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Theme 4: Step 3 Look for signs of degradation in my HerpetoArea

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Theme 4: Step 3 Look for signs of degradation in my HerpetoArea

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Case study: Brownsberg Nature Park
Brownsberg was assigned a Nature Park in 1969. With a size of approximately 8,400 ha it is very popular among eco-tourist, scientists but also for illegal small scale gold miners. Brownsberg Nature Park is situated in the Green Stone Belt, which stretches over a vast area of 415,000 km² from Venezuela to the Guianas. The part of the Green Stone Belt in Suriname is a geological formation that contains Suriname’s gold reserves. All small scale gold miners working with hydraulic pumps and/or crushers use mercury, which is released into the environment, causing soil and water pollution.

The most visible impacts of small scale gold mining are the increased turbidity of rivers and creeks and deforestation. Throughout the area abandoned mines are filled with standing water which forms breeding places for mosquito and other diseases.
These activities have a direct impact on the amphibian and reptile species recorded in the area, causing habitat loss and degradation. Water pollution as a result of mercury contamination may pose an increased risk for especially amphibians because of their dependence on water during the larval stage and results in a higher mortality rate in these species.

Articles about mercury pollution in Suriname:
Review of mercury pollution in Suriname

Brownsberg Nature Park Situation Analysis 2012
Assessment of the impacts of gold mining on soil and vegetation in Brownsberg Nature Park, Suriname

Small scale gold mining at Brownsberg National Park Suriname, a forest wealth country affected by an environmental issue

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Theme 5: BUSINESS PLAN: HERPETO CONSERVATION FOUNDATION

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Theme 5: BUSINESS PLAN: HERPETO CONSERVATION FOUNDATION

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Overview of Project

The Herpeto Conservation Foundation is a local voluntary organization which has been established to protect the local herpetofauna and to raise awareness of all the benefits and ecosystem roles of the herpetofauna.

Vision

The Herpeto Conservation Foundation represents the conservation and management of the herpetofauna to ensure sustainable populations in healthy ecosystems.

Mission

To protect, sustain and monitor the population of herpetofauna and their habitats through management and conservation.

Goals and objectives

- To gather and share knowledge about the unique local herpetofauna through workshops, symposia, and present this information to local government agencies, communities and relevant stakeholders

- To provide facilities for research, support and attract scientists and herpetologists from all over the world in order to exchange knowledge

- To provide facilities for eco tourists, adventurers and wildlife lovers and contribute to the (eco) tourist industry of the country

- To address the problems and threats for the local herpetofauna, identify the source of these threats and implement mitigation measures if possible

- To provide suitable living conditions and or shelters for the local herpetofauna

- To improve the long term conservation and protection of the herpetofauna

- To set up programs for involving local communities and to provide employment

- To create a database for herpetofaunal species collected and observed in the area and use modelling for future scenarios on population and migration

Management

The Herpeto Conservation Foundation is a non-profit foundation, managed by a group of highly motivated volunteers with an affiliation and or a background in herpetology or equivalent specialization.

Finances

The foundation heavily relies on donations from third parties and funds raised for the foundation

S.W.O.T. analysis
Strengths:

High skilled volunteers with relevant knowledge and research capacities

Enough funds for main activities

National and international relationships for knowledge sharing

Weaknesses:

Heavy dependence on funding and resources to carry out goals and objectives

Available funds only sufficient to carry out main activities

Local parties and government not sufficiently involved

Opportunities:

Promote awareness on herpetofauna conservation, their threats and mitigation measures

Collaborate with relevant institutions and expand the network

Create a database of collected and observed species and use modeling to predict future scenarios on their populations and migration rates

Threats:

Misunderstanding and indifference of local communities

Lack of funds to continue the activities of the Foundation

Lack of proper law enforcement

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Theme 4: Step 1 Proposal for possible strategies for conservation and sustainability of Malagasy reptiles:

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Theme 4: Step 1 Proposal for possible strategies for conservation and sustainability of Malagasy reptiles:

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According to Jenkins RKB, Tognelli MF, Bowles P, Cox N, Brown JL, Chan L, et al. (2014), thirty nine percent of the data sufficient Malagasy reptiles are threatened with extinction. The most important threats to habitat degradation are caused by wood harvesting and non-timber crops. The primary threats for tortoises and for a relatively small number of species are direct removal of reptiles for international trade and human consumption. Of these threatened species, nine are endemic to recently created protected areas. In order to address the increasing risk of extinction of species, a proposal for conservation and sustainability of Malagasy reptiles has been made, consisting of the following possible strategies (from a scientist’s point of view):
1. Awareness and institutional capacity building

a. Workshops and participatory planning, brainstorm sessions with local communities

b. Highlight the benefits of reptiles and their ecosystem role

c. Promotion of conservation of species diversity

2. Law enforcement, implementation, monitoring and penalties

a. Integration into national policy and legislation

b. Address challenges to biodiversity from climate change and pollution

c. Protect globally important and endangered reptile species

d. Limit commercial hunting and collection of wildlife for trade

3. Promote sustainable agricultural and wood harvesting practices and sustainable consumption

a. Training and awareness meetings for farmers in sustainable techniques to improve overall yield from crops and soil fertility while reducing erosion risks

b. Ongoing research on improved sustainable farming techniques, combining scientific and traditional knowledge

c. Reduce pressures from habitat loss, land use change and degradation

4. Review status of protected areas to see if it needs updating

a. Inventory of the reptile population as a basis for deciding on possible protection of additional areas

b. Develop, update and review management and action plans if needed

5. Reforestation of degraded zones

6. Implementation of measures to protect hotspots

a. Research and monitoring of local reptile species, identify threats and challenges to protect them

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A lot of ecological adaptations have taken place for the P. pipa of which the most important ones are:
- A triangular shaped head and flat, wide body, for better camouflage against predators
- They can detect prey by sensing its movement with their webbed fingers
- Instead of a tongue they are equipped with a vacuum like suction ability for drawing prey to their mouths or by using their star-like fingertips
- Eggs are embedded on the skin of the female's back as a strategy against predators

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Ecological status
According to the IUCN Redlist the status of Pipa pipa is of least concern, meaning that the population is stable.
Habitat
Mostly aquatic environments, such as slow moving waterbodies, streams or pools in tropical rainforests or swamps and flooded forests.
Physical description
P. pipa can easily be recognized by its large triangular head, small eyes and beadlike pupils and nostrils at the end of two narrow tubes on the snout. They are brown or olive colored and have a flat, wide leave-like body. The front limbs are short, weak with webless digits that end in a star shaped organ. The hind limbs are long, strong and webbed. The females can reach a length of 105 – 171 mm and the males 106 – 154 mm. They lie on the bottom hidden in leaf litter and ascend to the surface every half hour for oxygen.
Diet
P. pipa are aquatic omnivores and their diet consists mostly of invertebrates and small fishes. They are tongueless and use their star shaped tactile organs on their forelimb fingertips to detect food on the bottom of their aquatic environment and to stuff the food in their mouths.
Reproduction
After the male fertilizes the eggs on the females back, the skin of the female encloses the fertilized eggs after which the female carries the eggs on her back until they fully develop. Hatching of the eggs is after 3 – 4 months and the hatchlings are fully developed individuals, approximately 2 cm in length, emerging from the female’s back.
Threats
Habitat loss and degradation due to human activities such as logging and mining
References
https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Pipa_pipa/
http://amphibiaweb.org:8000/cgi/amphib_query?rel-common_name=like&rel-family=equals&rel-ordr=equals&rel-intro_isocc=like&rel-description=like&rel-distribution=like&rel-life_history=like&rel-trends_and_threats=like&rel-relation_to_humans=like&rel-comments=like&rel-submittedby=like&max=200&orderbyaw=Genus%2Bspecies&include_synonymies=Yes&show_photos=Yes&rel-scientific_name=contains&where-scientific_name=pipa+pipa&rel-genus=equals&where-genus=&rel-species=equals&where-species=&where-common_name=&where-clade=&where-subfamily=&where-family=any&where-ordr=any&rel-isocc=occurs+in&where-isocc=&rel-species_account=matchboolean&where-species_account=&rel-declinecauses=equals&where-declinecauses=&rel-iucn=begins+with&where-iucn=&rel-cites=equals&where-cites=&where-submittedby=

https://prezi.com/jil32rmds75p/surinam-toad/

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P. pipa can be found in the Amazon Basin of South America and scattered locations of Trinidad
Source: https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/58163/61414791

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Scientific Classification:
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
Family: Pipidae
Genus: Pipa
Species: P. pipa
The Suriname toad (Pipa pipa) is named after Suriname, a country in the north of South America
Video of P. pipa: Click here

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L. muta is no exception when it comes to poor eyesight, due to their evolutionary history as burrowers living in the dark and as nocturnal predators where eyes where not much of a use. Therefore they can generally only see shapes but no details.
L. muta is a pit viper meaning that they can "see" by sensing heat (infrared) using their paired pits organs, located on each side of the head between the eye and nostril. The result is an infrared image of their preys.

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Ecological status
According to the IUCN Redlist the status of Lachesis muta is vulnerable and the severely fragmented population is declining.
Habitat
Lowland tropical rainforest habitat. They are ground living and prefer a moist environment.
Physical description
L. muta, known as the South American bushmaster is the longest venomous snake in the Americas and the second longest venomous snake in the world with a length of 2 – 3 m and even in some cases 4 m, and can weigh up to 3 – 7 kg. They have a brown color with black or dark brown markings on the back, a white or light yellow coloring on the belly and a tail with a horny spine which vibrates when disturbed.  They have paired pit organs between the eye and nostril for sensing infrared energy. Males are larger than females. Being a part of the family of vipers they have large fangs and enormous venom glands. They inject venom during attacks and their bite can be fatal for humans without proper treatment.
Diet
They are nocturnal ambush predators that wait quietly in leaf litter for passing prey. They primarily feed on small to medium sized mammals, but also on birds and reptiles.
Reproduction
L. muta are solitary animals, except during breeding activities. They are oviparous and lay about a clutch of a dozen of eggs on average which has an incubation period of 60 – 79 days during which the female guard the nest. Hatchlings have a length of about 30 – 50 cm with bright yellow tail tips and reach sexual maturity at 4 years.
Threats
Human activities, such as deforestation for mining, logging and wood harvesting.
References
http://www.lachesisbrasil.com.br/download/DeanRipa-GeographicalDistribution.pdf
https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/a?dbs+hsdb:@term+@DOCNO+8334

http://reptile-database.reptarium.cz/species?genus=Lachesis&species=muta&search_param=%28%28search%3D%27lachesis+muta%27%29%29
https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Lachesis_muta/
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.325.8959&rep=rep1&type=pdf

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L. muta is native to the tropical rainforests of South and Central America.
Source: http://www.lachesisbrasil.com.br/download/DeanRipa-GeographicalDistribution.pdf

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Reptile: Lachesis muta (South American bushmaster)

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Reptile: Lachesis muta (South American bushmaster)

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Scientific Classification:
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Viperidae
Genus: Lachesis
Species: L. muta
The scientific name Lachesis muta means silent fate, referring to the snake shaking its tail though they lack a rattle, when sensing danger or when feeling threatened.
Video of L. muta: Click here

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Reptile species: Lachesis muta (South American bushmaster)
Amphibian species: Pipa pipa (Suriname toad)

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According to the Reptile Database a total of 156 reptile species for Suriname have been recorded (Source: The Reptile Database)

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According to the Database Amhibiaweb a total of 112 amphibian species for Suriname have been recorded. (Source: AmphibiaWeb)

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Collared tree runner (Plica plica)
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Tropiduridae
Genus: Plica
Species: P. plica

P. plica is native to the northern part of South America and can be found in primary and secondary forest whereas they prefer to live in forest trees .
More info about P. plica: Click here

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Microcaecilia taylori
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Apoda
Family: Siphonopidae
Genus: Microcaecilia
Species: M. taylori

M. taylori is known only from two locations: one in Sipaliwini Savanna (southern Suriname) and the other one in Para, Brazil (South of the Amazon River). They occur in tropical rainforests and savanna forest islands.
Additional info about M. taylori: Click here

http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Gymnophiona/Siphonopidae/Microcaecilia/Microcaecilia-taylori
https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/59573/11951234

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Theme 2: Step 3
Amphibian and Reptile species of my area

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Theme 2: Step 3
Amphibian and Reptile species of my area

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The herpetofauna of Suriname vary widely. Therefore for this assignment two amphibian species (Dendrobates tintorius azureus and Microcaecilia taylori) and two reptilian species (Corallus caninus and Plica plica) have been described.

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Emerald tree boa (Corallus caninus)
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Boidae
Genus: Corallus
Species: C. caninus

C. caninus can be found in the canopies of tropical rainforest' trees. They occur in the Amazonian and Guianan regions of South America.
Phylogenetic Study of C. caninus: Click here
Geographic variation of C. caninus: Click here
https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Corallus_caninus/

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Blue poison dart frog (Dendrobates azureus)
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
Family: Dendrobatidae
Genus: Dendrobates
Species: D. tinctorius
Subspecies: D. tinctorius azureus

D. azureus is an endemic species of Suriname, first discovered in 1968 in the southernmost part of Suriname. They inhabit small isolated forest areas surrounded by dry savanna land. The forest habitat is rather humid and warm and the frog prefers a dark, moist environment, living near small streams among moss covered rocks. Typically they remain on the ground, but they have also been found in trees.
Discovery of D. azureus in Sipaliwini Savanna, Suriname: Click here

https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Dendrobates_tinctorius/

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Theme 2: Step 1 Activate prior knowledge

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Theme 2: Step 1 Activate prior knowledge

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There is a connection between the two phenomena, namely the several changes in global Earth temperature and the fact that endemic species are present in the three peninsulas of Europe whereas no endemism is practically not present in northern European areas.

5 options describing the possible effect of climate change on organisms:

1.      They became extinct.

2.      They moved to warmer areas for food.

3.      They developed thick insulations (i.e. furs, extra layers of fat, etc.).

4.      They moved to warmer ecosystems (i.e. lowland areas, in forests etc.).

5.      They coped with their new environment remaining where they were.

Based on the 5 options mentioned above, the following hypothetical answer can be formulated:

As a result of climate change, one of the main sources for survival (the availability of food) has become scarce so organisms moved to other areas in search for food. The remaining options are also a possible effect of climate change, because some of these organisms were unable to cope with such a drastic change and became extinct or migrated to warmer ecosystems whereas others were able to cope with the changed environment and developed adaptation features such as thick insulations.

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Theme 1: Fossil ID Cards: Amphibian Fossil ID Card: Timonya anneae

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Theme 1: Fossil ID Cards: Amphibian Fossil ID Card: Timonya anneae

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No fossil records have been recorded either for amphibians in Suriname. The amphibian fossil mentioned here is from Brazil.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Temnospondyli
Family: Dvinosauria
Genus: Timonya Cisneros
Species: T. anneae
Period: Early Permian
Location: Lower part of the Pedra de Fogo Formation, Parnaiba Basin, Brazil
Age: 278 million years old
Small aquatic about 40 cm in length
https://www.zmescience.com/science/archaeology/permian-fossils-brazil-2873234/

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Theme 1: Fossil ID Cards: Reptile Fossil ID Card: Captorhinus aguti

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Theme 1: Fossil ID Cards: Reptile Fossil ID Card: Captorhinus aguti

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As of now, no fossil records for both amhibians and reptiles have been recorded for Suriname. Therefore, a fossil species from another South American country, Brazil was chosen.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Captorhinidae
Genus: Captorhinus Cope
Species: C. aguti
Period: Early Permian
Location: Pedra de Fogo Formation, Parnaiba Basin, Brazil
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2015/november/ancient-amphibian-fossils-unearthed-in-brazil.html

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Classification: Animalia-Chordata-Amphibia-Anura-Dendrobatidae-Ameerega-A. trivittata

The natural habitats of Ameerega trivittata formerly known as Epipedobates trivittatus are tropical rainforest floors and freshwater marshes. They are native in Amazon countries like Suriname, Bolivia, Guyana and Brazil

The females are bigger (42-46mm) than the males (37-40mm). A. trivittata can be recognized by their black dorsal skin with striped lateral markings which are mostly green but can vary to yellow and orange as well. Their main food source are insects, such as ants.

They lay their eggs around 30-40 eggs, under fallen leaves during the rainy season (May to October) and it takes up to 15 days to hatch. After hatching the tadpoles are carried by the male on the back to a pool or other water source to further develop.

The main threat is habitat loss as a result of deforestation and logging related activities. Frogs are good indicators of human and non-human induced change and health of ecosystems.

https://amphibiaweb.org/species/1675

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Chelonoidis carbonaria (Red footed tortoise)

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Chelonoidis carbonaria (Red footed tortoise)

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Classification: Animalia-Chordata-Reptilia-Testudines-Testudinidae-Chelonoidis-C. carbonaria

Chelonoidis carbonaria can be found in different habitats, ranging from humid tropical forests to dry savanna areas. Their native geographical range stretches from the east of the Andes through the Guianas continuing through eastern Brazil and on some Caribbean Islands.

The carapace of these tortoises ranges from dark brown to blackish brown and can reach approximately 51 cm in length.

The breeding season is from June to September and the number of hatchlings ranges from 2 to 15 per nest. They feed primarily on fruits, but also consume dead and living foliage and fungi. The main predators of the C. carbonaria are jaguars and humans. Their populations can range from very common in some areas to very scarce in other due to habitat destruction, overexploitation for food and the pet trade.

They have an important role to play in the ecosystem as seed dispersers of tropical plants.

https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Chelonoidis_carbonaria/

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Classification: Animalia-Chordata-Reptilia-Crocodilia-Alligatoridae-Caiman-C. crocodilus

The Caiman crocodilus is a species native to northern South America, Central America and some Caribbean Islands. C.crocodilus can be found in both freshwater as salt water habitats, but they prefer slow moving waters, such as rivers and wetlands.

They can reach a length of between 1.5-2.1 meters and can weigh up to 40 kg. They are called spectacled caiman because of the presence of a bony infra orbital bridge between the eyes.

They breed from May through August and a nest can consist of 10 to 30 eggs. They are carnivores and their diet consist mostly of insects, crustaceans, fish, lizards, birds and small mammals. Their main predator is the human and they are subject to hunting, pet trade and use of different body parts (skins).

The role they play in the ecosystem is that they are predators of aquatic invertebrates and small vertebrates and keep the food chain in balance.

https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Caiman_crocodilus/

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The Brownsberg Nature Park, a mountain with an almost flat top is completely covered by rainforest and is located in the west of the Brokopondo Reservoir. It has a size of approximately 8,400 ha and got its status as Nature Park in 1969. Therefore it is an area popular among eco-tourists and it also serves as an education and research center.

Flora: A high plant diversity of more than 1450 species have been recorded from which 138 species appear to be rare. A total of 12 endemic species have been identified in the Park.

Fauna: Just like the high diversity of flora also a high diversity of fauna, especially in the birds and mammals category have been found including some endangered and/or rare species. For particularly the amphibian and reptile species, the following numbers have been recorded:

-          Amphibians: over 23 species recorded, including Ameerega trivittata

-          Reptiles:

§  Lizards: 21 species recorded

§  Snakes: over 3 species recorded

§  Turtles: over 2 species recorded

§  Caimans: 1 specie recorded

The main ecosystems of the Brownsberg Nature Park are: mixed mesophytic tropical rainforest, lower montane forest, liana forest and mountain brooks with small waterfalls.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262972705_Directory_of_protected_areas_of_Suriname/download

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The Boven Coesewijne Nature Reserve consists of a diverse area of savannas, swamp forests, rainforests and fresh water swamps.

It is located between the Coppename and Saramacca River and has a size of approximately 27,000 ha.

It is unique due to the fact that it is the largest unbleached brown sand savanna of the country and therefore it is declared a nature reserve in 1986.

Flora: The Boven Coesewijne Nature Reserve has a high plant diversity and more than 600 plant species, including 68 species of orchids have been recorded. Of these species, 23 are endemic to the area.

Fauna: The area is not only known for its high diversity of flora, but also for its fauna. Different species such as manatees, giant river otters, turtles and caimans have their habitat in this area. The diversity of ecosystems causes the fauna diversity to be high as well. Some data in particular, amphibian and reptile data:

-          Amphibians: over 21 species recorded

-          Reptiles:

§  Lizards: over 15 species recorded

§  Snakes: over 16 species recorded

§  Turtles: over 5 species recorded, including Chelonoidis carbonaria

§  Caimans: 3 species recorded

As mentioned earlier the Boven Coesewijne Nature Reserve has a high ecosystem diversity, some of these are: dry brown sand savanna, marshy brown sand savanna, dry white sand savanna, marshy white sand savanna, hydrophytic swamp forest, mixed mesophytic dryland- and marsh forest, xerophytic swamp forest, fresh water ponds and lakes, marshy clay savanna, grass swamps, mixed meso-xerophytic dryland wood, black water river and creeks, clear water creeks.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262972705_Directory_of_protected_areas_of_Suriname/download

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The Bigi Pan Multiple Use Management Area is an area consisting of brackish to fresh water swamps with a high productivity. It is located along the Atlantic Coast, between Burnside and the Corantijn River and covers an area of approximately 68,300 ha.

Because of its high productivity it got its status as multiple use management area in 1987.

Flora: a low diversity of plants, for example mangrove species due to the salt to brackish water zone.

Fauna: This area is abundant in different species of fish and invertebrates and therefore resulted in high number of bird species. Diversity of the other fauna groups is generally low. Some numbers of recorded species of amphibians and reptiles are:

-          Amphibians: 2 species recorded

-          Reptiles: over 4 species recorded, including Caiman crocodilus

The diversity of ecosystems in this area consist of: coastal mudflats, coastal mudgrass vegetation, mature mangrove forest, herb vegetation, brackish short grass swamps, shallow salt water swamps, brackish to freshwater swamp scrub, tall grass swamps, brackish to salt water creeks, predominantly mixed marsh forest.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262972705_Directory_of_protected_areas_of_Suriname/download

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The three habitats that have been described are circled in red in below map of Suriname, these areas are: Bigi Pan MUMA (Wetland), Boven Coesewijne Nature Reserve (Savanna) and Brownsberg Nature Park (Tropical Rainforest)
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262972705_Directory_of_protected_areas_of_Suriname/download