio-Pleistocene here as our starting point. All known extinct hominins were likely to have been group-living omnivores, some of which coexisted, at least temporarily (Klein, 2005; Pickering, 2006). Although many snapshots of hominin species' diets in particular places and times are emerging (Blasco & Peris, 2012; Boschian & Saccà, 2015; Ferraro et al., 2013; Hardy & Moncel, 2011; Henry, Brooks, & Piperno, 2014; Macho, 2014), compared to living species, less is known about the ancient hominin niche and their phenotypes in the broad sense (Richards, 2002).

The guild of large omnivores shares (by definition) some niche and phenotype features with H. sapiens, including flexible and generalist feeding strategies, and a suite of disturbance and ecosystem engineering/niche construction behaviors, though at lower intensities and complexities than found in H. sapiens. We discuss specific examples of these below. Similarly to H. sapiens, other large omnivores are opportunistic foragers, targeting areas with nonmobile prey and hunting for mobile prey as they encounter it (Bastille-Rousseau, Fortin, Dussault, Courtois, & Ouellet, 2011; Kelly, 1995). There does not seem to be any literature on sex-based specialization in foraging strategies in large omnivores other than H. sapiens. We are also not aware of studies on intraspecific variation in phenotypic strategies in large omnivores, though this may be a lacuna in the data rather than a unique feature of H. sapiens.

Omnivores have a high proportion of historical extinction and contemporary threat, with one third (32%) of terrestrial Pleistocene/Holocene large omnivores extinct, and of those remaining, half (51%) classed as at least "vulnerable to extinction" (Table 2). Large omnivores are not present in all ecosystems, but they are widespread (Terradas & Penuelas, 2011; Thompson, Hemberg, Starzomski, & Shurin, 2007). Despite considerable attention and debate about the outcomes of top predator loss and megaherbivore defaunation (Ripple et al., 2014, 2015), there seem to be few equivalent field studies of the effects of defaunation on large omnivore loss, or the effects of large omnivore loss on ecological functioning.

Order

Family

Genus

Species

Terrestrial

Freshwater

Marine

Flying

Size (g)

Trophic Level

Mass (kg)

Diet

Density

Status

Note

Omnivores are listed in order of increasing mass. The columns "Terrestrial," "Marine," "Freshwater," "Flying," "Size," and "Trophic level" come from MammalDIET, while "Mass," "Diet," and "Density" come from PANtheria. While 2 indicates omnivory in the trophic level classification of MammalDIET, PANtheria lists the number of trophic levels eaten from under "Diet." "Status" refers to IUCN extinction risk status. Extinct species are shaded. Some animals that are typically considered not be omnivores are included here, such as hippopotamus; our table simply reflects the source databases.

We thus identify a set of interrelated underdeveloped areas in the literature on ecological extinction and defaunation. Next, we briefly consider evidence for the kinds of ecological functions and processes that may be missing: those of the omnivore guild where it experiences defaunation, of the Homo genus, and of the H. sapiens hunter-gatherer phenotype where it has been or is being lost. The historical presence of different H. sapiens phenotypes in the broad sense, hominins, and other large omnivore species varies with location and is not equivalent in all areas (Faurby & Svenning, 2015; Sandom, Faurby, Sandel, & Svenning, 2014). We argue that especially where they existed on longer time scales, their loss may have had ecological consequences that have been inadequately considered.

4 THE NICHES AND FUNCTIONAL ECOLOGY OF LARGE OMNIVORES, HOMININS, AND HOMO SAPIENS

Functional traits are phenotypic traits of organisms that enable and control the rates and distributions of ecosystem processes (Díaz et al., 2007). Functional ecology is the study of the links between species phenotypes and ecological processes. Research on animal functional traits is somewhat underdeveloped (Hortal et al., 2015); for example, there are no authoritative lists of animal functional traits and their relationship to ecosystem processes comparable to those existing for plants. However, animal functional traits are extremely interesting due to the many ecosystem processes that animals affect, through trophic and nontrophic interactions such as creating intermediate disturbances, herbivory, predation and associated cascading effects, or ecosystem engineering and niche construction (Vanni, 2002; Wall & Moore, 1999). Understanding the key functional traits and resulting ecological functions and spatiotemporal patterns that are lost to defaunation or extinction is thus critical to selecting the most ecologically equivalent proxy species, when the lost species itself cannot be reintroduced (Chalcraft & Resetarits, 2003; Searcy et al., 2016).

We first consider the ecological functions of omnivores, to provide a basis for ecological comparisons between the omnivore guild in general, and specific functions of Homo sapiens and the extinct species of the Homo genus.

Omnivores appear to have some distinctive ecological functions (Figure 2). Omnivores often maintain multiple weak links across trophic levels, which contribute to long-term persistence and resilience of food webs (Gellner & McCann, 2011; Kratina et al., 2012; Stouffer & Bascompte, 2010). Due to their ability to exploit spatially and temporally discrete resources, omnivores can damp resource pulses at both the primary and secondary trophic levels (Shaner & Macko, 2011; Visser, Mariani, & Pigolotti, 2012). For illustrative and comparative purposes, here we provide some specific examples of the ecological roles of selected large omnivores. Bears eat grasses, forbs, ferns, fruits, roots and tubers, insects, honey, birds, ungulates (particularly neonates), and mammal carrion, in different proportions across the year, and across habitats (Laurie & Seidensticker, 1977; Munro, Nielsen, Price, Stenhouse, & Boyce, 2006; Noyce, Kannowski, & Riggs, 1997; Servheen, 1983). Bears predate large as well as a range of medium-sized and small prey species (Stirling & Derocher, 1990). Pigs also eat fruits, seeds, invertebrates, eggs, reptiles, birds and mammals, carrion, roots, and grasses (Ghiglieri, Butynski, & Struhsaker, 1982; Leus & MacDonald, 1997; Skinner, Breytenbach, & Maberly, 1976). These represent some of the species, taxonomic groups, functional traits, or nutrient pools that these large omnivores may regulate. Omnivores also provide a range of ecological disturbances. While foraging, large omnivores may dig in the soil, overturn rocks, and help to break down fallen trees, affecting soil processes for example (Andriuzzi & Wall, 2018; Ghiglieri et al., 1982; Laurie & Seidensticker, 1977; Munro et al., 2006; Skinner et al., 1976). Sus scrofa is considered an ecosystem engineer due to the impacts of its extensive disturbances created during foraging (Barrios-Garcia & Ballari, 2012). Grizzly bear digging for lily bulbs has an ecosystem engineering effect increasing soil nitrogen and promoting the growth of lilies (Tardiff & Stanford, 1998). Black bears Ursus americanus and brown bears Ursus arctos in a wide range of habitats excavate dens, which provide an insulated microhabitat (LeCount, 1980; Miller, 1990). Grizzly bears and wild boar create nests from depressed vegetation (Barrios-Garcia & Ballari, 2012; Munro et al., 2006) affecting microhabitat structure, the microclimate, and potentially the accumulation of plant litter. Bears and pigs both scratch trees (Heinken, Schmidt, Oheimb, Kriebitzsch, & Ellenberg, 2006; Laurie & Seidensticker, 1977; Skinner et al., 1976), damaging the bark and providing a niche for molds and fungi, which may contribute to tree death and forest succession (Schmidt, 2006). Pigs may make and use trails (Blouch, 1988), which can affect plant and animal biodiversity and seed and nutrient dispersal patterns. Trails could also act as natural fire breaks, while foraging by digging in leaf litter and soil can reduce fuel loads: These functions will affect fire intensity and distribution and thus successional dynamics (Johnson et al., 2018). Both bears and pigs act as seed dispersers (Ghiglieri et al., 1982; Heinken et al., 2006; McConkey & Galetti, 1999). Large omnivores are also often habitat generalists, or inhabit habitat mosaics, and thus could be implicated in landscape mosaic dynamics (Munro et al., 2006; Saunders & Giles, 1995; Servheen, 1983). Large omnivores could also be important long-distance link species (Lundberg & Moberg, 2003); salmon-eating brown bears, for example, are a key link moving oceanic nutrients into terrestrial forests (Gende, Miller, & Hood, 2007; Holtgrieve, Schindler, & Jewett, 2009). Brown bears are adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions and thus may create ecological connections between distinct habitats through foraging and dispersal (Fergusen & McLoughlin, 2000). Wild boars flexibly adjust their home ranges depending on ecological conditions (Morelle et al., 2014). While bears tend to be solitary, pigs often form fission-fusion social structures (Ghiglieri et al., 1982). These social structures and territorial patterns will lead to different spatial distributions of ecological functions and processes.

Hominins, as large omnivores, almost certainly had similar ecological functions and characteristics. For example, they certainly varied in their trophic level, with Neanderthals obtaining most of their protein from larger herbivores, while comparable Homo sapiens populations in Europe ate a wider variety of smaller herbivores and fish (Richards & Trinkaus, 2009). Hominin trophic levels and diets also changed with location and time (Weyrich et al., 2017). During the Pleistocene, Homo spp. evolved a hunter-gatherer strategy concurrent with the evolution of cognitive and social adaptations for group hunting, meat and plant part processing, and food storage (Ungar, Grine, & Teaford, 2006). Gatherable, slow-maturing, overexploitable species such as tortoises and shellfish were supplemented, by the Pleistocene-Holocene transition, with hunting and trapping of fast-moving small game with rapid population growth, such as lagomorphs and small birds (Stiner, 2002). While bears hibernate and wild pigs dig for tubers to survive winter food shortages, Homo spp. in temperate climates may have primarily relied on hunting high-fat adult ungulates, a foraging tactic in some cases dominated by males as in contemporary Homo sapiens hunter-gatherers (Stiner, 2002). Kuhn et al. ( 2006) argue that this sex-based specialization in foraging emerged only around 50,000 years ago. Prior to this, hominins, including Neanderthals, appear to have lived in highly cooperative groups without clear specializations in foraging. The male specialization for hunting large prey, nevertheless, developed before the Late Pleistocene/early Holocene megafaunal extinctions in which it may have played a critical role (Sandom et al., 2014). Kuhn et al. ( 2006) also emphasize that even within modern H. sapiens societies with sex-based foraging specializations, foraging strategies are flexible, and roles are exchangeable between sexes under various circumstances, and may change over the lifetime of an individual. This intraspecific and indeed intra-individual variation is important to keep in mind and suggests that Homo spp. foraging strategies are not, on the whole, significantly different from those of other large omnivores. We can thus assume that the now-extinct hominins had comparable ecological functions and affected ecological processes in ways similar to those discussed above, for other omnivores.

Homo sapiens hunter-gatherers have roles in a wide range of ecosystem processes. Since a comprehensive review of H. sapiens hunter-gatherer ecological roles would include the entire fields of ethnography, human ecology, and archaeology, we do not claim to be exhaustive. However, it should be noted that not only do hunter-gatherers have many different kinds of ecological roles, there is a strong functional trait x environment interaction (Kelly, 1995), and also variation among the outcomes of all these different interactions, ranging from very positive to neutral to very negative outcomes, at various scales (see also next section). The hunter-gatherer phenotype (as well as along the gradient toward agricultural strategies) has many commensal and mutualistic species, which benefit from H. sapiens disturbances and niche construction (Diamond, 2002; Keller, 2007; Lundholm & Richardson, 2010). For some plants, H. sapiens appears to have emerged as a substitute mutualistic partner after the extinction of megafauna (Kistler et al., 2015). Homo sapiens gathering can create trophic cascades that favor increased biodiversity (Castilla, 1999). Comberti, Thornton, Echeverria, and Patternson ( 2015) have described as "services to ecosystems" a suite of ecological roles performed by H. sapiens in the Amazon, including coevolution, facilitation, seed dispersal, niche construction of aquatic or inundation-free sites, burning, soil improvement, and habitat creation for other species. Although there is more research on the ecological roles of H. sapiens than for the extinct species of the Homo genus or for the omnivore guild, this area of research is still patchy and not well integrated with standard ecological approaches.

In Table 3, we have attempted to summarize some key ecological processes contributed to by H. sapiens, and the functional traits of H. sapiens that support them. We approached the task of summarizing H. sapiens hunter-gatherer ecological functions and functional traits comparatively, by consulting papers on nonhuman animal functional traits, and indicatively, drawing on the literature on H. sapiens hunter-gatherers. While there is no morphological difference underlying the different ecological functions across agriculturalist and hunter-gatherer strategies, their functional traits nonetheless interact with the environment differently, given their phenotypes in the broad sense; we did not attempt to summarize agriculturalist ecological roles, which are not as a whole endangered (though of course many agricultural practices are in decline, such as transhumance; we do not wish to minimize the importance of the loss of traditional small-scale agricultural practice diversity, but it is, perhaps arbitrarily, outside the scope of this paper). We indicate functional traits for seed dispersal, soil formation and disturbance, interactions with fire, changes to the hydrological cycle and the nutrient cycle, population control of various taxa, and mutualisms affecting the ecological functions of other species. We can recognize at least three major kinds of ecological roles of H. sapiens that can have positive (biodiversity increasing) outcomes: niche construction/coevolution, facilitation/mutualism, and disturbance/predation.

Trait

Associated process

Type of process

Suggested measure

Indicative specific examples or review papers

Fruit-eating

Seed dispersal via endozoochory

Facilitation/mutualism

Gape width

Incisor length

Fruit-opening technology

Tree climbing height

Basket technology

Volume of basket relative to fruit, fruit load

Home range

Oswalt ( 1972)

Defecation microhabitat

Overlap with germination microhabitat

Hairiness

Seed dispersal via ectozoochory (epi-anthropochory)

Facilitation/mutualism

Height

Hair density

Hair length

Rantala ( 2010)

Clothing

Clothing material (adhesiveness)

Clothing area

Clothing height

Bee keeping

Pollination mutualisms

Facilitation/mutualism

Bee population

Bee-pollinated plant populations

Dale and Ashley ( 2010)

Fire technology

Fire regulation: area affected and intensity

Disturbance/predation

Type of technology

Home range (dispersal)

Frequency of use

Trail formation

Area, frequency, density

Johnson et al. ( 2018)

Digging in soil and litter

Area, frequency, density

Terra preta or trash heaps

Soil formation

Niche construction/coevolution

Rate of accumulation

Volume formed

Dams, canals, drainage

Hydrological cycling

Niche construction/coevolution

Associated practices and technologies

Williams et al. ( 2014)

Defecation microhabitat

Nutrient flux

Niche construction/coevolution

Habitat distribution of each

Burial microhabitat

Brandt ( 1988)

Trampling

Bioperturbation

Disturbance/predation

Area, frequency, density

Trail formation

Area, frequency, density

Digging in soil and litter

Area, frequency, density, digging tool technology

Hunting and gathering

Herbivore (bird, mammal, reptile, fish, mollusk, etc.) population control

Disturbance/predation

Hunting technology, species richness hunted, rate of kill

Body size

Running speed, endurance, limb length

Diet

Tooth morphology

Hunting and gathering

Carnivore (bird, mammal, fish, etc.) population control

Disturbance/predation

Hunting technology, species richness hunted, rate of kill

Body size

Running speed, limb length

Diet

Tooth morphology

Hunting and gathering

Arthropod control

Disturbance/predation

Diet

Scavenging

Disease and parasite lifecycle control

Niche construction/coevolution

Frequency

Time to clean carcass

Volume consumed

Tooth/tool morphology

Defecation microhabitat

Distance to food preparation, gathering

Distance to water

Medicinal ethnobotany

Number of species uses known

Elanchezhian, Kumar, Beena, and Suryanarayana ( 2007)

Planting

Plant community succession

Facilitation/mutualism

Species richness planted

Weeding

Species richness weeded

Clearing (swidden)

Frequency, area, density

Tool use

Association with "beater" birds or honeyguides

Feeding mutualisms or other mutualisms

Facilitation/mutualism

Frequency

Whelan, Wenny, and Marquis ( 2008)

Domestication

Frequency

Abundance

Larson et al. ( 2012)

Note

Some "traits" that Homo sapiens make or build are also included (cf. the "extended phenotype" or "constructed niche"). Quantitative measures are suggested wherever possible. "Control" may refer either to increase or decrease. The "indicative specific examples" column contains at least one example of a paper primarily from the ecology literature or a closely related literature, attending to this set of traits and/or the ecological processes it contributes to. There are obviously hundreds if not thousands of ethnographic examples for each category but it was beyond our capacity to cite all of these. For the types of processes, "niche construction/coevolution" refers to interactions linking biotic and abiotic processes, and feeding back to evolution; "facilitation/mutualism" refers to interactions that allow or increase ecological processes, and "disturbance/predation" refers to ecological processes characterized by destruction/conversion of biomass.

By contrast, the widespread, negative ecological impacts of the agriculturalist phenotype cluster, or specifically, the variant that is currently most abundant ("conventional agriculture"), are well known and abundantly researched. Negative impacts include reduction in coevolved ecological interactions, reduction in degree of H. sapiens omnivory, increases in environmental disturbances leading to degradation, and reduction in the frequency and extent of other agriculturalist strategies (at different points along the gradient) with lower risks of degradation impacts. Many of the existing ecological interactions within agricultural strategies, some of them involving coadaptations between species, are currently at risk of ecological extinction, leading to loss of agrobiodiversity (Gepts et al., 2012). Within H. sapiens, the emergence of agriculturalist populations and the increasing dominance of agriculture as a life-history strategy had the effect of exposing H. sapiens to acute and chronic malnutrition, resulting in a low mean trophic level, equivalent to a reduction in degree of omnivory (Benyshek & Watson, 2006; Pearson, 1997). The trophic level is now rising globally with the expansion and continued development of the agriculturalist H. sapiens constructed niche, notably the emergence of the so-called "conventional agriculture" strategy, which however comes at the cost of a regime of severe chronic and pulse disturbances and environmental degradation (Bonhommeau et al., 2013; Darimont, Fox, Bryan, & Reimchen, 2015; Pearson, 1997; Richards, 2002).

Various approaches to estimating the impact of H. sapiens on the global environment have been proposed (Ellis et al., 2013). A new era, the Anthropocene, has been proposed to indicate the period of H. sapiens' planetary impact, starting around 1945, but with important antecedents since the emergence of the Homo genus (Crutzen, 2002; Foley et al., 2013). These impacts are largely attributable to the more extreme end of the agriculturalist phenotype gradient, although significant debates are ongoing about the contribution and roles of other phenotype clusters along this gradient. While there is a tendency to view this as an irreversible and accelerating ecological/evolutionary transition toward unsustainable environmental destruction, various scholars have pointed out that variations in H. sapiens behaviors with different ecological impacts are still possible (Roelvink, St. Martin, & Gibson-Graham, 2015; Svizzero & Tisdell, 2015).

5 NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE IMPACTS OF REINTRODUCING SOME H. SAPIENS ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS

Restoration of the ecosystem functions discussed above, where they are missing, is broadly expected to have positive ecosystem impacts, although as with any restoration, reintroduction, or rewilding context, the scale and habitat specificity of the reinstated trophic and nontrophic interactions need to be carefully considered to ensure that negative impacts are avoided or minimized. The native status or temporal depth of large omnivore, hominin, and hunter-gatherer H. sapiens populations in different areas will play a part in determining the expected historical and future impacts of their ecological roles (Faurby & Svenning, 2015; Sandom et al., 2014). In many cases, restoration of ecosystem functions may be possible through improved species- and population-focused conservation actions or reintroductions. However, in the remainder of the paper we concentrate on another possibility that we think is promising where such traditional approaches fail or are not feasible, that of H. sapiens acting as a substitute for lost ecological functions.

Research on proxy species and taxon substitutes for various restoration scenarios to reverse defaunation, as discussed in the Section 2, has considered a wide range of candidate taxa, notably tortoises (Griffiths, Zuel, Jones, Ahamud, & Harris, 2013) and mammalian large fauna including horses and cattle (Naundrup & Svenning, 2015; Navarro & Pereira, 2015; Taylor, 2009; Sandom, Hughes, & Macdonald, 2012; Wilder et al., 2014). This approach has been criticized with the argument that proxy species introductions, like invasive species introductions, could reduce biodiversity, damage ecosystem and evolutionary processes, and put H. sapiens populations at risk (Nogues-Bravo, Simberloff, Rahbek, & Sanders, 2016; Rubenstein, Rubenstein, D, Sherman, & Gavin, 2006). There is no standard definition of invasive species, but generally they are considered to be species that are outside their native range, have a rapidly increasing population or have become widespread and abundant, and harm the ecosystem (Colautti & MacIsaac, 2004). This is particularly relevant for H. sapiens as a potential proxy species. Many ecologists are accustomed to consider only the negative ecological impacts of H. sapiens and will undoubtedly be skeptical that it can safely be used as a taxon substitute. Researchers in conservation, restoration, and rewilding commonly use significant H. sapiens impact as a baseline, and seek to restore to before that impact in many cases (Corlett, 2013; Jachowski, Kesler, Steen, & Walters, 2015; Svenning et al., 2015). Here, we consider whether H. sapiens is an invasive species, and whether its negative environmental impacts can be decoupled from its positive ecosystem functions. Essentially, this is another version of an argument about whether H. sapiens has significant intraspecific variation in its ecological impacts, and/or whether the most environmentally destructive forms of agriculturalist strategy are on an irreversible path to dominating the planet and the species (whether "things can be different because they already are," or not).

The effects of H. sapiens' activities on species and landscapes are widespread, profound, and historically old (Ellis et al., 2013). However, outside Africa and southern Eurasia, these impacts are recent in an evolutionary sense (≤50,000 years in Australia; ≤15,000 years in the Americas, and <1,000 years on New Zealand and many other islands; Sandom et al., 2014). Some definitions of invasiveness include the characteristic that the species range expansion is facilitated by H. sapiens (see e.g., Lee, 2002). By this definition, the original and all subsequent range expansions of H. sapiens from Africa were cases of invasion by self-facilitation. In addition, there are undoubtedly negative impacts of H. sapiens range expansions. As noted above, the dominant varieties of agriculturalist strategy are now causing widespread negative environmental impacts (often with a considerable lag time after the original range expansion and/or due to secondary range expansions) (Bonhommeau et al., 2013; Darimont et al., 2015; Pearson, 1997; Richards, 2002). But the hunter-gatherer phenotype can also have negative ecosystem impacts. Populations of hunter-gatherer H. sapiens have been implicated in the extinction of many other species, including megafauna, island species, and others (Grayson, 2001; Holdaway et al., 2014; Kay, 1994; Koch & Barnosky, 2006; Martin, 1984; Martin & Szuter, 1999; Sandom et al., 2014). The small-scale disturbances of hunter-gatherer H. sapiens may locally minimize biodiversity at certain spatiotemporal scales (Anthony, Marriner, & Morhange, 2014; Barlow, Gardner, Lees, Parry, & Peres, 2012; Bishop, Church, & Rowley-Conwy, 2015; Feurdean et al., 2012; Kuneš, Pokorný, & Šída, 2008; Muler et al., 2014). Homo sapiens' hunting and gathering of the largest individuals within species reduces the value of large size as a defense structure and has been suggested to reduce the genetic variation needed to evolve new defense strategies (Vermeij, 2012). These negative impacts can be enough to establish the invasive status of H. sapiens of both phenotypes throughout its range, with the sole exception of some African populations (which, without being invasive, may still have negative impacts). This constitutes a serious argument against using H. sapiens as a taxon substitute (compare Nogues-Bravo et al., 2013), if we assume that these negative impacts are the result of invariant and fundamental functional traits of H. sapiens.

However, an appealing aspect of using H. sapiens as a taxon substitute is the possibility to draw selectively on its functional traits, taking advantage of its learning capacities and phenotypic flexibility. H. sapiens obviously cannot learn to perform any ecological function that exists, but of those in Table 3, individuals may be able to learn many variants. The examples of ecological functions in Table 3 in many cases have positive impacts on environmental variables (see also Angelsen et al., 2014; Barrett, Lee, & McPeak, 2005; Bauch, Sills, & Pattanayak, 2014; Belcher, Ruíz-Pérez, & Achdiawan, 2005; Milder, Hart, Dobie, Minai, & Zaleski, 2014; Root-Bernstein & Svenning, 2018; Sunderlin et al., 2005; Wunder, Angelsen, & Belcher, 2014). Projects can facilitate trait-environment interactions of H. sapiens that do not tend toward degradation and species extinctions.

Of the three main kinds of ecological functions summarized in Table 3, disturbance/predation (removal of biomass) is perhaps the kind of ecological role most likely to be expected to have negative impacts. However, the intermediate disturbance hypothesis states that high intensities reduce biomass, productivity, and species richness, but medium intensities increase it (Shea, Roxburgh, & Rauscher, 2004). This seems to be generally the case across forms of biomass destruction that could be described as either disturbance or predation, whether in terms of gathering mollusks, grazing herbaceous plants, or destruction through fire or trampling (Root-Bernstein, 2013). Intensity of disturbance is notoriously difficult to measure (Shea et al., 2004). However, we estimate that medium intensities of disturbance may occur all across the gradient of hunter-gatherer to agricultural strategies, although the impacts of those intensities should vary with environmental conditions and the ecological context. Bleige Bird ( 2015) argues that landscape-scale intermediate disturbance may drive positive ecological feedbacks and may also lead to shifts along the phenotype strategy gradient. This perspective provides an argument for case-by-case analysis of the net environmental impacts of habitat-specific H. sapiens phenotypes. As we describe in the next section, with examples, given existing documentation of positive effects of H. sapiens ecological roles, we believe it is possible for H. sapiens to learn to perform specific ecosystem functions at adjustable and appropriate rates and densities (Armitage et al., 2009; Cundill, Cumming, Biggs, & Fabricius, 2011; Folk, Hahn, Olsson, & Norberg, 2005).

The history of domination by agriculturalist H. sapiens populations and the decline or disappearance of hunter-gatherers, other hominins and many large omnivores, may have contributed to a moving baseline effect that has blinded ecologists to the ecological effects of their functional extinctions (Anderson, Kelly, Ladley, Molloy, & Terry, 2011; Papworth, Rist, Coad, & Milner-Gulland, 2009). Further research on the spatiotemporal patterns resulting from the particular foraging tactics, trophic interactions, and disturbance regimes of extant and extinct large omnivores (including Homo spp.) and H. sapiens hunter-gatherers would help to develop more specific predictions about the possible impacts of their restoration where they are missing.

Finally, we provide a broad overview of approaches to using H. sapiens as a taxon substitute and the practical forms they might take. An "adaptive" approach assumes that a project has identified a contextual variation on the H. sapiens hunter-gatherer phenotype, or a specific set of functional roles, that once had, or are expected to have, a net positive environmental impact. Secondly, the "proxy" approach is a use of specific H. sapiens behaviors and capabilities to generate a functional proxy for one of the many extinct or endangered large omnivores, including extinct hominins, in regions where they have a deep history.

We emphasize that, in our view, the appropriate way to employ H. sapiens as a taxon substitute is to facilitate, with free prior informed consent and respecting human rights (Boyle & Anderson, 1996; UNESCO, 2010), the spontaneous emergence of a self-organizing sustainably functioning ecological system not requiring coercive management interventions by conservation managers or other outside actors. Self-determination, and the integrity of culturally acquired behaviors and information are key considerations (UNESCO, 2018). However, we do not mean that populations of H. sapiens must each reinvent these ideas for themselves. We believe there is a clear role for facilitation through training, capacity building, and adaptive learning, if there is free prior informed consent for the exchange of ideas and practices (Cundill et al., 2011; Worm & Paine, 2016). Training and teaching can be coercive and unjust even when intentions are good: It is thus a responsibility of any conservation biologists wishing to implement any of our suggestions here in any kind of community to work with social scientists or development/humanitarian/social work experts, along with community members, in the design of any form of facilitation, and to take into account how knowledge frames, values, and power are interrelated (Batterbury, 2018; Borrini, Kothari, Oviedo, & Oviedo, 2004; Infield, Entwistle, Anthem, Mugisha, & Phillips, 2018; Reid et al., 2016; Stripple & Bulkeley, 2015; UNESCO, 2018). Any programs implementing any of the ideas sketched out below should be based on best practice in noncoercive exchange of ideas with self-determining communities.

Homo sapiens could be employed as a proxy for many of the species we have focused on here (Table 3). While preserving the populations of endangered large omnivores is clearly a priority in its own right, in some cases it will not always be feasible to reintroduce them across their historical ranges, and proxies may be considered. Although H. sapiens spends time in freshwater and marine habitats, it is especially well adapted to a wide range of terrestrial habitats where the greatest losses of mega-omnivores have occurred; for this reason, we focus on terrestrial contexts. Equally, where hunter-gatherer groups still exist, the priority should go toward safeguarding or improving their own capacity to carry out ecological functions.

We discuss three examples that could be implemented either through a "proxy" or an "adaptive" approach as outlined above, including foraging, transhumance, and hunting. Our discussion focuses on the ecological aspects of these roles rather than the governance, political, economic, environmental justice, or socio-ecological issues, which are very important but have been extensively treated elsewhere.

Foraging of plant parts and mushrooms (and sedentary animals or life-history stages, e.g., eggs) is an activity present throughout the ranges of H. sapiens, the hominins, and other mega-omnivores, compatible with many baselines up to the present day.There are examples of foraging for plant parts or mushrooms leading to extinctions or species endangered status, but harvest for illegal globalized markets plays a role in all or most of these (Swarts & Dixon, 2009). Thus, we do not recommend encouraging foraging for products sold on to distant, unregulated, or black markets.

Ecological functions that H. sapiens can help to reintroduce through foraging include provision of intermediate disturbance (paths and trampling) promoting biodiversity and succession (Ejrnæs, 2015) and seed dispersal (Pires et al., 2014), as well as potential food web stabilization via generalist omnivory (see above). As always, these potential benefits to ecosystem processes are habitat and context dependent. In Australia, for example, native plants do not appear to recover from Homo sapiens trampling even after a year, with potentially negative habitat impacts (Mason, Newsome, Moore, & Admiraal, 2015).

Hunting remains a very common activity of H. sapiens whether or not its primary function is to supplement the diet. Hunting strategies adapt to ecological and environmental conditions (Alves, Mendonça, Confessor, Vieira, & Lopez, 2009; Berkes & Jolly, 2002; Byers & Broughton, 2004; Gell, 1996). Thus, the local ecological knowledge (LEK) of hunters is often important to developing scientific management plans (Tidemann & Gosler, 2012; Tori, McLeod, McKnight, Moorman, & Reid, 2002). On the other hand, unregulated and illegal hunting (poaching) is a scourge for many species and has led to many extinctions or expected extinctions (Dirzo et al., 2014). We would not advocate encouraging indiscriminate hunting of the largest prey species, a phenomenon that has led to defaunation and "ecological shrinkage" throughout the tropics (Abernethy, Coad, Taylor, Lee, & Maisels, 2013; Corlett, 2013; Hansen & Galetti, 2009). Darimont et al. ( 2015) show that all contemporary H. sapiens hunters combined (sport, market, and subsistence) disproportionately target adult animals, which can also skew prey populations. Darimont et al. ( 2015) recommend emulating other predators' hunting patterns as a form of management. Here, we add that emulation of omnivore hunting patterns could contribute to restoring the lost influences of extinct or threatened large omnivores.

Comobility of H. sapiens and large herbivores, which evolved into forms of domestication, pastoralism, and transhumance (Niven et al., 2012), is a possible proxy function representing a movement along the gradient away from agriculturalist life-histories. Many relationships between H. sapiens and large herbivores lie somewhere between transhumance and hunting, such as with wild vicuñas ( Vicugna vicugna) and guanacos ( Lama guanicoe), which are captured every couple of years and shorn for their wool before being released, a practice of the Inca that has recently been revived for sustainable exploitation (Bonacic, Feber, & Macdonald, 2006; Montes, Carmanchahi, Rey, & Funes, 2006). Reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus) provide another example of herded and exploited semi-wild large herbivores, with a number of forms of interaction with H. sapiens (Ingold, 1980). Large herbivore- H. sapiens comobility is increasingly under threat (Sayre, McAllister, Bestelmeyer, Moritz, & Turner, 2013). Long-distance migrations of wild megaherbivores are also threatened by land use changes (Ito et al., 2013). Restoring large-scale comobility could contribute to a number of ecosystem processes, such as seed dispersal (Poschlod & Bonn, 1998), and top-down vegetation control. Krader ( 1955) argues that nomadic pastoralism constitutes a nearly closed symbiosis, with for example the dung of the ungulates being collected to use for fuel, rather than returning to the soil. Thus, one approach to "rewilding" pastoralism to move toward spontaneous comobility might include returning a proportion of dung, carcasses, and so on, to the local detritivores, so that less biomass production is monopolized and diverted by H. sapiens (Krausman et al., 2013).

6 CONCLUSION

Ecologists increasingly recognize that H. sapiens has always been deeply enmeshed in ecological interactions. Despite widespread concern over the increasing negative environmental impacts of agriculturalist H. sapiens, almost no attention has been paid to the extinction of other ecological roles that this uniquely flexible species once played. Here, we have briefly considered the range of threatened or extinct functional roles of hunter-gatherers, extinct hominins, and large omnivores. Conservationists will notice that our practical suggestions for using H. sapiens as a taxon substitute to replace some of these functions align closely with many existing livelihoods, conservation practices, and emerging management approaches around the world. Our suggestions thus represent minor changes in practice, but major changes in perspective. Ignoring the potential roles of H. sapiens within restoration projects overlooks their ecological roles as omnivores, their many commensalisms, mutualisms, disturbances, and niche constructions that can favor other species, their abundance and widespread distribution, and their ability to learn. It also ignores that they have previously, over evolutionary time, taken over the ecological roles of extinct species and are thus capable of doing so in the future (Kistler et al., 2015). This does not mean, in our view, that H. sapiens could or should aim to simulate and replace all or any nonhuman species' roles (Cantrell, Martin, & Ellis, 2017): Our argument is based on phenotype/niche similarities within the large omnivore guild, and the possibility of otherwise irreversible ecological extinctions. Because H. sapiens is capable of high levels of population density, trophic control, competition, and disturbance, many ecologists see it as fundamentally unlike nonhuman species, and inherently damaging to the environment. Using our comparative frame, we have attempted to show that this is a limited and biased view. Future research on reducing H. sapiens environmental harms should attend to the conditions under which H. sapiens' negative environmental impacts can be successfully decoupled from important positive ecological roles.

We argue that H. sapiens is both a fully ecological subject, fully comparable to other species in its ecology, and an excellent example of intraspecies phenotypic variation and plasticity, influenced by a wide range of environmental, developmental, and learning and behavioral factors and processes. These should not be contradictory. A focus on the ecology of H. sapiens highlights the tension within ecology between variation and plasticity on the one hand, and global, conceptual patterns and evolutionary generalities on the other. This tension is not unique to H. sapiens ecology; it is increasingly evident as new observations of nongenetic, habitat-specific forms of adaptation, and ecological response to environmental change are accumulated in various biological and ecological disciplines. Perhaps thoughtful attention to the ways in which intraspecific variation and plasticity in H. sapiens can translate into species-level ecological generalities, but also to how to translate species-level ecological generalities into habitat and community-level particularities, would be a helpful meeting point for cross-disciplinary research.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

MR-B acknowledges funding from the Danish National Research Foundation Niels Bohr professorship project Aarhus University Research on the Anthropocene (AURA). Publication of this paper was supported by the Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity and by the Center of Applied Ecology and Sustainability (CAPES), CONICYT PIA/BASAL FB0002. Many thanks to Jens-Christian Svenning for helpful and critical contributions to this work, and for his contribution to Figure 2. We also thank several anonymous reviewers who provided interesting references and constructive comments.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

None declared.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

MR-B and RL conceived of the paper, MR-B wrote the paper, and RL edited it.

As this is a conceptual paper, there are no data to share beyond the reference list.

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Ecology of a widespread large omnivore, Homo sapiens, and its impacts on ecosystem processes

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Meredith Root-Bernstein , Richard Ladle , School of Science and Health, Federal University of Alagoas, Alagoas, Brazil School of Geography and the Environment, Oxford University, Oxford, UK Search for more papers by this author Corresponding Author Section for Ecoinformatics & Biodiversity, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity, Santiago, Chile UMR Sciences pour l'Action et le Développement, Activités, Produits, Territoires, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Thiverval-Grignon, France Center of Applied Ecology and Sustainability (CAPES), Santiago, Chile Correspondence Meredith Root-Bernstein, AgroParisTech, Paris, France.

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The Angel Gabriel in the forest of Central Chile (L'ange Gabriel dans la forêt du centre du Chili). Bibliographical reference of Meredith Root-Bernstein..

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Root-Bernstein, M. 2020. "L'ange Gabriel dans la forêt du centre du Chili", Special Issue "Forêt et paysage", Projets de Paysage, 22. https://journals.openedition.org/paysage/7613

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Root-Bernstein, M. 2020. "L'ange Gabriel dans la forêt du centre du Chili", Special Issue "Forêt et paysage", Projets de Paysage, 22. https://journals.openedition.org/paysage/7613

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1 Pour des raisons éthiques, les noms des lieux au Chili et de toutes les personnes citées ont été ch (...)

1La première fois que vous voyez la mine d'or de Kawellutuhue 1, vous êtes impressionné par l'énormité de la cascade de résidus. Lorsque je prenais des photos des montagnes, j'essayais toujours de les recadrer, comme si ce terril allait polluer les images. En tant que biologiste faisant de la recherche forestière, mon regard était attiré ailleurs. J'étais là, dans le centre du Chili, pour étudier les arbres endémiques (Root-Bernstein et al., 2017 ; Root-Bernstein et al., 2020). Avec mes collègues, nous voulions comprendre les associations entre les arbres, et comment l'histoire des incendies, du pâturage et de l'exploitation forestière avait influencé le processus de reformation des forêts.

2L'un des arbres que nous voulions y trouver était le cocotier chilien ( Jubaea chilensis), le seul palmier du Chili, aujourd'hui vulnérable et menacé d'extinction. C'est un palmier très élégant, avec un tronc robuste, lisse et gris. Nous avions entendu parler d'une trentaine de cocotiers chiliens, haut perchés dans les collines, sur l'immense propriété gérée par la mine pour ses activités de compensation écologique. Une fois arrivés sur place, nous avons été stupéfaits de découvrir des milliers de cocotiers chiliens dans la vallée du fleuve. Ils étaient alignés, formant des grilles faites de fils et de tubes en plastique (figure 1). Ces cocotiers avaient été plantés par la direction de la mine pour remplacer ceux qui avaient été détruits. Cette activité de compensation signifie que la mine doit réparer les dommages causés à l'environnement par la restauration des habitats ou la réintroduction d'espèces. On décide de choisir les habitats à créer ou les espèces à sauver dans une logique dite like for like : sur un pied d'égalité, ou sur une base de commensuration. Les mêmes espèces ou habitats qui ont été endommagés seront restaurés ailleurs. Mais lorsque nous avons vu ces cocotiers chiliens dans les plantations, nous nous sommes rendu compte qu'ils ne correspondaient pas aux cocotiers chiliens que nous recherchions. Nous n'avons pas pu obtenir d'eux les informations dont nous avions besoin. Ils étaient encore tous assez petits, chacun d'eux était exactement à 3 m de distance, et il y avait une irrigation au goutte-à-goutte, comme dans une plantation industrielle d'arbres fruitiers. En effet, comment pouvions-nous leur demander à quels sols ou espèces ils préféraient s'associer, qui mangerait leurs petites noix de coco et où ils seraient dispersés par la suite ? Comment pouvions-nous les interroger sur les processus environnementaux et multi-espèces de l'écoulement de l'eau, des personnes et des nutriments qui contribuaient à la formation d'une forêt ? Une plantation, formée par la logique de l'argent, pourrait-elle nous parler d'une forêt, passée ou future ? Elle nous semblait muette et inerte.

3Les graines de cocotiers chiliens circulent, dispersées par le bétail ou autrefois par les guanacos ( Lama guanicoe), pour s'installer dans les sols pauvres des montagnes de Kawellutuhue dont les roches granitiques sont associées à des sols pauvres, et aussi à des gisements d'or. Les Incas sont venus ici pour l'or, puis les Espagnols, et enfin les Canadiens. La mine d'or soutient une grande partie de l'économie locale. Il n'y a qu'une seule entrée possible par véhicule à Kawellutuhue. Sinon, vous pouvez traverser les montagnes à cheval. Il s'agit d'un endroit isolé dans la campagne décrit, de façon familière, comme étant un lieu por allí donde el diable perdió su poncho, " où le diable a perdu son poncho ", c'est-à-dire un lieu lointain. Mais, en fait, c'est à Kawellutuhue même que le diable a perdu son poncho, selon la légende. Un apiculteur et arriero (cow-boy chilien), Miguel, qui me donne des leçons d'équitation, me l'a expliqué. Mon cheval traîne derrière le sien dans la montagne et il me raconte l'histoire : " Le diable fuyait la guerre. Un moine l'a vu et a commencé à le fouetter avec sa ceinture. Le diable s'est enfui en direction de Pichipu, en passant par où se trouvent des cocotiers chiliens, et a continué jusqu'au village de Kura. Pendant qu'il courait, le poncho du diable s'est pris dans les branches et s'est défait. Il a couru jusqu'à ce qu'il ne lui reste plus qu'un collier. À Kura, le diable a rencontré l'ange Gabriel, qui l'a tué et l'a enterré sous la formation rocheuse appelée "Cimetière de pierres". " J'ai demandé à Miguel quand cette histoire s'était passée, et il m'a regardé comme si c'était la blague du siècle : " Le diable ne meurt pas ", a-t-il dit, le diable protège l'or (figure 2).

4Dans les montagnes, il existe un autre type d'installation minière, le réservoir de résidus de Fuñapu. Il s'agit d'un réservoir de la plus grande mine de cuivre du monde, El Teniente, dans les Andes. La Codelco, société minière nationale, a pris possession des 23 000 hectares de la ferme de Fuñapu en 1987. Elle a construit un pipeline en ciment sur la moitié de la largeur du Chili pour y acheminer les déchets toxiques. Un jour, j'ai assisté à une réunion d'anciens habitants de Fuñapu. Ils se souvenaient d'une vallée verdoyante, d'une vie paisible et traditionnelle, marquée par le partage et la solidarité entre voisins. Plus tard, Mme Loreto, appartenant à la Prodesal de Kawellutuhue (une agence gouvernementale qui soutient les petits agriculteurs) m'a relaté l'histoire d'une femme qui a dû quitter Fuñapu en 1987. Cette femme racontait à tout le monde que lorsqu'elle est arrivée à Kawellutuhue, elle n'avait rien d'autre au monde qu'une vache. Son lait était la seule ressource dont elle disposait pour nourrir ses enfants. Elle pleurait quand elle racontait cette histoire.

5À cause de la sécheresse, les vaches ne donnent plus de lait. Miguel, comme beaucoup de gens à Kawellutuhue, possède une trentaine de vaches et une dizaine de chevaux qu'il emmène dans les pâturages d'altitude. Il m'a expliqué que des années peuvent s'écouler sans qu'il ne voie tous ses animaux (figure 3). Lui et ses proches tuent un animal chaque année, pour partager la viande entre les membres de la famille. Avoir du bétail représente une forme de vie. Néanmoins, Prodesal veut encourager les petits agriculteurs de Kawellutuhue à laisser moins de bétail dans les montagnes, à investir davantage dans chaque vache, gardée en corral, pour les vendre à profit. Mme Loreto m'a expliqué que dans l'ancien système latifundiste, les " locataires " (similaires aux serfs) ne possédaient ni terres ni maisons. Ils étaient principalement payés en nature, achetant à crédit ce dont ils avaient besoin auprès du propriétaire. Le bétail était, et est toujours, la forme traditionnelle d'épargne ou de capital.

6Les forêts se sont remises lentement mais sûrement de perturbations majeures telles que l'exploitation forestière, l'agriculture et les incendies. Le bétail a même, en l'absence de guanacos, un rôle important à jouer dans ce processus. Je me doutais que la recherche du profit dans l'élevage pourrait changer tout cela. J'ai demandé à Miguel ce qu'il pensait du plan de Prodesal pour l'intensification et la production entrepreneuriales, s'il était meilleur pour la forêt et les gens. Miguel m'a regardée sournoisement de son cheval, comme si j'avais découvert l'un des secrets de cette partie du pays. " Personne ne le fera ", dit-il. - À quoi sert-il de toute façon ?, lui ai-je demandé. - C'est là que le diable entre en jeu ", a-t-il répondu.

7Dans ce texte expérimental, j'interroge mon propre sens de la confusion, face à un paysage forestier qui se transforme en quelque chose que je ne reconnais pas. En même temps, pendant le travail sur le terrain, j'ai été confrontée à une série de rencontres imprévues avec des personnes qui m'ont parlé de leurs relations avec le paysage et de leurs histoires de vie. Ici, j'essaie de montrer au lecteur à la fois comment cette série de surprises et de confusions s'est présentée, et comment j'en suis venue à les comprendre comme la clé de l'interprétation du paysage.

8M. de Alba regarde le réservoir d'eau à travers le pare-brise depuis notre position sur le côté de l'autoroute en haut de la colline. Je remarque qu'il y a beaucoup moins d'eau qu'en 2017 lors de mon passage précédent. Le vieil homme a l'air malheureux. Il regarde la vallée en dessous de nous : " Avant, tout ça était à moi ! " Je ne me souviens pas quand il m'a parlé en français et quand il m'a parlé en espagnol. Il fait un geste brusque indiquant toute la vallée, et les montagnes de l'autre côté. " Ils me l'ont volée. " C'est une référence à la réforme agraire, qui a commencé dans les années 1960, sous la présidence d'Eduardo Frei, et s'est poursuivie jusqu'au coup d'État de 1973. Je lui demande s'il a reçu une compensation pour cette expropriation. Il m'explique qu'il a été indemnisé avec un instrument monétaire... Je comprends qu'il s'agit d'une sorte d'obligation, qui a perdu toute sa valeur pendant l'inflation des années Allende. " Elles ne valent rien. 20 000 pesos [30 USD] peut-être. "

9La maison apparaît derrière les arbres. Dans l'entrée, il y a beaucoup d'objets anciens et de tableaux sur les murs. J'admire sa collection de chapeaux et de jouets - camions de pompiers, bulldozers, animaux en plomb. Mon regard s'arrête sur une grande photo en noir et blanc de deux personnes. L'une d'elle est assise et habillée comme un prince indien, l'autre, debout à côté de lui en tant que serviteur ou compagnon, est en costume européen du début des années 1900. " C'est mon père avec son ami, le fils d'un maharaja indien. Mon père m'a dit que le fils du maharaja est arrivé en France avec des sacs entiers d'émeraudes et de perles. Il les glissait dans les poches des filles lors des soirées. " Puis il m'a montré un autre cliché, moderne et plus petit. " Regardez, c'est Augusto Pinochet, qui prend du thé dans notre salon. " Je regarde. C'est bien Augusto Pinochet, le dictateur, ce visage que l'on n'oublie pas, vieux et au regard vide. " Ah oui, c'est Augusto Pinochet ", ai-je répondu, incapable de trouver autre chose à dire.

10M. de Alba me montre d'autres jouets de sa collection. Je m'exclame avec joie lorsque je découvre un très vieux nounours assis sur une chaise avec deux autres plus jeunes. Le nounours porte un pantalon. Le vieil homme me raconte que lorsque sa famille a quitté Paris en 1940, alors qu'il avait 4 ans, il avait oublié ce nounours. La bonne, trouvant le nounours dans la maison, s'est précipitée à leur poursuite jusqu'au port, et a pu lui donner le nounours au dernier moment. Je demande quel est son nom. Le vieil homme répond, confus : " Je ne me souviens pas... " Il me montre ses autres collections exposées dans la maison : des mixeurs de boissons, des boîtes d'allumettes, des briquets. " Comment tu t'appelles ? " demande-t-il au nounours, en passant devant lui. Le nounours reste impassible. Ils ont une communication implicite, antédiluvienne.

11Le déjeuner est servi dans le salon par sa bonne, qui est aussi son amante. Elle ne mange pas avec nous. À la fin de chaque service, M. de Alba sonne une cloche pour qu'elle vienne nous desservir. Pendant le repas, il me dit qu'il a grandi ici. À l'époque, quand il était jeune, on pouvait voir, tous les jours dans les collines, beaucoup de grands chats sauvages de la taille d'un jaguar, appelés pumas. Les collines étaient peuplées d'arbres de 20 à 30 mètres de haut, et la plaine était couverte d'acacias. Tout cela a disparu. Il me raconte une série d'anecdotes sur les circonstances dans lesquelles il a été arrêté pour des raisons absurdes, puis envoyé dans différents pays. Soudain, alors qu'il termine son poulet, le regard perplexe, il se plaint des Vénézuéliens et des Haïtiens qui vont perturber la pureté de la race chilienne " pour le dire ainsi ".

12Il est obsédé par la sécheresse. Il me dit qu'il ne peut pas dormir la nuit et il pense à la sécheresse, il pense que tout cela va s'arrêter. Il me dit que son voisin voulait vendre ses vaches, mais qu'elles étaient si maigres que personne ne voulait donner d'argent pour les acheter. Le voisin a dû les ramener du marché pour qu'elles meurent dans les collines. Ensuite, M. de Alba m'explique qu'il a acheté un ânon. Dès que l'âne sera sevré, il l'élèvera pour qu'il soit son animal de compagnie, comme un chien. Les ânes sont doux et intelligents. Il me montre le reste de la maison, dont les trois autres ailes sont tombées lors du tremblement de terre de 2010. Elles restent telles quelles. Le vieil homme revient sur le sujet de mon travail, de mes recherches et de mes projets de restauration de la forêt. " Excuse-moi, mais es-tu payée pour faire cela ? Je suis très intéressé ", me demande-t-il, avec une élégante impolitesse. J'explique que normalement je le suis. Il réfléchit un peu... : " Il faut que tu changes le monde. "

13Miguel me dit que, dans un passé récent, il y avait très peu d'argent liquide en circulation à Kawellutuhue. Si vous vouliez acheter des légumes à un marchand, vous pouviez les troquer contre un poulet ou une fourrure de renard. Avec les marchands locaux, on utilisait le fiado, système de crédit basé sur la confiance et l'honneur. Après cela, il y a eu les paiements bancaires par Internet. Aujourd'hui, il y a deux distributeurs automatiques de billets à Kawellutuhue, qui sont arrivés il y a 3 ans, devant le poste de police. Ils ont été mis en place pour que les mineurs et les travailleurs des plantations fruitières puissent être payés par virement bancaire automatique, mais ils peuvent aussi retirer de l'argent liquide, selon leurs besoins. Une façon d'éviter que les travailleurs ne soient agressés le jour de leur paie. Il existe toujours un système de fiado dans les petites entreprises de Kawellutuhue. Dans les supermarchés, à la caisse, il y a un carnet dans lequel sont notées les sommes d'argent que les clients connus doivent régler. En essayant de faire marcher mon cheval à côté de celui de Miguel, je lui raconte ce que David Graeber explique dans son livre Dette (2013) : comment le passage d'un système de crédit, tel que celui du fiado, à un système d'argent liquide, comme celui mis en place à cause des mines et des plantations de fruits, devient utile et courant dans le contexte d'un afflux d'inconnus (migrants, soldats, etc.). L'imposition d'un système monétaire est associée à la dette et à l'esclavage. Il apprécie l'analyse.

14Plus jeune, Miguel a quitté la région pour Santiago où il a travaillé comme chauffeur personnel de ce qu'il appelle " un couple de millionnaires ". Il avait une chambre dans la maison, tout comme le reste du personnel. Il devait toujours attendre que le mari soit de bonne humeur pour demander quelques jours de congé. Après dix ans de cette vie qui, selon lui, ressemblait à de l'esclavage, il a décidé de retourner à Kawellutuhue pour se consacrer à l'apiculture et à la petite agriculture.

15J'ai assisté au lancement d'un projet de restauration des forêts et des sols à Kawellutuhue, mis en place par la Corporación Nacional Forestal (Conaf) (une entité publique chargée de la conservation de la nature), avec l'argent du programme international Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (Redd +). Redd + est un programme de conservation de la nature et de contrôle des émissions de carbone dérivé de la convention-cadre des Nations unies sur les changements climatiques, établi en 2005 et rendu opérationnel en 2015. Selon le concept de Redd + les agriculteurs et les petits producteurs sont payés pour mettre en place, ou éviter, certaines pratiques visant à encourager le stockage du carbone dans la biomasse des arbres (Trumper et al., 2008). Don Fernando, chef de projet de la Conaf, montre certaines pratiques mises en œuvre pour la conservation des sols et de l'eau, par exemple des fosses et des clôtures tissées à partir de bâtons coupés sur place. La Conaf souhaite inclure ces techniques dans le système national de primes aux activités de conservation des sols. Le mot pour les primes est bonificación : rendre bon. C'est la première fois que j'entends ce terme en espagnol, et je pense à celui que je connais en italien, bonificare : faire du bien au sens précis d'assécher les zones humides afin de les rendre bonnes pour l'agriculture. Aujourd'hui, en Italie, on inverse la bonifica (séchage des zones humides), c'est-à-dire que l'on humidifie ces milieux pour recréer des zones humides. C'est toujours la même question : pour qui améliorons-nous ? Et pour quoi ?

16Je prends rendez-vous avec don Fernando, le chef de projet de la Conaf qui a présenté le projet financé par Redd + à Kawellutuhue, pour en savoir plus sur le projet. Il m'accueille dans son bureau à Santiago. Il m'explique que " l'économie rurale des petits producteurs est en fort déclin. La pratique de l'élevage extensif va bientôt devenir un mode ancestral. " De plus, l'élevage n'a pas sa place dans la conservation des forêts, selon la Conaf. Le bétail est un corps étranger dans la forêt. " Même si la forêt va brûler plus intensément sans pâturage pour débroussailler ? Même si les cocotiers chiliens, déjà menacés d'extinction, n'auront plus d'animaux dispersant leurs graines ? " Il hausse les épaules. " C'est une contradiction, dit-il, c'est un compromis. " La Conaf propose de primer ( bonificar) les paysans pour la cessation définitive de la pratique du pâturage au centre du Chili. Il est cependant nécessaire de maintenir les traditions de l' arriero ( cow-boy chilien), qui entrent dans la catégorie des " services écosystémiques culturels " qui peuvent être primés dans le cadre de Redd +. C'est pourquoi la Conaf prévoit de récompenser les paysans pour " faire l' arriero ", c'est-à-dire pour monter à cheval dans leurs tenues d' arriero et participer à des défilés. J'imagine Miguel disant : " Personne ne le fera. "

17Le modèle néolibéral promet de se libérer du passé, de le tuer. Nous devenons tous des acteurs économiques de la même manière : il n'y a plus de grands propriétaires fonciers ou des locataires-serfs, plus d'inégalité systémique d'exploitation. La folklorisation est donc un outil visant à rendre bon dans le sens où elle éradique du paysage rural la logique d'un système socioéconomique enraciné (figure 4). Selon l'analyse de Mayol et al. (2013) sur l'idéologie de l'inégalité au Chili, la pauvreté est considérée comme un problème lié au manque de caractère et à la mauvaise gestion de l'argent de la part des pauvres. La solution consiste donc à encourager l'esprit d'entrepreneuriat. Selon cette logique, lorsque nous saurons tous comment transformer chaque geste en un service, chaque cadeau en un produit, nous serons tous égaux.

Figure 4. La pauvreté dans le système latifundiste

Représentation des locataires pendant la réforme agraire, dans l'exposition des artistes céramistes chiliennes Marta Contreras et Gretel Cerda, " La réforme agraire. La mémoire réimaginée à partir de l'art populaire ", Museo Histórico Nacional, Santiago du Chili, 2017.

Source : Meredith Root-Bernstein.

18Evo est mon guide pour aller voir un pétroglyphe récemment découvert. Il a environ 20 ans. Il est guide touristique et enseigne également la survie en forêt. Il est en train de devenir professeur de yoga pour les enfants. Il me contacte sur Instagram. Dans son dernier post, il met une photo de lui faisant des exercices avec une pierre comme haltère dans un bois. Il commente : " Comment suis-je devenu si fort ? Juste les plantes et la nature, mes amis ! " Il a grandi, et vit toujours, dans le secteur rural créé grâce à l'expropriation de la propriété de M. de Alba. Pendant notre ascension, une marche de 5 heures, nous voyons de nombreux oiseaux et lézards, dont il connaît les noms. Il imite le chant de plusieurs oiseaux. Au sommet, nous rencontrons une famille de trois condors. Ils nous regardent droit dans les yeux quand nous passons. Nous trouvons le pétroglyphe, qui est magnifique. Nous ne savons pas qui l'a fabriqué ni quelle est sa signification, mais plus nous passons de temps près des images tracées dans la pierre, plus il semble puissant, même vivant.

19Evo commence à m'expliquer sa philosophie de la vie.

" Les gens sont malheureux. La règle est l' aparentar, c'est-à-dire le faire semblant. Nous pensons que le consumérisme nous rendra heureux. Les gens pensent que manger les rendra heureux. Ils pensent qu'ils seront heureux en regardant une vidéo sur Internet, alors qu'en réalité cela ne fait que produire des émissions de CO2. Les gens sont persuadés qu'ils ont besoin de beaucoup de choses, mais seule la connaissance de soi rend heureux. Je n'ai que le minimum, je choisis de dormir sur un tapis. "

20Pendant qu'il parle, je pense aux placards pleins d'ustensiles de cuisine jamais utilisés, aux jardins jonchés de détritus que j'ai vus au village. Il me dit, de façon didactique : " Imagine que tu perdes toutes tes affaires, comment te sentirais-tu ? - Triste " lui ai-je répondu. Il rit de mon matérialisme obstiné. Plus tard, il me demande : " Sais-tu comment la respiration nous relie au passé ? - Mmm, par le cycle du carbone ? - Non, c'est le fait que nous respirons de l'argon. L'argon est une substance qui n'interagit jamais avec rien. Il ne peut pas être affecté par quoi que ce soit. Donc, sur Terre, il n'est jamais liquide ou solide. Il ne peut pas changer. C'est toujours le même. " J'essaie de comprendre : " Ah ! L'argon est un gaz noble ? - Ah... Oui, dit-il, avec suspicion. " Puis, il poursuit : " L'argon que nous respirons est le même que celui que les dinosaures ont respiré ! - Oui, oui, c'est la même chose avec le carbone, vous savez, le carbone que nous exhalons était même un constituant des corps des dinosaures, des plantes, des microbes. Tout est recyclé ! " Mais je n'avais pas compris. " Non, c'est la respiration. Et le carbone n'est pas le même, les carbones ne sont pas les mêmes parce qu'ils interagissent. "

21Evo me guide pour s'amuser (je pense), mais Miguel me fait payer une petite somme pour nos balades à cheval : c'est une de ses activités d'entrepreneuriat. Il nous demande un tarif plus élevé - 25 000 pesos (30 dollars) par jour - pour nous guider, mes collègues et moi, dans sa camionnette, nous montrer les espèces d'arbres que nous recherchions et nous expliquer l'histoire de chaque site. Il sait comment trouver les cocotiers chiliens et divers autres arbres endémiques. Il connaît les animaux qui en mangent les fruits, les noms des fleurs, les positions des anciens champs de haricots et de blé, les endroits où l'on voit ou entend le diable, où il y a un chemin, où, par le passé, on trouvait de gros chats sauvages et de la neige.

22Avec Miguel nous nous vouvoyons. Mes collègues chiliens le tutoient, mais il évite de leur répondre directement. Il me vouvoie malgré le fait qu'il est clairement un peu plus âgé que moi. Je pense que ce vouvoiement me met dans la position d'une personne qui pourrait un jour lui faire une faveur en échange de petits services rendus. Je devrais donc le tutoyer, mais je continue à le vouvoyer pour résister obstinément à cette relation latifundiste. Un jour, alors que nous avions prévu de louer la camionnette de sa femme pour aller à la réserve nationale, nous sommes arrivés tôt le matin pour la récupérer, mais elle n'était pas encore prête et un phare devait être changé. Miguel s'approche de moi pendant l'opération de manière enjouée, il fait une remarque amusante. Il me tutoie. Nous partons, et je le salue en le tutoyant. Nous n'avions pas parlé du prix de la camionnette. Mes collègues et moi avons discuté du bon prix à lui proposer. Si une camionnette avec Miguel comme guide valait 25 000 pesos, logiquement une camionnette sans Miguel ne pourrait pas dépasser 5 000 pesos, car toute la connaissance de la forêt que Miguel partage avec nous doit valoir au moins 20 000 pesos par jour, ai-je argumenté. Cependant, louer une camionnette pour 5 000 pesos par jour est ridicule ; elle devrait valoir au moins 30 000 pesos. Mais si on faisait le calcul, cela signifie que la valeur ajoutée du service de guide naturaliste de Miguel valait -5 000 pesos.

23Les biologistes ont tendance à penser que l'économie n'entre pas dans le cadre de leurs recherches. Pourtant, à ce moment-là, je me suis dit que l'économie comme la mine s'inscrivaient bien dans ce cadre, que je le veuille ou non (figure 5). Je comprends l'économie comme une circulation de valeurs. Il semble que le monde d'avant était riche en valeurs différentes, plus dynamique, plus vivant, par rapport au monde d'aujourd'hui réduit à un état uniforme et inerte par la capacité de l'argent à rendre tout égal, à rendre tout bon (bon pour le bon entrepreneur). Mais si vous faites attention aux détails, vous voyez que cela n'est pas vrai. Le passé est inégal et exploiteur ; le présent et son avenir projeté sont bien moins égaux et uniformes que nous le pensons. Comme le montrent Mayol et al. (2013), l'argent n'est pas un grand niveleur qui rend tout et tous équivalents : le néolibéralisme n'a pas éradiqué le passé, il s'est accouplé avec la logique latifundiste et l'imagination chrétienne. Sa logique coexiste avec le fiado et le troc, le partage et les faveurs. Si Miguel ne nous a pas fixé un prix pour le camion à l'avance - ce qui est clairement une absence de bonnes pratiques entrepreneuriales - c'est parce que l'argent, ici, a été introduit dans une interaction sociale qui n'est pas, par nature, entrepreneuriale. Le format entrepreneurial s'y est infiltré à la fin, dans une sorte de confusion ou d'ambiguïté, un mélange instable qui illustre le paysage socioécologique à Kawellutuhue. En tant que chercheure étrangère, je suis à la fois une personne qui pourrait rendre de grandes faveurs - je suis connue, j'ai des obligations sociales, je suis fiable - mais aussi une personne faisant partie de ce grand flux d'inconnus qui viennent et qui disparaissent, attirés par tout ce qui change et se transforme, avec qui il faut donc établir des échanges monétaires en espèces. Notre bref tutoiement m'a montré qu'il existait des petits espaces physiques ou temporels où les inégalités n'entraient pas. Il y a toujours des interactions sociales, même brèves et relictuelles, qui ne sont ni entrepreneuriales ni latifundistes. Ces espaces sont comme de petits sanctuaires avec des vierges que Miguel nous a montrés, érigés sous les arbres ou dans de vieux fours à charbon, pour chasser le diable.

24C'est également la structure de la forêt que nous avons observée : les champs de blé placés dans la forêt aux xix e et xx e siècles ont été abandonnés en raison des changements socioéconomiques, notamment la réforme agraire et l'ouverture de la mine. Dans ces zones évacuées, les acacias puis d'autres arbres endémiques s'établissent lentement selon la façon dont les vents et les animaux portent leurs graines, formant un paysage en mosaïque. L'ensemble du système socioécologique forme une mosaïque de compositions et de pratiques.

25Cet essai est une histoire d'évasions, de fuites, d'abandons, de tentatives de libération et de purification. Tous ces allers et retours sont la forêt, tout comme la pollinisation des fleurs, la circulation de l'azote et la succession des arbres sont la forêt. Ces frictions et ces mécontentements, même s'ils sont en eux-mêmes problématiques, voire mauvais, sont aussi les moteurs générateurs qui permettront à la forêt de se transformer. Quand nous revenons avec la camionnette, Miguel propose 30 000 pesos. Nous le payons, c'est le plus facile. Nous ne nous tutoyons jamais plus.

26La légende ne le dit pas, mais j'imagine que si l'ange Gabriel a pu tuer le diable, c'est parce que son col de poncho était toujours emmêlé par un fil aux arbres parmi lesquels il a été capturé. Le diable a été piégé par son voyage à travers la forêt. Dans une plantation d'arbres relevant d'un dispositif de compensation écologique, on ne peut, bien sûr, pas attraper le diable par son poncho : il suffit de courir tout droit entre les rangées d'arbres espacées de 3 m pour éviter que son poncho ne se prenne dans les branches. Mais on peut peut-être le faire trébucher sur les fils et les tuyaux d'irrigation, comme un lapin dans un piège. C'est une petite tactique issue de la campagne que les paysans savent encore faire. Sera-t-elle primée ? J'en doute. Elle sera peut-être même illégale. Mais je suis sûr qu'elle survivra, antédiluvienne.

Je remercie chaleureusement tous mes interlocuteurs au Chili ainsi que Colin Hoag, Michèle Root-Bernstein et Georges Boissonnade pour leur lecture attentive.

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L'ange Gabriel dans la forêt du centre du Chili

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In this ethnographic essay, I explore how the forest in Central Chile is being transformed. Initially interested in the ecological processes that influence the recomposition of the forest after anthropogenic disturbances, I find that the forest becomes difficult to situate in the socio-economic landscape.

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INVOCATION FOR HOPE: A new commission by SUPERFLUX - Vienna Biennale for Change 2021. Bibliographical reference of Kristina Maurer.

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A MAK exhibition

In this immersive installation, commissioned by the MAK exclusively for the VIENNA BIENNALE FOR CHANGE 2021, Superflux transports visitors into a vision of a post-anthropocentric future no longer determined by humans alone.

In cooperation with the forestry office and fire department of Austria's Neunkirchen region, the designers are bringing 500 trees recently burnt in a forest fire into the MAK. As visitors walk through the burnt and blackened forest of trees, they notice how their skeletal remains gracefully return their fertility to the earth around them. On arriving at a clearing, a glistening pool invites visitors to observe their reflections in the water, alongside those of many other species on the planet.

This evocative installation provides an opportunity to reflect on our fragile, closely networked relationship with the natural world-an opportunity to imagine strategies that go beyond merely human concerns, based on regeneration, redistribution, and rewilding.

The project is so designed that all the installation's components will have an afterlife to neutralize its CO2 footprint.

Artists: Superflux
Curator: Marlies Wirth
Curatorial Assistence: Antje Prisker

A project by Superflux
Head: Anab Jain, Jon Ardern
Team: Ed Lewis, Florian Semlitsch, Niccolo Fioritti, Eva Tausig, Lizzie Crouch, Leanne Fischler, Nicola Ferrao, Matt Edgson
Soundscape: Cosmo Sheldrake
Motion Design: Michele Vannoni and Dimitris Papadimitriou

This project is part of CreaTures EU. CreaTures has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement no. 870759. The content presented represents the views of the authors, and the European Commission has no liability in respect of the content.

Cooperation Partners:
Anton Starkl, Gärtnerei Starkl GmbH
SANlight Research GmbH
Doka Österreich GmbH
Paletten Winter GmbH
Alpenzoo Innsbruck - Tirol
Thomas Krenn, Saubersdorf Fire Department
Georg Heinz, Neunkirchen District Forest Range

Color consulting:
Prof. Christoph Wirth, SEFRA Farben & Tapetenvertrieb GMBH

MAK Exhibition Hall (ground floor, Central Hall)
MAK - Museum of Applied Arts, Stubenring 5, 1010 Wien

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INVOCATION FOR HOPE: A new commission by SUPERFLUX - Vienna Biennale for Change 2021

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A MAK exhibition In this immersive installation, commissioned by the MAK exclusively for the VIENNA BIENNALE FOR CHANGE 2021, Superflux transports visitors into a vision of a post-anthropocentric future no longer determined by humans alone. In cooperation with the forestry office and fire department of Austria's Neunkirchen region, the designers are bringing 500 trees recently burnt in a forest fire into the MAK.

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The Overstory by Richard Powers. Bibliographical reference of Kristina Maurer.

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This book is written for you. It honors all those, like your family, who, despite terrible pressures and violence stood up for, stand up for the treesThis book is written for you. It honors all those, like your family, who, despite terrible pressures and violence stood up for, stand up for the trees - which is standing up for life itself. Thank you for the profound way your family has chosen to live. You give us life by doing so. Deena Metzger...more (less)

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This book is written for you. It honors all those, like your family, who, despite terrible pressures and violence stood up for, stand up for the treesThis book is written for you. It honors all those, like your family, who, despite terrible pressures and violence stood up for, stand up for the trees - which is standing up for life itself.

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Critical Zones – The Science and Politics of Landing on Earth. Bibliographical references of Kristina Maurer.

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The Science and Politics of Landing on Earth

Edited by Bruno Latour and Peter Weibel

Artists and writers portray the disorientation of a world facing climate change.

Summary

Artists and writers portray the disorientation of a world facing climate change.
This monumental volume, drawn from a 2020 exhibition at the ZKM Center for Art and Media, portrays the disorientation of life in a world facing climate change. It traces this disorientation to the disconnection between two different definitions of the land on which modern humans live: the sovereign nation from which they derive their rights, and another one, hidden, from which they gain their wealth-the land they live on, and the land they live from. Charting the land they will inhabit, they find not a globe, not the iconic "blue marble," but a series of critical zones-patchy, heterogenous, discontinuous.

With short texts, longer essays, and more than 500 illustrations, the contributors explore the new landscape on which it may be possible for humans to land-what it means to be "on Earth," whether the critical zone, the Gaia, or the terrestrial. They consider geopolitical conflicts and tools redesigned for the new "geopolitics of life forms." The "thought exhibition" described in this book opens a fictional space to explore the new climate regime; the rest of the story is unknown.
Contributors include
Dipesh Chakrabarty, Pierre Charbonnier, Emanuele Coccia, Vinciane Despret, Jerôme Gaillarde, Donna Haraway, Joseph Leo Koerner, Timothy Lenton, Richard Powers, Simon Schaffer, Isabelle Stengers, Bronislaw Szerszynski, Jan A. Zalasiewicz, Siegfried Zielinski

Copublished with ZKM | Center for Art and Media Karlsruhe

Hardcover

$70.00 T ISBN: 9780262044455 560 pp. | 8.5 in x 12.5 in 500 color illus.

Editors

Bruno Latour

Bruno Latour, a philosopher and anthropologist, is the author of We Have Never Been Modern, An Inquiry into Modes of Existence, Facing Gaia, Down to Earth, and many other books. He coedited (with Peter Weibel) the previous ZKM volumes Making Things Public, ICONOCLASH, and Reset Modernity! (all published by the MIT Press).

Peter Weibel

Peter Weibel is Chairman and CEO of ZKM | Center for Art and Media Karlsruhe. He is the editor or coeditor of other ZKM volumes including ICONOCLASH, Making Things Public, Sound Art, Global Activism, and Critical Zones (all published by the MIT Press).

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Artists and writers portray the disorientation of a world facing climate change.This monumental volume, drawn from a 2020 exhibition at the ZKM Center for Art and Media, portrays the disorientation of life in a world facing climate change.

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Bibliographical reference of Teresa Garnatje.

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Supporting the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation

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I am a field ecologist by training, and in that capacity I research ecosystem engineering (how species affect their environments), plant-animal interactions, rewilding and conservation. My art practice also asks how landscapes are formed, and through what processes we come to know and (re-)construct the world.
globalenvironments.org/meredith-root-bernstein
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FIELDWORK Q&A - April 2020

What interests you about fieldwork in artistic and/or geographic practice?
For me, the process of observation is very important. In my practice, observation of the natural world (including the social world) is the basis of any kind of understanding, both general and particular, both theoretical and applied, art and science. I am interested in how particular places, particular comings-together of plants, animals, rocks, weather, etc., tell particular stories-histories, soap operas, poems. I am also very interested in how field methods like we use in ecology research are very similar to performance art, rituals or games. Outside the constraints of science methods, I think it is interesting to play with what kinds of understandings can be generated in the field by different games, rituals or performances. For me all of these things are a big game of translation or commensuration, through which I construct my own "field", the place or world that I want to live in. For me, fieldsites aren't things that are given, but also things that we construct through our engagements with them.

How is fieldwork part of your research and/or work?
As I describe above, fieldwork is the basis of much of my art practice (and science practice). My work has drawn on particular sites, usually where I am also doing ecological or conservation research, in Chile, in Italy, and in a few other places during my travels. I have also found in general that in group projects and collaborations, having a fieldsite to engage with and discover is an excellent way to formulate and crystalize a joint project. The decontexualization of working together in the field is also a great way to concentrate the curiosity, and to bond with other people.

How would you describe your fieldwork activity?
When I am at a fieldsite, everything even remotely related to the site becomes fascinating to me, which only increases the longer I am there. I want to look at and feel everything. I want to talk to everyone and find out everything about the history of every aspect of the site. The phase of working out a specific practice, some kind of method or game for the site, is about selecting among the different patterns and meanings that I construct during this exploratory phase. Of course I go back and forth between these.

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FIELDWORK

Resistance, 2013
Instructions: (1) Optional: Obtain a baby and a candle. (2) At Malpaís de Güímar (Tenerife, Spain), set your camera on a 10 second timer (3) Within 10 seconds, find a resistant position (4) Hold this position as long as possible (5) Repeat as often as necessary, but not more.
This work was developed in the context of my participation as an instructor in the fieldtrip of Oxford University's Biodiversity, Conservation and Management MSc to Tenerife. It draws on a local legend about the volcanic site where the performance took place, called the Badlands of Güímar, the difficult conservation situation, and the biology of seeds washed on the hostile rocks, which somehow manage to establish themselves under the right conditions. I published a description of the work along with some student art projects also made on-site (see A'Bear et al. 2017 Leonardo).

Cleambering Alhué, 2018

A 3:47 minute mp4 film made with my mobile phone. In 2018, I developed the Cleambering Manifesto along with British artist Laura Harrington. Cleambering, or "clambering" plus "meandering," is a "deep-time parkour" that co-interprets rocks and the water and other forces that formed them and their vegetation, through moving along them. In Chile, there are many rocks scattered everywhere, indicating past weather events and earthquakes leading to rock erosion. In the current drought, the possibility of rocks being moved by water seems remote and hard to imagine, although rain and floods were common here in the past. I cleambered on hillslopes near my scientific research site in Alhué.

Tissue of interpretation, 2018
The warp is things we don't understand. The weft is things that are ambiguous.
This work consists of two coloured pencil drawings on paper, that have been cut into strips and woven together. The images of "things we don't understand" and "things that are ambiguous" are redrawn from photos and field notes from a project in the so-called "slid sites" in Brunkulslejer, Denmark, in which I collaborated with my anthropologist colleague Mathilde Højrup to construct a natural history of these anthropogenic transformed sites. The slid sites are rather strange, being areas where vibrations from large tree-harvesting equipment caused super-saturated sandy soil to buckle into 3-m high linear undulations. The resulting low marshy areas and high peaks have been recolonized by various plants and animals. I was interested in our process of interpreting things we saw in the environment: what was completely mysterious to us, what could we only partially interpret, what eluded a single explanation and might indicate more than one thing?

"Ombra di pressione/ Pressure shadow", 2018-2019

Monotype made on a glass plate by drawing with a birch twig in the ink. Monotype is the simplest printing technique. It has no material negative. It cannot be repeatedly printed.

Continuity of lichens.
Beech Fagus sylvatica bent by a landslide.
Birch Betula pendula, a pioneer species of the Piemonte.
Quartz given time to form inside pressure shadow in schist rock outcrop.
"Time is the flow to which entropy condemns us."

The first set of monotypes shows four biological and geomorphological elements for the interpretation of different temporalities in the Piemonte, Italy, in red, blue, yellow and black. These images are then repeatedly superimposed in a series of further black monotypes to think about the formation of the landscape as a superposition of different processes with different temporalities. I then repeated this last image with serigraphy and lithography, referring simply to my visual and muscle memory to reproduce it. For the lithography I imagined that I was looking through the rock itself into the surrounding landscape.

Alter, 2018

This 3 dimensional piece is a hybrid between a classical science-fair poster like the kind I made in elementary school, and a decorated altarpiece. The images are photographs I took of plantlife taking over an abandoned lot that I discovered while visiting a colleague in Massachusetts. Some are arranged into grids pasted over colored paper; some are arranged in a decorative geometrical pattern. Others seem to form a series of pictograms, and finally a last set makes reference to the visual structure of two famous religious paintings. The work plays with the nexus of observation, data, art, and meaning.

Illustrations, "Buscando al sapo de Bullock en Nahuelbuta, Chile: una historia natural", 2018

These coloured pencil illustrations were made for an article I wrote for the Chilean environmental magazine Endemico, describing a National Geographic- funded expedition that I participated in, to find a rare species of frog in patches of forest spared from forestry. In the illustrations, I tried to capture the impressions, memories, or narratives that were difficult for me to adequately represent within the standard aesthetic of nature photography.

Nature of evidence, 2019

In this silkscreen print, I play with the idea of repeating patterns in ecology that indicate processes, and repeating patterns across space (as a kind of wallpaper) and time (via the silkscreen printing). The image represents themes from my research on shrub ecology with my anthropologist colleague Colin Hoag in Lesotho.

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FIELDWORK DOCUMENTS

IMAGES

One image from each project.

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I am a field ecologist by training, and in that capacity I research ecosystem engineering (how species affect their environments), plant-animal interactions, rewilding and conservation. My art practice also asks how landscapes are formed, and through what processes we come to know and (re-)construct the world.

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Bibliographical reference of Cyrille Prestianni.

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Bibliographical reference of Cyrille Prestianni.

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Bibliographical reference of Cyrille Prestianni.

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Bibliographical reference of Sophie Nadot.

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Plateforme MOOC de Tela Botanica / Bibliographical reference of Sophie Nadot.

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La formation en botanique, en France et dans les pays francophones, est insuffisante face à la demande tant des amateurs que des professionnels. Aussi, Tela Botanica a décidé de développer de façon significative ses activités en matière de formation et de pédagogie dans ce domaine.

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Sauvages de ma rue / Bibliographical reference of Sophie Nadot.

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Back to top

1. Accueil ›

2. Observatoires ›

3. Sauvages de ma rue

À chaque ville ses Sauvages !

Public : pour tous

Periode : toute l'année

Objet : plantes sauvage

présentation

Sauvages de ma rue est un observatoire participatif de Vigie-Nature, permettant aux citadins de mieux connaître les plantes sauvages qui poussent dans les rues de leur quartier, autour des pieds d'arbres, sur les trottoirs, dans les Dédié en 2011 aux villes d'Île-de-France, le programme s'étend depuis 2012 à toutes les pelouses .... régions!

Les villes concentrent sur des surfaces restreintes une proportion grandissante de citoyens et une nature urbaine tout à fait particulière.

Cette biodiversité, à travers les services qu'elle rend, est indispensable à la vie des citadins : elle tempère les îlots de chaleur, elle participe à la dépollution de l'air et de l'eau, à la détoxification des sols...

Elle offre également à certains citadins la seule relation avec la nature qu'ils peuvent avoir. En conséquence, de son bon état dépend la qualité de vie des citadins, de leur bien être et même de leur santé.

Comment participer ?

Pour participer, c'est très simple : sur une portion de trottoir, il suffit de relever la présence d'espèces végétales parmi les 240 référencées du protocole. On vous demandera également dans quels milieux elles poussent (pieds d'arbres, fissures du trottoir, dans les pelouses, etc.).

Aucune connaissance en botanique n'est nécessaire, grâce à l'utilisation des outils en ligne qui vous permettront de reconnaître avec facilité les différentes espèces végétales !

Elodie Masseguin | sauvages@tela-botanica.org

Anne Dozières | anne.dozieres@mnhn.fr

Coordination scientifique :

Nathalie MACHON | machon@mnhn.fr

À la une

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Back to top Accueil › Observatoires › Sauvages de ma rue Public : pour tous Periode : toute l'année Objet : plantes sauvage Sauvages de ma rue est un observatoire participatif de Vigie-Nature, permettant aux citadins de mieux connaître les plantes sauvages qui poussent dans les rues de leur quartier, autour des pieds d'arbres, sur les trottoirs, dans les Dédié en 2011 aux villes d'Île-de-France, le programme s'étend depuis 2012 à toutes les pelouses ....

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Laboratoire Écologie, Systématique et Évolution

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Carrive L., Domenech B., Sauquet H., Jabbour F., Damerval C. and Nadot S. (2020) Insights into the ancestral flowers of Ranunculales. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, in press

Espinosa Moreno F., Damerval C., Deroin T., Wang W., Pinedo M., Nadot S., Jabbour F.(2020) Homeosis and delayed floral meristem termination could account for abnormal flowers in cultivars of Delphinium and Aquilegia (Ranunculaceae). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, in press

Nadot S. and Jabbour F. (2020) Editorial. Botany Letters 167: 1

Desaegher J., Nadot S., Machon N. and Colas B. (2019) How does urbanisation affect the reproductive characteristics and ecological affinities of street plant communities? Ecology and Evolution, 9: 9977-9989.

Dodinet E. and Nadot S. (2019) Editorial. Botany Letters 166: 1-2

Damerval C., Citerne H., Conde E Silva N., Deveaux Y., Delannoy E., Joets J., Simonnet F., Staedler Y., Schönenberger J., Yansouni J., Le Guilloux M., Sauquet H. and Nadot S. (2019) Unravelling the developmental and genetic mechanisms underpinning floral architecture in Proteaceae. Frontiers in Plant Science 10:18.

Desaegher J., Nadot S., Fontaine C. and Colas B. (2018) Floral morphology as the main driver of flower-feeding insect occurrences in the Paris region. Urban Ecosystems 21 : 585-598

Reyes E., Nadot S., von Balthazar M., Schönenberger J., Sauquet H. (2018) Testing the impact of morphological rate heterogeneity on ancestral state reconstruction of five floral traits in angiosperms. Scientific Reports 8: article number 9473

Torres A.C., Prévot A.C. and Nadot S. (2018) Small but powerful: The importance of French community gardens for residents. Landscape and Urban Planning, 180: 5-14

Prieu C., Tohgranegar Z., Matamoro-Vidal A., Nadot S. and Albert B. (2017) Additional callose deposits are located at the future apertural regions in sulcate, ulcerate, porate, colporate, colpate, and syncolpate pollen grains. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 183, 271-279.

Espinosa F., Deroin T., Xiang K.L., Wang W., Pinedo Castro M., Byng J.W., Aytaç Z., Nadot S. and Jabbour F. (2017) The Turkish endemic Pseudodelphinium turcicum (Ranunculaceae): an unusual population of Delphinium with peloric flowers that has persisted in the wild for 20 years. International Journal of Plant Sciences 178:546-555

Sauquet H., von Balthazar M., Magallon S., Doyle J.A., Endress P.K., Bailes E.J., Barroso de Morais E., Bull-Herenu K., Carrive L., Chartier M., Chomicki G., Coiro M., Cornette R., El Ottra J.H.L., Epicoco C., Foster C.S.P., Jabbour F., Haevermans A., Haevermans T., Hernandez R., Little S.A., Lofstrand S., Luna J.A., Massoni J., Nadot S., Pamperl S., Prieu C., Reyes E., dos Santos P., Schoonderwoerd K.M., Sontag S., Soulebeau A., Staedler Y., Tschan G.F., Wing-Sze Leung A. & Schonenberger J. (2017) The ancestral flower of angiosperms and its early diversification. Nature Communications 8:16047

Torres A.C., Nadot S. and Prevot A.C. (2017) Specificities of French community gardens as environmental stewardships. Ecology and Society 22(3):28 (online article)

Desaegher J., Nadot S., Dajoz I. and Colas B. (2017) Buzz in Paris: Flower production and plant-pollinator interactions in plants from contrasted urban and rural origins. Genetica 145: 513-523

Damerval C. and Nadot S. (2017) Letters to the 21st century - What is a flower? The evo-devo of floral symmetry. Botany Letters 164: 193-196

Jabbour F., Nadot S., Espinosa F. and Damerval C. (2016) Ranunculacean flower terata: records, a classification, and some clues about floral developmental genetics and evolution. FLORA 221: 54-64.

Cossard G., Sannier J., Sauquet H., Damerval C., Ronse De Craene L., Jabbour F. and Nadot S. (2016) Subfamilial and tribal relationships of Ranunculaceae: evidence from eight molecular markers. Plant Systematics and Evolution 302: 419-431.

Nadot S., Alapetite E., Baker, W.J., Tregear J. and Barfod A.S. (2016) The palm (Arecaceae) family: a microcosm of sexual system. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 182, 376-388.

Reyes E. Sauquet H. and Nadot S. (2016) Perianth symmetry changed at least 199 times in angiosperm evolution. Taxon 65: 945-964.

Citerne H., Reyes E., Le Guilloux M., Delannoy E., Simonnet F., Sauquet H., Nadot S., Weston P.H. and Damerval C. (2016) Characterization of CYCLOIDEA-like genes in Proteaceae, a basal eudicot family with multiple shifts in floral symmetry. Annals of Botany. 119: 367-378.

Nadot S. and Dodinet E. (2016). Letters to the 21st century botanist - What is a flower? Botany Letters 163: 9-10

Sauquet H., Carrive L., Poullain N., Sannier J., Damerval C. and Nadot S. (2015) Evolution of floral symmetry in Fumarioideae (Papaveraceae, Ranunculales): new evidence from an expanded molecular phylogenetic framework. Annals of Botany 115: 895-914.

Jabbour F., Nadot S., Espinosa F. and Damerval C. (2015) Flower development schedule and AGAMOUS-like gene expression patterns in two morphs of Nigella damascena L. (Ranunculaceae) differing in floral architecture. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 178: 608-619.

Moraes A.P., Souza-Chies S.S., Stiehl-Alves E.M., Burchardt P., Eggers L., Siljak-Yakovlev S., Brown S.C., Chauveau O., S., Nadot S., Bourge M., Facio Viccini L and Kaltchuk-Santos E. (2015) Evolutionary trends in Iridaceae : new cytogenetic findings from the New World. Botanical Journal of the Linnaean Society 177 : 27-49

Albert B., Tograneghar Z. and Nadot S. (2014) Diversity and evolution of microsporogenesis in Bromeliaceae. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 176 : 36-45

Domenech B. and Nadot S. (2014) Floral morphology evolution in the Ranunculaceae. Botany-Botanique 92(9) : 651-651

Domenech B., Asmussen-Lange C.B., Baker W.J., Alapetite E, Pintaud J.C. and Nadot S. (2014) A phylogenetic analysis of palm subtribe Archontophoenicinae (Arecaceae) based on 14 DNA regions. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 175 : 469-481

Jabbour F., Cossard G., Le Guilloux M., Sannier J., Nadot S. and Damerval C. (2014) Specific duplication and dorsoventrally asymmetric expression patterns of CYCLOIDEA-like genes in zygomorphic species of Ranunculaceae. PlosOne 9(4) : e95727

Alapetite E., Baker W.J. and Nadot S. (2014) Evolution of stamen number in Ptychospermatinae (Arecaceae) : insights from a new molecular phylogeny of the subtribe. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 76 : 227-240.

Sauquet H. et Nadot S. (2013) La botanique contemporaine. In : La science au présent 2013. Encyclopedia universalis pp 192-203.

Citerne H., Le Guilloux M., Sannier J., Nadot S. and Damerval C. (2013) Combining phylogenetic and syntenic analyses for understanding the evolution of TCP ECE genes in eudicots. PlosOne 8(9) : e74803.

Toghranegar Z., Nadot S. and Albert B. (2013) Variation of microsporogenesis in monocots producing monosulcate pollen grains. Annals of Botany 112 : 135-139.

Damerval C., Citerne H., Le Guilloux M., Domenichini S., Dutheil J., Ronse de Craene L., Nadot S. (2013) Asymmetric morphogenetic cues along the transverse plane - shift from disymmetry to zygomorphy in the flower of Fumarioideae. American Journal of Botany, 100 : 391-402.

Chauveau O., Eggers L., Souza-Chies T.T. and Nadot S. (2012) Oil-producing flowers within the Iridoideae (Iridaceae) : evolutionary trends in the flowers of the New World genera. Annals of Botany 110 : 713-729.

Silvério A., Nadot S., Souza-Chies T.T. and Chauveau O. (2012) Floral rewards in the tribe Sisyrinchieae (Iridaceae) : oil as an alternative to pollen and nectar ? Sexual Plant Reproduction 25 : 267-279.

Albert B., Raquin C., Prigent M., Nadot S., Brisset F., Yang M. and Ressayre A. (2011) Successive microsporogenesis affects pollen aperture pattern in the tam mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana. Annals of Botany 107 : 1421 - 1426.

Chauveau O., Eggers E., Raquin C., Silverio A., Couloux A., Cruaud C., Kaltchuk-Santos E., Yockteng R., Brown, S., Souza-Chies T. and Nadot S. (2011). Evolution of oil-producing trichomes (Iridaceae) : insights from the first comprehensive phylogeny of the genus. Annals of Botany 107 : 1287-1312.

Albert B., Ressayre A. and Nadot S. (2011). Correlation between pollen aperture pattern and callose deposition in late tetrad stage in three species producing atypic pollen grains. American Journal of Botany 98 : 189-196.

Nadot S., Sannier J., Barfod A. and Baker W.J. (2011). Evolution of the palm androecium as revealed by character mapping on a supertree. In: Wanntorp L. and Ronse de Craene L.(eds) Flowers on the tree of life. Cambridge University Press, pp 156-180.

Citerne H., Jabbour F., Nadot S. and Damerval C. (2010). Evolution of flower symmetry. Advances in Botanical Research 54 : 85-137.

Albert B., Nadot S., Dreyer L. and Ressayre A. (2010). The influence of tetrad shape and intersporal callose wall formation on pollen aperture pattern ontogeny in eudicot species. Annals of Botany 106 : 557-564.

Albert B., Matamoro-Vidal A., Raquin C. and Nadot S. (2010). Formation and function of a new pollen aperture pattern in angiosperms: the proximal sulcus of Tillandsia leiboldiana (Bromeliaceae). American Journal of Botany 97 : 365-368.

Albert B. and Nadot S. (2010) Aperture ontogeny in the Proteaceae Grevillea rosmarinifolia. In "Pollen : Structure, Types and Effects". Ed. Frank Columbus, Nova Science Publishers.

Jabbour F., Ronse De Craene L.P., Nadot S. and Damerval C. (2009). Establishment of zygomorphy on an ontogenic spiral and evolution of perianth in the tribe Delphinieae (Ranunculaceae). Annals of Botany 104 : 809-822.

Jabbour F., Nadot S. and Damerval C. (2009). Evolution of floral symmetry: A state of the art. Comptes-rendus Biologies 332 : 219-231.

Sannier J., Baker W.J., Anstett M.C. and Nadot S. (2009). A comparative analysis of pollinator type and pollen ornamentation in the Araceae and the Arecaceae, two unrelated families of the monocots. BMC Research Notes 2:145 online article.

Nadot S., Furness C.A., Sannier J., Penet L., Triki-Teurtroy S., Albert B. and Ressayre A. (2008). Phylogenetic comparative analysis of microsporogenesis in angiosperms with a focus on monocots. American Journal of Botany 95 : 1426-1436.

Jabbour F., Damerval C. and Nadot S. (2008). Evolutionary trends in the flowers of Asteridae. Is polyandry an alternative to zygomorphy ? Annals of Botany 102 : 153-165.

Penet L., Laurin M., Gouyon P.H. and Nadot S. (2007). Constraints and selection : insights from microsporogenesis in Asparagales. Evolution & Development 9 : 460-471.

Damerval C. and Nadot S. (2007). Evolution of perianth and stamen characteristics with respect to floral symmetry in Ranunculales. Annals of Botany 100 : 631-640.

Sannier J., Asmussen-Lange C., Harley M. and Nadot S. (2007). Evolution of microsporogenesis in palms. International Journal of Plant Science 168 : 177-188.

Sannier J., Nadot S., Forchioni A., Harley M. and Albert B. (2006). Variation in the microsporogenesis of monosulcate palm pollen. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 151 : 93-102.

Nadot S., Forchioni A., Penet L., Sannier J. and Ressayre A. (2006). Links between early pollen development and aperture pattern in monocots. Protoplasma, 228 : 55-64.

Nadot S., Penet L., L.D. Dreyer, Forchioni A. and Ressayre A. (2006). Aperture pattern and microsporogenesis in Asparagales. In: Columbus J.T., Friar E.A., Hamilton C.W., Porter J.M., Prince L.M. and Simpson M.G. (eds) Monocots : Comparative Biology and Evolution. RSABG, pp 97-103.

Ricroch A., Yockteng R., Brown S.C. and Nadot S. (2005). Evolution of genome size across cultivated Allium species. Genome 48 : 511-520.

Ressayre A., Tricky-Teurtroy S., Forchioni A., Dreyer L. and Nadot S. (2005). Post-meiotic cytokinesis and pollen aperture pattern ontogeny: comparison of development in four species differing in aperture pattern. American Journal of Botany 92 : 576-583.

Penet L., Nadot S., Ressayre A., Forchioni A., Dreyer L. and Gouyon P.H. (2005). Multiple developmental pathways leading to a single morph: monosulcate pollen (examples from the Asparagales). Annals of Botany 95 : 331-343.

Souza-Chies T.T., Yockteng R. et Nadot S. (2005). La systématique moléculaire du genre Passiflora L. (Passifloraceae) basée sur la comparaison de données obtenues en France et au Brésil. Cahiers/Agricultures 14 : 209-215.

Yockteng R. and Nadot S. (2004). Infrageneric Phylogenies: utility of the cytosol-expressed Glutamine Synthetase (cytGS) nuclear gene. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 31 : 397-402.

Yockteng R. and Nadot S. (2004). Phylogenetic relationships among Passiflora species based on the Glutamine Synthetase nuclear gene expressed in chloroplast (ncpGS). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 31 : 379-396.

Chat J., Jauregui B., Petit R. and Nadot S. (2004). Reticulate evolution in kiwifruit (Actinidia, Actinidiaceae) deduced from the comparison of their maternal and paternal phylogenies. American Journal of Botany 91 : 736-747.

Yockteng R., Ballard H.E. Jr, Mansion G., Dajoz I. and Nadot S. (2003). Phylogenetic relationships among pansies (Viola section Melanium) investigated using ITS and ISSR. Plant Systematics and Evolution 241 : 153-170.

Nadot S., Ballard H.E. Jr, Creach J.B. and Dajoz I. (2000). The evolution of pollen heteromorphism in Viola: a phylogenetic approach. Plant Systematics and Evolution, 223:155-171.

Souza-Chies T.T., Bittar G., Nadot S., Carter L., Besin E. and Lejeune B. (1997). Phylogenetic analysis of Iridaceae with parsimony and distance methods using the plastid gene rps4. Plant Systematics and Evolution 204 : 109-123.

Bittar G., Carter L., Nadot S., Souza-Chies T.T., Evrard A., Besin E. and Lejeune B. (1996). A phylogenetic analysis of plants, using the chloroplast gene rps4 and the Anataxis method. Archives des Sciences 49(2) : 149-157.

Nadot S., Bittar G., Carter L., Lacroix R. and Lejeune B. (1995). A phylogenetic analysis of the monocotyledons based on the chloroplast gene rps4 using parsimony and a new numerical phenetics method. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 4 : 257-282.

Nadot S., Bajon R. and Lejeune B. (1994). The chloroplast gene rps4 as a tool for the study of Poaceae Phylogeny. Plant Systematics and Evolution 191 : 27-38.

Autres publications

Sauquet H. et Nadot S. (2013) La botanique contemporaine. In : La science au présent 2013. Encyclopaedia universalis, pp 192-203

Nadot S., Sauquet H. (2016) Angiospermes. Encyclopaedia universalis [en ligne] http://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/angiospermes/

Nadot S., Sauquet H. (2016) Gymnospermes. In : Encyclopaedia universalis [en ligne] http://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/gymnospermes/

Nadot S., Sauquet H. (2016) Spermatophytes ou Spermaphytes. In : Encyclopaedia universalis [en ligne] http://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/spermatophytes-spermaphytes

Bittar G., Carter L., Nadot S., Souza-Chies T.T., Evrard A., Besin E. and Lejeune B. (1996). A phylogenetic analysis of plants, using the chloroplast gene rps4 and the Anataxis method. Archives des Sciences 49(2): 149-157.

Souza-Chies T.T., Yockteng R. et Nadot S. (2005). La systématique moléculaire du genre Passiflora L. (Passifloraceae) basée sur la comparaison de données obtenues en France et au Brésil. Cahiers/Agricultures 14: 209-215.

Nadot S., Penet L., Dreyer L.D., Forchioni A. and Ressayre A. (2006). Aperture pattern and microsporogenesis in Asparagales. In: Columbus J.T., Friar E.A., Hamilton C.W., Porter J.M., Prince L.M. and Simpson M.G. (eds) Monocots: Comparative Biology and Evolution. RSABG, pp 97-103.

Sannier J., Baker W.J., Anstett M.C. and Nadot S. (2009). A comparative analysis of pollinator type and pollen ornamentation in the Araceae and the Arecaceae, two unrelated families of the monocots. BMC Research Notes 2:145 online article

Albert B. and Nadot S. (2010) Aperture ontogeny in the Proteaceae Grevillea rosmarinifolia. In "Pollen: Structure, Types and Effects". Ed. Frank Columbus, Nova Science Publishers

Nadot S., Sannier J., Barfod A. and Baker W.J. (2011). Evolution of the palm androecium as revealed by character mapping on a supertree. In: Wanntorp L. and Ronse de Craene L. (eds) Flowers on the tree of life. Cambridge University Press, pp 156-180

Torres A.C., Nadot S., Prévot A.C. (2016) Explorando la relación ser humano-naturaleza: agricultura urbana, ciencias de la conservación y ciudad [Exploring human-nature relationship: urban agriculture, sciences conservation and cities] Letras Verdes. Revista Latinoamericana de Estudios Socioambientales 19 : 3-23

Damerval C., Jabbour F., Nadot S. and Citerne H. (2017) Evolution of symmetry in plants. In: Nuno de la Rosa L., Müller G. (eds) Evolutionary Developmental Biology. Springer, Cham

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Sophie Nadot Poste : Professeur Équipe : Évolution des Angiospermes Coordonnées : Laboratoire Écologie, Systématique, Évolution Bât.

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Bibliographical reference of Marit Mihklepp

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Bibliographical reference of Marit Mihklepp.

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Table of Contents of 'Eyes of the Skin' by Juhani Pallasmaa

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Table of Contents of 'Eyes of the Skin' by Juhani Pallasmaa

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Bibliographical reference of Marit Mihklepp.

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Bibliographical reference of Marit Mihklepp.

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Exerpt of 'Lake Superior' by Lorine Niedecker (poem)

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Exerpt of 'Lake Superior' by Lorine Niedecker (poem)

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Sylacauga/Hodges meteorite (an extremely rare case of a meteorite landing on a human being)

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Sylacauga/Hodges meteorite (an extremely rare case of a meteorite landing on a human being)

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Bibliographical reference of Ramuntcho MATTA

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Bibliographical reference of Ramuntcho MATTA.

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Bibliographical reference of Ramuntcho MATTA.

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De Chazal Malcolm, L'Homme et la connaissance, Editions Jean-Jacques Pauvert, 1974

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De Chazal Malcolm, L'Homme et la connaissance, Editions Jean-Jacques Pauvert, 1974

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Centre de cultures et de ressources et projet à l'initiative de l'artiste pluridisciplinaire Ramuntcho Matta, Lizières est un centre culturel également tourné vers les pratiques du corps et de l'esprit, situé à une heure de Paris.

Installé au sein d'un domaine de trois hectares, Lizières accueille des artistes en résidence, propose des temps de rencontre avec différents publics, organise des évènements favorisant l'ouverture, accueille des séminaires, offre des espaces d'hébergement, des ateliers ainsi qu'un espace d'exposition.

Lizières' goals

- Offrir aux artistes des espaces de travail adaptés à leur pratique et un accompagnement pour le développement de leur projet artistique
- Proposer une programmation singulière et exigeante d'artistes professionnels locaux, nationaux, et internationaux de manière régulière
- Développer des actions en matière d'éducation artistique et culturelle auprès de publics sensibles
- Favoriser dans un cadre convivial la rencontre entre les populations, les professionnels et les amateurs, toutes disciplines confondues
- Tisser des partenariats étroits et constructifs avec l'ensemble des acteurs culturels, des associations et des équipements existants, permettant de créer des synergies et des passerelles au service des artistes et des populations
- Permettre à chacun de se ressourcer, se dévoiler et d'être mieux

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Centre de cultures et de ressources et projet à l'initiative de l'artiste pluridisciplinaire Ramuntcho Matta, Lizières est un centre culturel également tourné vers les pratiques du corps et de l'esprit, situé à une heure de Paris.

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Bibliographical reference of Michael Marder.

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Bibliographical reference of Michael Marder.

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Bibliographical reference of Loïc Le Noan.

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Bibliographical reference of Loïc Le Noan.

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Bibliographical reference of Loïc Le Noan.

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C'est le développement durable pour de vrai ! Contrairement à ce que l'on pourrait imaginer, l'agriculture urbaine n'a pas vocation à se substituer à l'agriculture rurale, bien au contraire. Elle n'en aurait ni les moyens ni intérêt.

L'agriculture urbaine ce n'est donc pas croire que l'on pourra nourrir les urbains seulement avec des produits cultivés en ville, mais c'est produire en ville pour recréer du lien entre végétal et minéral comme entre urbains et ruraux.

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Le Paysan Urbain - Agroécologique & citadin

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C'est le développement durable pour de vrai ! Contrairement à ce que l'on pourrait imaginer, l'agriculture urbaine n'a pas vocation à se substituer à l'agriculture rurale, bien au contraire. Elle n'en aurait ni les moyens ni intérêt.

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Bibliographical reference of Lauranne Germond. Interview - Catalogue de l'exposition Courants verts, Créer pour l'environnement

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Du 16 septembre 2020 au 31 janvier 2021 la Fondation groupe EDF présente Courants verts, Créer pour l'environnement. Pour la première fois en France, une exposition d'envergure qui réunit des artistes internationaux engagés dans le combat écologique. Avertir, Agir et Rêver sont les trois axes qui composent le parcours de l'exposition sous le regard de son commissaire, Paul Ardenne, historien de l'art et auteur de l'ouvrage Un Art écologique. Pour le catalogue, Paul Ardenne, interview Lauranne Germond, co-fondatrice et directrice de l'association COAL.

Joseph Beuys, Barbara et Michael Leisgen, Lucy et Jorge Orta, Sarah Trouche, Nicole Dextras, Jéremy Gobé, Nathan Grimes... tous sont résolument engagés à travers leurs installations, photographies, vidéos ou dessins à affronter les défis que pose l'Anthropocène : ce moment où les activités humaines perturbent en profondeur les processus naturels, imposent à l'humanité de nouveaux comportements, un rapport à l'environnement, une culture et des mentalités à refondre.

Sans pessimisme, Courants verts, Créer pour l'environnement souligne avec les œuvres présentées le processus d'adaptation que traverse aujourd'hui l'humanité. L'exposition rappelle que l'art joue son rôle dans cette mutation essentielle caractéristique de l'actuelle transition climatique en agissant sur les imaginaires et en proposant de nouveaux récits.

Extrait de l'interview :
Paul Ardenne : la notion d'art " environnemental " est complexe. Les Anglo-saxons parlent d'" Eco Art ", ce qui n'est pas forcément clair non plus. Comment définiriez-vous, pour couper au plus court, un art " vert " ?
Lauranne Germond : Il est toujours délicat d'enfermer l'art dans des catégories, d'autant que cet art " vert " recouvre une très grande diversité, une vaste nuée de pratiques verdoyantes ! Le terme d'art " écologique " a l'avantage de recouvrir le champ politique et social, d'en référer à la pensée complexe et systémique de l'écologie plutôt qu'à sa seule dimension environnementale, qui est assez réductrice. On peut aussi contester le recours à la couleur verte, qui tend par exemple à faire oublier le bleu. Celui de l'atmosphère et des océans, qui représentent pourtant 90 % du monde vivant...
Il faut donc gagner en précision. Une définition simple est exclue ?
Je distinguerai pour ma part trois typologies de pratiques à même de définir ce qui constitue aujourd'hui un art dit " écologique ", des typologies qui souvent se croisent et se superposent : le témoignage et le partage de connaissance ; l'action politique et symbolique ; les pratiques de résilience.
Pouvez-vous développer ?
Première typologie : celle propre aux artistes qui témoignent, qui donnent un visage à l'anthropocène, qui rendent perceptibles tout à la fois l'ampleur de la crise écologique, les pollutions cachées, les souffrances lointaines, l'appauvrissement de ressources insoupçonnées, la dégradation voire la destruction des écosystèmes et leurs conséquences sur les populations, le vivant et les paysages.

Cette approche recouvre une vaste palette de pratiques documentaires mais aussi, plus largement, une grande partie des démarches Art et science actuelles. Chaque manifestation de la crise écologique dévoile un champ de connaissances scientifiques qui suscite la fascination des artistes et bouleverse les imaginaires artistiques. Observations, expériences, travail de terrain..., les artistes s'approprient les outils des sciences pour explorer, pour comprendre et pour partager l'état de l'art en matière d'appréciation scientifique de la crise écologique.

En retour, ils chamboulent l'univers de rectitude des laboratoires et leurs ouvrent des perspectives en terme de partage des connaissances et de sensibilisation à l'écologie.

Une création multidirectionnelle
Seconde typologie, disiez-vous, l'action politique et symbolique.

Oui, l'art qui agit sur les systèmes à l'origine de la crise écologique pour les dénoncer, les court-circuiter, les transformer. L'action artistique, dans ce cas, est plus délibérément politique. Ses armes sont la déprogrammation des imaginaires par l'écriture de nouveaux récits, utopiques et dystopiques, mais aussi par la décolonisation des systèmes de représentation jusque dans le champ lexical. Au point d'aller jusqu'à inventer de nouveaux mots pour nous permettre de parler de notre ressenti au contact du changement climatique, comme y invitent les artistes activistes new-yorkaises Heidi Quante et Alicia Escott. Mentionnons ici, encore, la sculpture sociale.

Celle-ci réinvestit le champ du collectif pour donner aux citoyens le pouvoir de changer les règles à des échelles microlocale (Thierry Boutonnier). Également, le parasitage des cadres légaux (Amy Balkin, Maria Lucia Cruz Correia), avec pour but de faire reconnaître des droits ou des crimes environnementaux par le biais d'une action symbolique et collective forte. C'est là l'écologie politique en art. Elle se construit sur des liens de communauté, le partage, la convivialité et le symbolique.
Ce qui nous amène à votre troisième typologie, l'activisme direct.
Le troisième champ pratique, concernant la création " verte ", entend agir directement au niveau des écosystèmes et de l'empreinte écologique, dans une perspective de résilience : l'art devient indissociable des façons de faire et de produire. Il se base sur des principes opératoires tels que l'économie des moyens, le réemploi, l'utilisation de matériaux à faible impact environnemental, l'invention de nouveaux matériaux ou encore la restauration de milieux naturels (Anne Fischer). Il peut s'agir de ramener du naturel en ville ou au contraire de réactiver les potentiels d'espaces ruraux délaissés. On relève dans ce domaine une explosion des pratiques. En effet, on ne compte plus les tiers lieux et les projets de territoires ultralocaux portés par des artistes qui veulent réconcilier leurs convictions, leurs modes de vie et leur création. Les artistes deviennent alors diversement fermiers (Olivier Darné), ingénieurs (Jérémy Gobé), herboristes (Suzanne Husky), bergers (Fernando Garcia Dory), et même parfois araignée ou loup (Boris Nordmann). Cette forme d'art se lie étroitement à la nature, de facto. Jusqu'à renouveler même la définition de l'art... Oui. Même si ces exemples d'art " naturiste " rappellent justement que ce chemin de reconnexion à la nature, pour notre culture qui en est si éloignée, ne se fait pas si simplement. Aussi l'art écologique donne-til également naissance à toutes sortes de tentatives pour reconstruire un lien intime avec le vivant : dialoguer avec les espèces non humaines (interspecisme), raviver des états de conscience perdus par l'intermédiaire de pratiques spirituelles, rituelles ou chamaniques. Là aussi, c'est tout un champ de l'art contemporain qui s'y attèle.

Pour lire l'intégralité de l'interview, découvrez l'extrait du catalogue d'exposition dans le dossier de presse de l'exposition ICI

Related articles :

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interview - Catalogue de l'exposition Courants verts, Créer pour l'environnement

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Du 16 septembre 2020 au 31 janvier 2021 la Fondation groupe EDF présente Courants verts, Créer pour l'environnement. Pour la première fois en France, une exposition d'envergure qui réunit des artistes internationaux engagés dans le combat écologique.

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Bibliographical reference of Lauranne Germond. KLAXON #13 - AGIR AVEC LE VIVANT

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" AGIR AVEC LE VIVANT " : le dernier numéro de la revue Klaxon est entière dédié à la création en lien avec le vivant.
Au sommaire : une ouverture de Benoit Vreux, John Jordan, Sara Selma Dolorès, Alexandre Dewez et Isabelle Fremeaux sur les artistes marquants du vivant. Un autre chapitre dédié à l'artivisme " Cultures de la rébellion " de John Jordan et Isabelle Fremeaux. Toujours sur l'artivisme, l'artiste performeur, Christophe Meierhans, nous dévoile sa pratique efficiente de l'art. On y trouve également une interview de Lauranne Germond directrice de l'association COAL par Pascal Lebrun Cordier.

Dans le précédent numéro, la revue Klaxon, répondait aux désastres écologique par une transformation nos représentations, une reconfiguration nos imaginaires du vivant pour envisager d'autres relations à celui-ci, modifier nos régimes d'attention et de sensibilité, voir, entendre et penser autrement le monde.
Après l'imaginaire et le symbolique, le réel. La création artistique en espace public parvient-elle à le transformer ? Comment et avec quels effets ?
Ce sont les questions ouvertes de ce numéro. Il sera ici question d'art action, d'artivisme, de créations transformationnelles, de coopérations entre artistes et vignerons, de design urbain pour humains et insectes, d'architecture agissante bâtie sur des actes... Les artistes qu'il présentent ici veulent transformer des situations, effectivement. Leurs démarches visent une certaine efficacité, tangible même si souvent modeste. Loin des conceptions classiques de l'art autonome, qui est à lui-même sa propre fin, délié de tout engagement dans le dur du monde, ces approches s'accrochent aux aspérités du réel, s'affirment comme des moyens au service de causes non artistiques : mobiliser des citoyen·ne·s " avec amour et rage " (Extinction Rebellion), créer des communautés d'action joyeuses et déterminées pour réparer le monde, ou empêcher la continuation de sa destruction ; soutenir l'essor de flores menacées, d'espèces fragilisées ; activer des espaces d'hospitalité...
Pour répondre à ces grandes questions et faire découvrir les artistes qui ont dédié leurs pratiques artistiques au vivant, Pascal Le Brun-Cordier, rencontre Lauranne Germond, directrice de COAL :
Pascal Le Brun-Cordier : Quel regard portes-tu sur ces démarches qui relèvent de l'art action ou de l'artivisme ?

Lauranne Germond: La question de l'efficience est au cœur des problématiques de l'art écologique et tous les artistes engagé·e·s se la pose à un moment ou à un autre. Comment agir pour changer concrètement les choses ? Question difficile. Peut-on - doit-on - en tant qu'artiste dépasser le champ de l'imaginaire, du récit, du symbolique ? Comment mettre en adéquation ses convictions, ses terrains de recherche, ses engagements politiques et sa production plastique ? Comment surmonter les limites de l'action individuelle, mais aussi les obstacles financiers, législatifs ? Les questions environnementales sont systémiques et se jouent à des échelles sur lesquelles un individu seul a peu de prise. Évidemment, chaque petit geste compte - comme disent Lucy et Jorge Orta " 1+1 = 10 millions "34 - , mais néanmoins les limites d'échelle de la pratique artistique peuvent être frustrantes. C'est un dilemme pour beaucoup d'artistes qui veulent agir par exemple sur la résilience d'un écosystème, la transformation de situations critiques du point de vue du vivant : les effets des projets sont souvent modestes au regard de l'ampleur du problème, et peuvent même sembler dérisoires. Cependant toutes ces démarches, même ténues, sont de véritables fabriques d'alternatives possibles, des micro-modèles dont la puissance réside dans ce rapport esthétique, poétique et symbolique au monde, sans cesse renouvelé.

Pascal Le Brun-Cordier : Parle-nous de celles et ceux qui s'y essaient...
>> Retrouvez l'intégralité de l'interview de Lauranne Germond par Pascal Le Brun-Cordier
Édité par le CIFAS, en lien avec IN SITU, réseau européen dédié à la création artistique en espace public, KLAXON publie deux numéros par an, en français et en anglais, aux formats PDF, Kindle et e-Book.

KLAXON reflète l'intérêt du CIFAS pour l'intervention artistique " vivante " dans l'espace public, intérêt qui s'est concrétisé par l'organisation de plusieurs stages de pratiques urbaines, ainsi que des rencontres thématiques et des ateliers au sein de la Urban Academy sur l'art et la ville, élargies depuis 2014 à une programmation d'œuvres dans l'espace public sous la bannière SIGNAL.
Image à la une Tests de substrats pour anémones, fixées sur de la dentelle, Jérémy Gobé © Corail / Artefact
Related articles :

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" AGIR AVEC LE VIVANT " : le dernier numéro de la revue Klaxon est entière dédié à la création en lien avec le vivant. Au sommaire : une ouverture de Benoit Vreux, John Jordan, Sara Selma Dolorès, Alexandre Dewez et Isabelle Fremeaux sur les artistes marquants du vivant.

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Bibliographical reference of Lauranne Germond. Lauranne Germond dans L'Observatoire, La revue des politiques culturelles

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Retrouvez l'article de Lauranne Germond, co-fondatrice et directrice de COAL, dans le dernier numéro de L'Observatoire, La revue des politiques culturelles, " Ce que les arts nous disent de la transformation du monde ".
À la fois bâtisseurs d'utopies, éclaireurs, perturbateurs, activistes... les artistes nous rendent sensibles aux signaux faibles de notre époque. Ils nous offrent les fictions nécessaires pour penser l'avenir et inventent des formes critiques pour outiller notre réflexion sur le présent. Dans ce monde en profond bouleversement (technique, politique, écologique et culturel), que nous disent les artistes ? Par les imaginaires qu'ils font naître, comment nous alertent-ils et nous éclairent-ils sur le monde qui vient ? Quelles voies ouvrent-ils pour le penser autrement ? Et de quelles façons agissent-ils sur le réel ?

Lauranne Germond propose des éléments de réponse, aux côtés de Bruno Latour, Marielle Macé, Paul Ardenne, Estelle Zhong Mengual et de nombreux autres penseurs et artistes.

Publication coordonné par : Lisa Pignot et Jean-Pierre Saez
Rendez-vous ici pour commander votre exemplaire
À propos de l'Observatoire des politiques culturelles

L'Observatoire des politiques culturelles est un organisme national qui travaille sur l'articulation entre l'innovation artistique et culturelle, les évolutions de la société et les politiques publiques au niveau territorial. Par l'organisation d'études, de rencontres, de formation continue et la diffusion d'informations, l'OPC exerce un rôle d'éclaireur pour un large cercle de professionnels des arts et de la culture, d'experts et d'élus.

Related articles :

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Lauranne Germond dans L'Observatoire, La revue des politiques culturelles

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Retrouvez l'article de Lauranne Germond, co-fondatrice et directrice de COAL, dans le dernier numéro de L'Observatoire, La revue des politiques culturelles, " Ce que les arts nous disent de la transformation du monde ". À la fois bâtisseurs d'utopies, éclaireurs, perturbateurs, activistes... les artistes nous rendent sensibles aux signaux faibles de notre époque.

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Mercredi 07 octobre 2020 de 16:30 à 18:00 Lauranne Germond, co-fondatrice et directrice de COAL co-anime aux côtés de Laurent Germain, coordinateur de la Stratégie

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Bibliographical reference of Kim Doan Quoc.

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Bibliographical reference of Kim Doan Quoc.

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Bibliographical reference of Kim Doan Quoc.

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_TRASH FOREST
2021
Holographic projection, recycled cardboard, branches, painted tarps
Variable dimensions
​In collaboration with Jamie Emerson
​

_HAVRES GARDÉS
2020
Installation
Holographic projection, Arduino system, dried plants, steel and leather
Variable dimensions

_LIGHT SCAPES
2020
Installation and performance
Holographic video-projection, branches, dried plants, fabric
In collaboration with Maëlle Morton and Ana Monteiro

Supported by Cultivamos Cultura

Haven- a place of safety or refuge, a haven for wildlife_VAGUE HAVEN
2019
Video, animated paintings, branches, arduino system
presented at Wild Embeddings Gallery, curated by Wild Torus
Brooklyn, NYC, USA

Vague - seemingly; apparently but not really

Vague Haven, a contemplation of the natural, lush, fertile paradise, an Eden of sorts, within the context of today's technological culture. A place where lovers and refugees hide or take shelter as a community. This haven is intended to be a playground for creative interactions, performance and experimentation.

Interactive and immersive installation conceived by Kim Doan Quoc
Curated with and
Creative Direction, projection mapping, animation design and custom interactive projection systems by Kim Doan Quoc
Programming, installation design and arduino coding by Maxwell Abeles ( MAKS )
Sound Design, Production and Creative Direction by Oya Damla
Curatorial and Organizational support by Kira DeCoudres

Performing artists :
Tobaron Waxman
Jaguar Mary
Anna Hafner
Jamie Emerson & Lucas Kane
Senator C.H. Barney
What is this (Oya Damla, Kira deCoudres, Kim Doan Quoc)

Hyperreality is a condition in which what is real and what is fiction are seamlessly blended together. "Hyperreal" is an international art video program that presents artist videos showing slippery realities and sliding virtualities._HYPERREAL
2018
Curation of a video series for Light Year 42
Projection on the Manhattan Bridge, Dumbo, NYC

The pieces of the show gather around the idea that reality and fiction are only separated from each other by a very thin and blurry line. From performance art to 3D animation, going through video montage and endoscopic explorations, the selected artworks are a demonstration of the many ways fiction and reality can intricate each other. It is about the shapes we see, the scale we evaluate things with, the characters we create, the stories we tell.

At a time saturated with mixed information and propaganda on a world scale, it make sense to take a time to think about what is reality and how fiction can sometimes be part of it. Displayed in the public space, on the monumental architecture of Manhattan Bridge, the artworks invite themselves as disruptive guests in the passer-by's reality.

Starring the work of Dario Alva, Zoé Brunet-Jailly, Kira DeCoudres, Fornax Void, Katya Grokhovsky, Paul Kusnierek-Numérobé, Malo Lacroix, Raphaël Moreira Gonçalves, Wild Torus, and Adam Zaretsky.

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TRASH FOREST 2021Holographic projection, recycled cardboard, branches, painted tarpsVariable dimensions​In collaboration with Jamie Emerson​ _HAVRES GARDÉS 2020InstallationHolographic projection, Arduino system, dried plants, steel and leatherVariable dimensions _LIGHT SCAPES2020Installation and performanceHolographic video-projection, branches, dried plants, fabricIn collaboration with Maëlle Morton and Ana Monteiro Supported by Cultivamos Cultura Haven- a place of

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Bibliographical reference of Claire Damesin.

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Bibliographical reference of Claire Damesin.

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Meir P, Mencuccini M, Coughlin SI (2020), "Respiration in wood: integrating across tissues, functions and scales". New Phytologist 225: 1824-1827

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Meir P, Mencuccini M, Coughlin SI (2020), "Respiration in wood: integrating across tissues, functions and scales". New Phytologist 225: 1824-1827

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Bibliographical reference of Claire Damesin.

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Bibliographical reference of Laura Cinti.

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In 1895, a single clump of this cycad was discovered by John Medley Wood on the edge of a forest in South Africa. In 1903, Wood sent his deputy, James Wylie to collect some of the smaller offsets for cultivation in the Durban Botanic Garden, where they survive to this day. More offsets were collected from the wild until finally in 1916, the Forestry Department collected the last remaining stem, making the species extinct in the wild. To date, no other wild specimen has been discovered. Two more male cycads have been found that resemble E. woodii but are not identical. All of them are male. The successful cultivation of offsets of the original plant has ensured the ex-situ preservation of this enigmatic species.

Descriptions

According to Kew Species Profiles

Kew Species Profiles

General Description

Wood's cycad is an extremely rare plant. Along with its striking appearance, this makes it one of the most sought-after cycad species in the world.
In 1895, a single clump of this cycad was discovered by John Medley Wood on the edge of a forest in South Africa. In 1903, Wood sent his deputy, James Wylie to collect some of the smaller offsets for cultivation in the Durban Botanic Garden, where they survive to this day. More offsets were collected from the wild until finally in 1916, the Forestry Department collected the last remaining stem, making the species extinct in the wild. To date, no other wild specimen has been discovered. Two more male cycads have been found that resemble E. woodii but are not identical. All of them are male. The successful cultivation of offsets of the original plant has ensured the ex-situ preservation of this enigmatic species.

In addition to its rarity, the striking appearance of Wood's cycad makes it one of the most sought-after cycad species in the world.

Species Profile

Geography and distribution
The original plant was discovered on the fringes of the Ngoye Forest in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. There are now around 500 individual male plants propagated from the original and growing in botanic gardens and private collections around the world.
Description
Growing up to six metres in height, the trunk is topped with an umbrella-shaped crown of 2 - 3 metre long, glossy, dark-green leaves. In mature specimens, the trunk can branch in the crown, and atypically for cycads, broaden towards the base to form a kind of buttress which supports the plant's vast weight. In common with all cycads, the woody trunk mostly comprises soft, pithy storage tissue protected by a solid layer of old leaf-bases. Owing to their common origin, all the Wood's cycads in cultivation are male, and consequently only produce the pollen-bearing male cones. These are bright orange in colour, cylindrical in shape and can grow up to 1.2 metres in length.
Common traits of cycads
Given the circumstances of its discovery, it is not surprising that very little is known about the natural history of Wood's cycad. Nonetheless, cycads in general share a number of common traits. All are long-lived, slow-growing plants that bear their reproductive organs in cones on separate plants, with male cycads bearing ones that contain pollen, and female cycads producing ones that contain ovules that later become seeds. For a long time cycads were thought to be entirely wind-pollinated, like cone-producing conifers. However, studies now suggest that the vast majority, if not all, are actually pollinated by insects, or more specifically weevils. The seeds produced by cycads are large and have a fleshy outer coat, but are relatively short-lived and vulnerable to desiccation. The outer coat of the seed is desirable to a range of animals such as birds, rodents and bats, which inadvertently help to disperse them.
Threats and conservation
It is not known what drove Wood's cycad to extinction in the wild, or indeed if it ever was abundant. Cycads are widely used in traditional rituals and medicine which may destroy the plants. Collecting plants for horticulture is also a serious threat to cycads and for that reason they are all listed on CITES, restricting or prohibiting their export and trade.

Although the area in which the original Wood's cycad was discovered is well explored, it is yet to be thoroughly surveyed. Consequently, there is still hope that a female plant will eventually be found, and that could reproduce with the growing population of male clones in cultivation. Alternatively, there is a remote possibility that one of the plants in cultivation will undergo a spontaneous sex change, as has been documented in a few cases in other cycad species. Meanwhile, efforts are being made to create a female plant by crossing Wood's cycad with the closely related E. natalensis . By successively backcrossing the female hybrid offspring with male Wood's cycads, the aim is to eventually produce a 'pure' female. The project has currently created second generation crosses.
Black market cycads
The rarity of these cycads is part of their appeal to a network of smugglers and thieves, who try to evade restrictions placed on plant movements by the CITES treaty. The other is a network of willing and obsessive buyers who grow their collections in secrecy to avoid having their own illegal plants removed. Enormous sums of money change hands, and because of the rarity of the species and their colourful history, offsets can sell for as much as $20,000 each.

It is therefore not surprising that theft is a serious problem. It is so serious that the San Diego Police Department in southern California assigned an officer to 'cycad beat' to monitor these precious plants. Elsewhere in the Hollywood Hills, Brad Pitt, Oprah Winfrey, Kevin Costner and the late David Bowie are among the celebrities that cycad-sellers report as collectors. ''I planted a huge grove of them in Brad Pitt's garden,'' says Jay Griffith, his landscape designer. ''And Brad flipped. He kept saying, 'I want more and more.' To me, they are most majestic when you plant gobs of them. You expect a triceratops to come around the corner and just gobble them up.'' Brad is not infringing any regulations though: his cycads are the commoner cycad species, Cycas revoluta , the so-called sago palm.
Cultivation
Wood's cycad requires fertile well-drained soil and ample water. It can withstand relatively long dry spells but plants that receive regular water are healthier and have larger leaves. During summer give sufficient water to soak the root area once a week. Watering can be suspended during winter. Good drainage is crucial. In hot dry regions inland, the sun tends to burn the leaves and they are better planted in light shade. A mulch of well-rotted compost applied at least once a year around the base of the plant, plus application of a balanced fertiliser twice a year during summer will keep the plant in good condition and maintain growth, which can be the fastest of any cycad. The species is most easily propagated by removing five year old offsets from the base. Branches from near the top can also be cut off and rooted in a warm environment. Leaf cuttings from hardened-off leaves with as much of the basal tissue as possible should be put into a sterilized sharp sand and pumice mixture. They should be kept in a humid environment and fed regularly as soon as roots have formed.
This species at Kew
Encephalartos woodii can be seen growing in the Temperate House at Kew, where it regularly produces new flushes of leaves.

Distribution

South Africa

Originally found on a steep south-facing slope.

Conservation

Classified as Extinct in the Wild (EW) on the IUCN Red List and listed on Appendix I of CITES.

According to EDGE Gymnosperms

Forest, F. et al. 2018. Gymnosperms on the EDGE. Scientific Reports 8: 6053. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-24365-4.

Conservation

Encephalartos woodii is rated as Extinct in the Wild (EW) according to IUCN Red List criteria and has received a EDGE score of 1.47, which places it in position 213 on the EDGE Gymnosperm list. It has a Evolutionary Distinctiveness of 4.49, ranked 884. More information on the EDGE Gymnosperm project here https://www.edgeofexistence.org.

Bibliography

First published in Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 43: 257 (1908)

Accepted by

Govaerts, R. (2001). World Checklist of Seed Plants Database in ACCESS E-F: 1-50919.

Hall, A.V. & al. (1980). Threatened plants of Southern Africa Report of the South African Natlional Scientific Programmes 45: 1-244.

Humphreys, A.M., Govaerts, R., Ficinski, S.Z., Nic Lughadha, E. & Vorontsova, M.S. (2019). Global dataset shows geography and life form predict modern plant extinction and rediscovery Nature Ecology & Evolution 3: 1043-1047.

Hurter, M. (2008). The different Encephalartos woodii plants Encephalartos. Journal of the Cycad Society of South Africa 94: 31-35.

Literature

Kew Species Profiles

CITES.

IUCN Red List.

Jolivet, P. (2005) Cycads and beetles: recent views on pollination. The Cycad Newsletter 28: 3-7.

PlantZAfrica.

The Cycad Pages.

Whitelock, L. M. (2002) The Cycads. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.

Kew Backbone Distributions

Hurter, M. (2008). The different Encephalartos woodii plants Encephalartos. Journal of the Cycad Society of South Africa 94: 31-35.

Herbarium Catalogue Specimens
Digital Image © Board of Trustees, RBG Kew http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

Kew Science Photographs
Digital Image © Board of Trustees, RBG Kew http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

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Encephalartos woodii Sander | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science

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In 1895, a single clump of this cycad was discovered by John Medley Wood on the edge of a forest in South Africa. In 1903, Wood sent his deputy, James Wylie to collect some of the smaller offsets for cultivation in the Durban Botanic Garden, where they survive to this day.

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Bibliographical reference of Laura Cinti.

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Bibliographical reference of Lucie Campagnolo

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Space Station Live: How Does Your Garden Grow in Space? / Bibliographical reference of Lucie Campagnolo

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Space Station Live: How Does Your Garden Grow in Space?

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Growing Plants in Space / Bibliographical reference of Lucie Campagnolo

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NASA.gov brings you the latest images, videos and news from America's space agency. Get the latest updates on NASA missions, watch NASA TV live, and learn about our quest to reveal the unknown and benefit all humankind.

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Bibliographical reference of Laura Cinti. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4119468 / 

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A description of the discovery of the plant by J.M. WoodBulletin of Miscellaneous Information (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew), Vol. 1914, No. 7 (1914), pp. 250-251

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A description of the discovery of the plant by J.M. WoodBulletin of Miscellaneous Information (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew), Vol. 1914, No. 7 (1914), pp. 250-251

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Lucie Campagnolo - Founder & CEO - Apollo Moment Consulting | LinkedIn

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Voir le profil de Lucie Campagnolo sur LinkedIn, le plus grand réseau professionnel mondial. Lucie a 2 postes sur son profil. Consultez le profil complet sur LinkedIn et découvrez les relations de Lucie, ainsi que des emplois dans des entreprises similaires.

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Bibliographical reference of Karine Bonneval

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Bibliographical reference of Karine Bonneval

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Quand : du 15 au 17 septembre 2021 Où : Aarhus et Mols, Danemark - Dans la vraie vie Soucieux de l'avenir de toutes les espèces, EARTHBOUND est une invitation à étudier l'état de la planète Terre à travers les arts et les sciences.

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Bibliographical reference of Karine Bonneval