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Within the area of climate change, summer temperatures are of special interest because of the economic, social and environmental consequences that can derive from their hypothetical increase. A number of recent studies have shown a worldwide trend towards increasing summer temperatures. In this work, we analyse summer temperatures (July and August) in the Valencia region of Spain from 1958 to the present, with the aim of characterising their evolution and detecting any trend towards a higher frequency of warmer days. First results indicate that in our study area there is indeed a higher frequency of days with tropical characteristics and persistent heat; in contrast, we found no tendency to exceed the records of absolute maximum temperatures.

Impacts on water resources produced by climate change can be exacerbated when occurring in regions already presenting low water resources levels and frequent droughts, and subject to imbalances between water demands and available resources. Within Europe, according to existing climate change scenarios, water resources will be severely affected in Spain. However, the detection of those effects is not simple, because the natural variability of the water cycle and the effects of water abstractions on flow discharges complicate the establishment of clear trends. Therefore, there is a need to improve the assessment of climate change impacts by using hydrological simulation models. This paper reviews water resources and their variability in Spain, the recent modelling studies on hydrological effects of climate change, expected impacts on water resources, the implications in river basins and the current policy actions.

Spain’s eastern Valencia region has just experienced the wettest winter on record. In the provinces of Valencia and Alicante, there had not been this much rain since authorities began keeping weather records back in 1864. It is the same story in Castellón province, which began keeping track of rainfall in 1920.

https://elpais.com/elpais/2017/03/21/inenglish/1490106906_325354.html

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/02626667.2012.702213
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227677648_Summer_temperature_trends_in_a_Mediterranean_area_Valencia_region

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Lantana camara

Oxalis pescaprae

Trachemys scripta elegans
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3236743?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320993361_Exotic_Plant_Species_in_the_Mediterranean_Biome_A_Reflection_of_Cultural_and_Historical_Relationships

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Species that appear on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

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Species that appear on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

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Sphaerium solidum

Knautiawespbij (Nomada armata)

Dugastella valentina

Mud Snail (Omphiscola glabra)

Chondrobasis levantina

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Wildlife overexploitation: Bonelli's eagle
Direct persecution by man is one of the problems that
from ancient times up to the present day has affected
the populations of many predators, among them
Bonelli's eagle. Up to the beginning of the 1970s laws
existed in Spain that promoted and stimulated the
elimination of these animals. The most commonly used
methods were shooting, poisoning and trapping, or the
robbery of eggs and chicks in the nest.
Although the frequency of direct persecution in relation
to electrocution has diminished in some areas, the
absolute number of eagles killed by this cause is similar
(or even higher) to the numbers from decades ago (see
Case Study 3) and is still a major cause of mortality,
both in non-territorial and territorial Bonelli’s eagles.
This resurgence of illegal practices that are very harmful
to the fauna and the ecosystems (poisons, systematic
persecution of predators) can probably be attributed to
the decrease in hunting yields caused by the
appearance of new diseases in game species,
inappropriate repopulations, the degradation of habitats
and untenable hunting pressure that blames predators.
In other cases, it may be simply a question of shooting
indiscriminately any animal or of killing and trade in a
protected species. Sustainable hunting activity that
respects the environment and favours biodiversity can
be perfectly compatible with the conservation of eagle
species. Thus, the main recommendations for
eradicating or minimizing the number of eagles killed by
direct persecution are:
https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/Biota-Fa-Bi-460-003.pdf
https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/Biota-Fa-Bi-460-003.pdf

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Habitat loss:
In semiarid Mediterranean areas( Castellon region), the widespread environmental impact caused by the construction of motorways, railways, and pipelines has created an increasing need for effective restoration. We examined the influence of slope characteristics on vegetation and water erosion on 71 motorway slopes in a semiarid Mediterranean region. Specifically, we studied the effect of slope angle, type (roadfill vs. roadcut) and aspect (north vs. south) on soil properties, vegetation cover, species richness, floristic composition, and water‐caused erosion. Temporal dynamics of soil water content was monitored and related to the soil water potential in order to explain possible differences in vegetation cover between slope types. The main factors influencing vegetation on motorway slopes were the angle, type, and aspect of the slope. Vegetation was almost completely lacking on roadcuts with slopes greater than 45°. On gentler slopes, vegetation cover was 44–78% on roadfills but did not reach 10% on roadcuts, regardless of aspect. The main soil properties affected by the slope type and aspect were the organic matter content, soil available P, and water content. Rill erosion, gully erosion, and mass movement were all significantly higher on roadcuts than roadfills. A total of 308 spontaneous colonizers and seeded species were recorded. The type and aspect of the slope also controlled species composition. The short duration of available water in the soil with respect to soil water potential proved to be a limiting factor to plant colonization on roadcuts and south‐facing slopes as well as the low soil fertility in the case of roadcuts. Our results underscore the difficulty of revegetating slopes with angles greater than 45°, where the probability of seeds moving downhill is high. Future efforts should focus on increasing the surface roughness or building terraces at regular intervals in order to reduce slope angle to less than 45° and favor seed trapping and germination. On gentler slopes, adjusting of seed mixes according to dominant species associated with each slope type and aspect should improve considerably the success of roadside revegetation.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1061-2971.2004.0325.x
https://www.elmundo.es/comunidad-valenciana/castellon/2017/10/18/59e794a9e2704e3d3c8b459b.html

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https://eunis.eea.europa.eu/sites/ES0000466

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based on the simplified trophic pyramid

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two parasitic organisms;

●      the ecological niche of two characteristic animals;

Weasel (Mustela nivalis) and Fox (Vulpes vulpes )

●      two organisms that share the same food (niche partitioning) and the way that they manage it;
Golden eagle and Bonelli eagle.

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two examples of animals with a predator-prey relation;

Golden eagle and Bonelli eagles.

Golden eagle  is a huge bird of prey. With its long broad wings and longish tail, it has a different outline to the smaller buzzard. It likes to soar and glide on air currents, holding its wings in a shallow 'V'. Eagles have traditional territories and nesting places which may be used by generations.
Lives mostly in remote mountainous areas, in northern Europe also on lower ground [Forsman 1999]. . The Golden Eagle needs large territories with enough prey and places free of human disturbance where it can build it's nest. It prefers open country or forests with a lot of open spaces where it can hunt. For nest construction, either large trees or cliffs are needed. They have been illegally killed in the past and are still occasionally poisoned, or have their nests robbed.

In Greece golden ealge mostly feeds on tortoises in summer time and differents kind of prey in winter period.

http://www.parquesnaturales.gva.es/documents/79584147/165139391/Censo+y+conservaci%C3%B3n+de+%C3%A1guila+perdicera+y+%C3%A1guila+real+en+la+CV-2018/82d157e6-7be4-4548-a1aa-437126a1ed22
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307865472_Preliminary_age_and_spatial_structure_analysis_of_a_threatened_golden_eagle_Aquila_chrysaetos_population_in_Thraki_NE_Greece_English_translation_from_original_poster_in_Greek

Bonelli's Eagle (Hieraaetus fasciatus) is a medium sized eagle (65-72 cm), with a wingspan of 150-180 cm, living in Europe only near the Mediterranean. Its world distribution extends from NW Africa and the Iberian peninsula east to N Indochina and S China.

Bonelli's Eagles occur in mountainous areas of low and medium height (up to 1,500 m), rarely higher. They are mainly found in warm rocky mountainous regions with extended scrub (maquis, phrygana), and less frequently in woodland, but also in bare slopes with no vegetation. They use most of the habitats for hunting, besides closed woodland and desert, and they breed in steep rocks and rarely in trees.

Every pair builds several nests (1-6), close to each other (even on the same rock), which are used consecutively. The nests become larger and larger each year, up to 1,80 m in height and 2 m in diameter.

Breeding birds are sedentary, while juvenile and immature, at least in SW Europe, scatter to low altitude regions with high food density, where there are no adult birds.

It feeds on medium sized mammals, mainly rabbits and partridges, but also on hares, squirrels, rodents, doves, corvids, gulls and reptiles, caught on the ground but also on air.

Bonelli's Eagle is not a globally threatened species (IUCN), while BirdLife Internationalclassifies it as a European threatened species (Tucker and Heath 1994).

It is a rare species, with an irregular distribution in the Mediterranean. Its European population, estimated at fewer than 1,000 pairs, has seriously declined. Especially for the period 1980-90, there is a 25% reduction of its numbers in Spain, where 75% of the European population is found.

The most serious threats for the Bonelli's Eagles in Europe are hunting, collision of juvenile and immatures on electric wires, the expansion of human presence as well as food reduction.

The most significant threat, however, is the change of land use and the abandonment of traditional agricultural exploitations, that has overthrown the equilibrium of the Mediterranean landscape ("habitat mosaic") either by natural reforestation, or through new agricultural practices. The result is the shrinkage of biodiversity and, consequently, suitable prey for Bonelli's Eagles.
Food habits: The main preys of the Bonelli’s Eagle are medium size mammals (in particular European rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus and hares Lepus sp.) and birds, like partridges (Alectoris rufa), pigeons (Wood pigeon Columba palumbus, Feral pigeon C. livia domestica), crows (Corvidae: Jackdaw Corvus monedula, Hooded crow Corvus corone, Jay Garrulus glandarius, Magpie Pica pica), sometimes gulls and herons, rats, squirrels, less often reptils.

The raptor is quite adaptable in diet, being the spectrum of preys variable among different part of the range, according to local prey availability. Ontiveros (2016) reports the following diet composition: rabbits (28%), pigeons (24%), partridges (15,3%), other mammals (7%), crows (7%), reptils (6,4%). In Catalonia, a study on food pellets revealed a diet consisting of European rabbit (27%), Columbidae (32.5%) and Red partridges (11.7%) (Resano, 2011). In Greece the rabbit represent 40.8 % of rests in food pellets, whereas birds account for 32.4% (Kastritis 2011). In Cyprus, partridges account for 30-33% as proportion of preys in food pellets, rats 29-33% Columbidae 14-26%, Corvidae 2-7%, with food spectrum ranging according to breeding stage (Iezekiel et al., 2011). Changes in diet due to seasonal prey availability are also reported, showing birds prevailing (80%) from August to April, and mammals from May to July, as rabbits become more abundant (Cramp & Simmons 1980). The diet of juveniles in dispersal appears richer in rabbit than that of breeding adults (Moleón et al., 2009).

The preys are searched by patrolling and taken on ground after stoop from perches or soaring position; birds are often catched in flight with ambushes from cover of trees as they take-off. Frequently the raptor hunts in pair. The frequency of catching rabbits is more affected by prey accessibility (due to a lower vegetation coverage) than prey abundance (Ontiveros et al., 2005).

In the Mediterranean region, Bonelli’s eagles coexist simpatrically with Golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos). Although the two eagles can nest quite closely without apparent hostility, interspecific competition is reported, sometimes by means of mutual exclusion from their respective territories (Thiollay 1968, Cheylan 1973 in Cramp & Simmons 1980). Competition for food and occupation of territories previously inhabited by Bonelli’s eagle (impeding recolonization) have been proposed as the main competition mechanisms (López-López, 2011). However the presence of neighbour Golden eagle breeding pairs is considered as negligible for productivity, being this parameter negatively affected only in areas with high density of Golden or Bonelli’s eagles, or in breeding pairs composed by pre-adult Bonelli’s eagles (Carrete et al. 2006).

During hatching, Bonelli’s eagle males frequently show aggressive behaviour and pursuits against intruding Golden eagles, as well as Griffon vultures or Booted eagles, although most other diurnal raptors are tolerated; likewise, Bonelli’s eagles intruders in golden eagles territories can be attacked, with possible fatal consequences.

Pairs are highly territorial and defend their territories from neighbour pairs by visual displays consisting of typical undulating flights, with sequences of aerial plunges and rises. Direct attacks to conspecific birds are mainly launched by males during the breeding period. Immatures are often tolerated by adults, even in August-September, possibly being young birds of the previous breeding season. Territories are variable in size reflecting differences in quality, the majority extending 50-130 km2, with normal activity radius of 5-6 km around the eyrie during the breeding period (Thiollay 1968 in Cramp & Simmons 1980). Recent studies on Bonelli’s eagles tagged with GPS devices revealed very little overlap between home-ranges of different neighbour pairs, and a higher quality in smaller home-ranges (Rosario et al. 2011).

Pair density is variable among different areas. In Spain, the average distance between neighbour pairs is 11.9 km, ranging between 8.2 km (highest density in the Penibétic Cordilleras) and 33.7 km (Ebro basin, Arroyo)

The main known threats for this species in our country are hunting, habitat destruction (quarries, house building etc), disturbance in nesting sites (growth of tourism), road opening which makes habitats more accessible for poachers and probably food shortage in certain places. Moreover, in many areas Bonelli's Eagle is - unduly - considered to be a threat for newborn lambs .

Moreover, studies of its ecology should be conducted and the features of the islands’ population must be investigated. With the obtained knowledge, we will be able to proceed to careful management and protection per area as well as to inform residents and hunters in the areas where it occurs.

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Natural Park Penyagolosa Spain.
This is a tall and well-preserved mountain spur of the Iberian range in inland Spain. The Penyagolosa peak rises to 1,813m, providing a magnificent panorama over the surrounding province. The sanctuary of Sant Joan de Penyagolosa, an important site for annual pilgrimages, and extensive forests containing wild pine, black pine, faginea-type Lusitanian oak and others, all create rich scenery that visitors can enjoy. Access to the mountain is through the picturesque villages of Villahermosa del Río, Vistabella del Maestrazo and Xodos. This mountain peak is connected to the coast via the Long-Distance Hiking Route GR-33 leading down to Castellón de la Plana.