# data[].attributes.body
Britannica
https://www.britannica.com/science/ocean-acidification
A short article about Ocean acidification, how it affects us, and what scientists predict in the future
National Geographic
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/oceans/critical-issues-ocean-acidification/
An informative article on acids in  ocean, and carbonic acids and storehouses
Science Daily
https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/ocean_acidification.htm
A short article about predictions for the future and the science behind ocean acidification

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The oceans are growing more acidic, and scientists think the change is happening faster than at any time in geologic history.

That's bad news for most creatures that live in the ocean, many of which are sensitive to subtle changes in acidity of their watery habitat. It's especially problematic for corals, oysters, and other creatures with delicate carbonate shells or skeletons, which are weakened by even very slight changes in the ocean's acid balance-similar to the way acid rain corrodes stone gargoyles and limestone buildings.

The culprit behind the acidification is the extra carbon dioxide humans have caused to collect in the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels, cutting down forests, and other actions.

The oceans have always both absorbed and spit out carbon dioxide, shuttling the carbon back and forth from atmosphere to water. But the exchange occurred slowly, generally over thousands or tens of thousands of years.

Humans have disturbed that slow exchange. Since the start of the Industrial Revolution, in the middle of the 18 th century, humans have added some 400 billion tons of carbon to the atmosphere. That's a byproduct of the vast amounts of fossil fuels we burned for energy, the trees that have been cut down, the cement we've produced, and more.

Most of that carbon, in the gas form of carbon dioxide (CO ₂), stays in the atmosphere, where it traps heat and contributes to planetary warming. But each year, the ocean sucks up about 25 percent of all the extra CO₂ emitted. Over the last few hundred years, about 30 percent of all the extra carbon dioxide humans have added to the atmosphere has percolated down into the oceans.

That's a good thing for the atmosphere. Without that extra carbon dioxide drawdown, the planet would have heated up even more than it already has. But it's bad news for the oceans.

Oceans acidify in the blink of a geologic eye

In the late 1700s, the oceans had equilibrated to be slightly alkaline, with a pH of about 8.1-roughly the same level of acidity as an egg white. (More acidic things fall lower on the pH scale. Perfectly distilled water is about 7 on the pH scale; lemon juice and vinegar measure a mouth-puckering 2 to 3).

The ocean's pH has shifted on geologic time scales. During cold stages in the planet's past, it crept up (became more alkaline) by something like 0.2 pH units, and it crept down (became more acidic) by about the same amount when the planet warmed up. But it took tens of thousands of years for those changes to happen-plenty of time for creatures living in the seas to adjust to the change.

The surface oceans have recorded about 0.1 pH unit drop since the start of the Industrial Revolution-a blink of the eye in geologic or evolutionary time. While 0.1 units might not sound like much change, it's significant: Because the pH scale is logarithmic (like the Richter Scale for earthquakes), that small shift actually means that the water is about 28 percent more acidic than it was before.

The future is not bright

The future holds even more challenges. By 2050, scientists predict that 86 percent of the world's ocean will be warmer and more acidic than anything in modern history. By 2100, the pH of the surface ocean could drop to under 7.8, or more than 150 percent compared to today's already-corrosive state-and potentially even more, in some particularly sensitive parts of the planet, like the Arctic Ocean.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The oceans are growing more acidic, and scientists think the change is happening faster than at any time in geologic history. That's bad news for most creatures that live in the ocean, many of which are sensitive to subtle changes in acidity of their watery habitat.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ocean acidification and its effects | CoastAdapt

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Human activities release CO2 into the atmosphere, which leads to atmospheric warming and climate change, as explained in Causes of climate change. Around a third to a half of the CO2 released by human activities is absorbed into the oceans. While this helps to reduce the rate of atmospheric warming…

# data[].attributes.body
http://ocean-acidification.net

# data[].attributes.body
http://science.sciencemag.org/content/318/5857/1737
Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration is expected to exceed 500 parts per million and global temperatures to rise by at least 2°C by 2050 to 2100, values that significantly exceed those of at least the past 420,000 years during which most extant marine organisms evolved. Under conditions expected in the 21st century, global warming and ocean acidification will compromise carbonate accretion, with corals becoming increasingly rare on reef systems.
。

# data[].attributes.body
OCEAN ACIDIFICATION

The world's oceans are in trouble. Every day, 22 million tons of carbon dioxide from factories, cars, power plants and other human sources are absorbed by the world's oceans.

The result? A frightening phenomenon that's making seawater more acidic, spelling disaster for many marine animals, from plankton and coral up the food chain to sea stars, salmon, sea otters, whales — and ultimately people, who rely on oceans for food.

The oceans have become 30 percent more acidic because of the carbon pollution we're pumping into the atmosphere. We're already seeing the effects as coral reefs collapse, oyster beds disappear and tiny creatures that are important food sources get smaller and weaker.

# data[].attributes.headline
      CynthiaZ http://www.whoi.edu/ocean-acidification/

# data[].attributes.subject
      CynthiaZ http://www.whoi.edu/ocean-acidification/

# data[].attributes.body
Acidification can affect many marine organisms, but especially those that build their shells and skeletons from calcium carbonate, such as corals, oysters, clams, mussels, snails, and phytoplankton and zooplankton, the tiny plants and animals that form the base of the marine food web.

# data[].attributes.body
https://coastadapt.com.au/ocean-acidification-and-its-effects
Oceans absorb a substantial proportion of the CO ₂ emitted into the atmosphere by human activities, with potentially negative effects on shell-forming organisms.

https://usa.oceana.org/what-ocean-acidification
About fossil fuels and increasing the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Most of the carbon dioxide that is released into the atmosphere ultimately ends up in the oceans.

https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/ocean-acidification-25822734
What is the 'other carbon dioxide problem'? How are humans driving changes in the chemistry of the ocean, and what might this mean for marine ecosystems in the future? Read this to find out

https://www.britannica.com/science/ocean-acidification
Article by Britannia that is about ocean acidification and how it affects our atmosphere.

http://www.whoi.edu/ocean-acidification/

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/What+is+Ocean+Acidification%3F

https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/Ocean+Acidification

# data[].attributes.body
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification

# data[].attributes.body
This source talked about what is ocean acidification and how it happens.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
ocean acidification, the worldwide reduction in the pH of seawater as a consequence of the absorption of large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO ₂) by the oceans. Ocean acidification is largely the result of loading Earth's atmosphere with large quantities of CO ₂, produced by vehicles and industrial and agricultural processes. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution about 1750, roughly one-third to one-half of the CO ₂ released into Earth's atmosphere by human activities has been absorbed by the oceans. During that time period, scientists have estimated, the average pH of seawater declined from 8.19 to 8.05, which corresponds to a 30 percent increase in acidity.

Some scientists estimate that the pace of ocean acidification since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution has been approximately 100 times more rapid than at any other time during the most recent 650,000 years. They note that concentrations of atmospheric CO ₂ between 1000 and 1900 ce ranged between 275 and 290 parts per million by volume (ppmv). In 2010 the average concentration was 390 ppmv, and climatologists expect the concentration to rise to between 413 and 750 ppmv by 2100, depending on the level of greenhouse gas emissions. With additional CO ₂ transferred to the oceans, pH would decline further; under worst-case scenarios, seawater pH would drop to between 7.8 and 7.9 by 2100.

Marine scientists are concerned that the process of ocean acidification constitutes a threat to sea life and to the cultures that depend on the ocean for their food and livelihood. Increases in ocean acidity reduce the concentration of carbonate ions and the availability of aragonite (a significant source of calcium carbonate) in seawater. Marine scientists expect that coral, shellfish, and other marine calcifiers (that is, organisms that use carbonates) will be less able to obtain the raw materials that they use to build and maintain their skeletons and shells. These scientists also note that rising ocean acidity presents a number of other physiological problems to different groups of marine organisms and that such problems could threaten the stability of marine food chains.

Changes in seawater chemistry

The acidity of any solution is determined by the relative concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺). A larger concentration of H⁺ ions in a solution corresponds to higher acidity, which is measured as a lower pH. When CO ₂ dissolves in seawater, it creates carbonic acid (H ₂CO ₃) and liberates H⁺, which subsequently reacts with carbonate ions (CO ₃ 2−) and aragonite (the stable form of calcium carbonate) to form bicarbonate (HCO ₃−). At present seawater is extremely rich in dissolved carbonate minerals. However, as ocean acidity increases, carbonate ion concentrations fall.

The absorption of CO ₂ largely results from the dissolution of the gas into the upper layers of the ocean, but CO ₂ is also brought into the oceans through photosynthesis and respiration. Algae and other marine photosynthesizers take in CO ₂ and store it in their tissues as carbon. Carbon is then passed to zooplankton and other organisms through the food chain, and these organisms can release CO ₂ to the oceans through respiration. In addition, when marine organisms die and fall to the ocean floor, CO ₂ is released through the process of decomposition.

Physiological and ecological effects

Under the worst-case scenarios outlined above, with seawater pH dropping to between 7.8 and 7.9, carbonate ion concentrations would decrease by at least 50 percent as acids in the seawater reacted with them. Under such conditions, marine calcifiers would have substantially less material to maintain their shells and skeletons. Laboratory experiments in which the pH of seawater has been lowered to approximately 7.8 (to simulate one projected oceanic pH for the year 2100) have shown that such organisms placed in these environments do not grow as well as those placed in environments characterized by early 21st-century levels of seawater acidity (pH = 8.05). As a result, their small size places them at higher risk of being eaten by predators. Furthermore, the shells of some organisms-for instance, pteropods, which serve as food for krill and whales -dissolve substantially after only six weeks in such high-acid environments.

Larger animals such as squid and fishes may also feel the effects of increasing acidity as carbonic acid concentrations rise in their body fluids. This condition, called acidosis, may cause problems with the animal's respiration as well as with growth and reproduction.

In addition, many marine scientists suspect the substantial decline in oyster beds along the West Coast of the United States since 2005 to be caused by the increased stress ocean acidification places on oyster larvae. (It may make them more vulnerable to disease.)

Physiological changes brought on by increasing acidity have the potential to alter predator-prey relationships. Some experiments have shown that the carbonate skeletons of sea urchin larvae are smaller under conditions of increased acidity; such a decline in overall size could make them more palatable to predators who would avoid them under normal conditions. In turn, decreases in the abundance of pteropods, foraminiferans, and coccoliths would force those animals that consume them to switch to other prey. The process of switching to new food sources would cause several predator populations to decline while also placing predation pressure on organisms unaccustomed to such attention.

Many scientists worry that many marine species, some critical to the proper functioning of marine food chains, will become extinct if the pace of ocean acidification continues, because they will not have sufficient time to adapt to the changes in seawater chemistry. The world's coral reefs, which provide habitat to many species and are often regarded by ecologists as centres of biodiversity in the oceans, could decline and even disappear if ocean acidification intensifies and carbonate ion concentrations continue to fall.

The deeper waters of the ocean are naturally more acidic than the upper layers, since CO ₂ that dissolves at the surface descends with dense, cold water as part of the thermohaline circulation. The acidic lower layers of the ocean are separated from the upper layers by a boundary called the "saturation horizon." Above this boundary there are enough carbonates present in the water to support coral communities. In midlatitude waters and in waters closer to the poles, many so-called cold-water coral communities are found at depths that range from 40 to 1,000 metres (about 130 to 3,300 feet)-as opposed to their warm-water counterparts, the tropical coral reefs, which are rarely found below 100 metres (330 feet). Since about the year 1800, studies have shown, increased acidity has raised the saturation horizon about 50 to 200 metres (about 160 to 660 feet) in midlatitude and polar waters. This change is enough to threaten cold-water coral communities, and some scientists fear that additional communities will be placed at risk if the boundary approaches the surface of the ocean. A decline in cold-water marine calcifiers would result in a decline in reef building, and other marine organisms that depend on corals for their habitat and food would decline as well. Scientists also predict that, if ocean acidification were to increase worldwide, warm-water coral communities, which often supply food and tourism revenue to people who live near them, would suffer similar fates.

In addition, scientists predict that the reduction of marine phytoplankton populations due to rising pH levels in the oceans will produce a positive feedback that intensifies global warming. Marine phytoplankton produce dimethyl sulfide (DMS), a gas that serves as the most significant source of sulfur in Earth's atmosphere. Sulfur in Earth's upper atmosphere reflects some of the incoming solar radiation back into space and thus keeps it from warming Earth's surface. Models predict that DMS production will decrease by about 18 percent by 2100 from preindustrial levels, which will result in additional radiative forcing corresponding to an atmospheric temperature increase of 0.25 °C (0.45 °F).
John P. Rafferty

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ocean acidification | Definition, Causes, Effects, Chemistry, & Facts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Ocean acidification, the worldwide reduction in the pH of seawater as a consequence of the absorption of large amounts of carbon dioxide by the oceans. It is largely the result of loading Earth's atmosphere with large quantities of carbon dioxide, produced by vehicles and industrial and agricultural processes.

# data[].attributes.body
This source includes 4 effects of ocean acidification on the marine environment.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Read "Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean" at NAP.edu

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Read chapter 4 Effects of Ocean Acidification on Marine Ecosystems: The ocean has absorbed a significant portion of all human-made carbon dioxide emission...

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GL7qJYKzcsk

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/What+is+Ocean+Acidification%3F
This source is a government website. It is about the chemistry behind and the impacts.

https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/ocean-acidification
This source is a educational website teaching the impacts and reasons of ocean acidification.

# data[].attributes.headline
| o c e a n   a c i d i f i c a t i o n |

# data[].attributes.subject
| o c e a n   a c i d i f i c a t i o n |

# data[].attributes.body
1)
Web Link: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/acidification.html
Description:
National Ocean Service, a U.S. department, explains the basics of ocean acidification including what it is and what causes ocean acidification. This website also includes more links leading to tests and experiments tested by NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) regarding ocean acidification.
2)
Web Link:
http://archives.esf.org/fileadmin/Public_documents/Publications/SPB37_OceanAcidification.pdf
Description:
A PDF file from the European Science Foundation explaining the impacts of ocean acidification. The file also describes the biological impacts and historical cases of ocean acidification. The file also explains how ocean acidification relates to other subjects such as I & S by explaining the collaboration between human and nature regarding ocean acidification.

# data[].attributes.body
This source is a video that The Ocean Foundation created, to raise awareness about Ocean Acidification and informs the possible harms of ocean acidification.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
Boats and boating--Equipment and supplies

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ocean Acidification | The Ocean Foundation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Greene, S. (8 July 2016.) " The damage wrought by acidic oceans hurts more than marine life and lasts longer than you think." Los Angeles Times. With greater acidity of the ocean, phytoplankton can only capture and store carbon up to a certain point.

# data[].attributes.body
1) Ocean acidification and its effects ⥥

https://coastadapt.com.au/ocean-acidification-and-its-effects

2) Chemistry behind Ocean Acidification ⥥

https://theotherco2problem.wordpress.com/what-happens-chemically/

3) Ocean acidification ⥥

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sci/tech/7933589.stm

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fgBozLCGUHY
A

https://theotherco2problem.wordpress.com/what-happens-chemically/

# data[].attributes.body
The article talked about the damage of marine life causes by ocean acidification.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
All sea life will be affected because carbon dioxide emissions from modern society are making the oceans more acidic, a major new report will say.

The eight-year study from more than 250 scientists finds that infant sea creatures will be especially harmed.

This means the number of baby cod growing to adulthood could fall to a quarter or even a 12th of today's numbers, the researchers suggest.

The assessment comes from the BIOACID project, which is led from Germany.

A brochure summarising the main outcomes will be presented to climate negotiators at their annual meeting, which this year is taking place in Bonn in November.

The Biological Impacts of Ocean Acidification report authors say some creatures may benefit directly from the chemical changes - but even these could still be adversely affected indirectly by shifts in the whole food web.

What is more, the research shows that changes through acidification will be made worse by climate change, pollution, coastal development, over-fishing and agricultural fertilisers.

Ocean acidification is happening because as CO2 from fossil fuels dissolves in seawater, it produces carbonic acid and this lowers the pH of the water.

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the average pH of global ocean surface waters have fallen from pH 8.2 to 8.1. This represents an increase in acidity of about 26%.

The study's lead author is Prof Ulf Riebesell from the GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research in Kiel.

He is a world authority on the topic and has typically communicated cautiously about the effects of acidification.

He told BBC News: "Acidification affects marine life across all groups, although to different degrees.

"Warm-water corals are generally more sensitive than cold-water corals. Clams and snails are more sensitive than crustaceans.

"And we found that early life stages are generally more affected than adult organisms.

"But even if an organism isn't directly harmed by acidification it may be affected indirectly through changes in its habitat or changes in the food web.

"At the end of the day, these changes will affect the many services the ocean provides to us."

On the agenda

Since 2009, scientists working under the BIOACID programme have studied how marine creatures are affected by acidification during different life stages; how these reactions reverberate through the marine food web; and whether the challenges can be mitigated by evolutionary adaptation.

Some research was done in the lab but other studies were conducted in the North Sea, the Baltic, the Arctic, and Papua New Guinea.

A synthesis of more than 350 publications on the effects of ocean acidification - which will be given to climate delegates at next month's summit - reveals that almost half of the marine animal species tested reacted negatively to already moderate increases in seawater CO2 concentrations.

Early life stages were affected in Atlantic cod, blue mussels, starfish, sea urchins and sea butterflies.

But an experiment with barnacles showed they were not sensitive to acidification. And some plants - like algae which use carbon for photosynthesis - may even benefit.

Dr Carol Turley, an ocean acidification expert from Plymouth Marine Labs in the UK described the BIOACID research as enormously important.

She told BBC News: "It's contributed enormous insights into the impacts that acidification can have on a wide range of marine organisms from microbes to fish.

"It's also explored how in combination with ocean warming and other stressors it might play out at the ecosystem level and affect human society.

"On the lead-up to the UN climate change negotiations in Bonn this November it is clear that the ocean and its ecosystems should not be ignored."

The conference is being held in Germany but it is being chaired by Fiji, which wants delegates to give due prominence to the effects of CO2 on the ocean.
Follow Roger on Twitter @rharrabin

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
All sea life will be affected because carbon dioxide emissions from modern society are making the oceans more acidic, a major new report will say. The eight-year study from more than 250 scientists finds that infant sea creatures will be especially harmed.

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.aims.gov.au/research/climate-change/ocean-acidification

https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/What+is+Ocean+Acidification%3F

# data[].attributes.body
Effects on humans, Effects on ocean sea marines, observed Changes:
https://coastadapt.com.au/ocean-acidification-and-its-effects

Changes in sea water chemistry:
https://www.britannica.com/science/ocean-acidification

🐽🐽🐽🐽🇫🇷🇫🇷

# data[].attributes.body
This explains the Chemistry of Ocean Acidification and the biological impacts on the world.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Ocean acidification is an emerging global problem. Over the last decade, there has been much focus in the ocean science community on studying the potential impacts of ocean acidification.

# data[].attributes.body
johttps://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/What+is+Ocean+Acidification%3F
When carbon dioxide (CO₂) is absorbed by seawater, chemical reactions occur that reduce seawater pH, carbonate ion concentration, and saturation states of biologically important calcium carbonate minerals.

https://climateinterpreter.org/content/how-are-humans-causing-ocean-acidification
How are humans causing ocean acidification?
Ocean acidification is occurring because too much carbon dioxide is being released into the atmosphere.
-fossil fuel emissions
-deforestation
-silver lining

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.eartheclipse.com/environment/causes-effects-solutions-of-ocean-acidification.html
causes and effects and solutions
https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/ocean-acidification

# data[].attributes.body
This source contains a brief description of how ocean acidification evolves. It also has a short video based on the topic.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Ocean acidification refers to a reduction in the pH of the ocean over an extended period time, caused primarily by uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.

# data[].attributes.body
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/acidification.html
what is ocean acidification