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The most common hallucinogens each come from very specific plants that are refined to make the drugs. An example of this is the peyote cactus which forms into mescaline.

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Some hallucinogens can be found in plants. Mescaline comes from a cactus called peyote. And certain mushrooms, also known as "magic" mushrooms, are hallucinogens.

But many hallucinogens are chemicals that don't occur in nature. Some examples are:

LSD, also called acid

MDA, also called the "love drug," related to the stimulant amphetamine

MDMA, known as ecstasy, also related to amphetamine

PCP, often called angel dust

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Some hallucinogens can be found in plants. Mescaline comes from a cactus called peyote. And certain mushrooms, also known as "magic" mushrooms, are hallucinogens. But many hallucinogens are chemicals that don't occur in nature.

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https://youtu.be/BP57rgVwOZg

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1. The main purpose of hallucinogens are to cause vivid images and sounds do not exist. These are called hallucinations. Hence the name of the drugs.
2. Using hallucinogens for a long period of time has been link to health issues. These include anxiety, depression, and unordinary speech.
3.These drugs have the potential to cause flashbacks to previous trips disrupting your usual life and has the ability to cause harm if you are not ready for it.
4. Hallucinogens are one of the drugs most used by younger people. This number is around 10% of youth compared to 5% of adults who have reported taken them recently.
5. Young people are also very vulnerable to addiction within their teenage years. 9 out of 10 users who have what is thought to be an addiction began in their teens.

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5 more important facts about Hallucinogens

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5 more important facts about Hallucinogens

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6. Hallucinogens are some of the most unpredictable drugs on the market. The way it affects you personally is dependent on a range of factors including your personality.
7. Hallucinogens such as peyote and LSD are classified as schedule one drugs by the federal government.
8. Your body can quickly build a tolerance towards hallucinogens leading to the need to take higher and potentially dangerous doses.
9. Using these drugs regularly can lead to feelings suspicion and confusion in your day to day life.
10. In certain cases, users become trapped in their own trip and are unable to free themselves leading to a state of constant hallucinations.

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6% compared to 2% in europe

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Ordering Publications

Call 1-877-643-2644 or:

APA Style MLA Style AMA Style

NIDA. (2015, February 1). Hallucinogens and Dissociative Drugs. Retrieved from https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/hallucinogens-dissociative-drugs

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How Widespread Is the Abuse of Hallucinogens and Dissociative Drugs?

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According to the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 229,000 Americans ages 12 and older reported current (past-month) use of LSD and 33,000 reported current use of PCP (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2013).

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What is the percent of teens who use this drug in the U.S.?

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What is the percent of teens who use this drug in the U.S.?

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A study released in January 2008 found that about 3.1 million people in the US aged 12 to 25 said they had used LSD.
.9 percent of the population in the USA.

http://www.drugfreeworld.org/drugfacts/lsd/international-statistics.html

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What are some short and long term effects of hallucinogens 

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What are some short and long term effects of hallucinogens 

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short terms are: Ingesting hallucinogenic drugs can cause users to see images, hear sounds, and feel sensations that seem real but do not exist. Their effects typically begin within 20 to 90 minutes of ingestion and can last as long as 12 hours.
long terms are: two long-term effects—persistent psychosis and HPPD—have been associated with use of classic hallucinogens (see text box below). Although occurrence of either is rare, it is also unpredictable and may happen more often than previously thought, and sometimes both conditions occur together.

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Ordering Publications

Call 1-877-643-2644 or:

APA style citation

NIDA (2015). Hallucinogens and Dissociative Drugs. Retrieved , from https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/hallucinogens-dissociative-drugs

Lesson Plan and Activity Finder

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How Do Hallucinogens (LSD, Psilocybin, Peyote, DMT, and Ayahuasca) Affect the Brain and Body?

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How Do Hallucinogens Work? Classic hallucinogens are thought to produce their perception-altering effects by acting on neural circuits in the brain that use the neurotransmitter serotonin (Passie, 2008; Nichols, 2004; Schindler, 2012; Lee, 2012).

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What are the withdrawal symptoms of this drug & where can one go for help or treatment

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What are the withdrawal symptoms of this drug & where can one go for help or treatment

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Call

SAMHSA’s National Helpline

1-800-662-HELP (4357)

or
https://findtreatment.samhsa.gov/

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How can drug abuse affect a baby in the womb.

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How can drug abuse affect a baby in the womb.

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Studies have shown that consumption of illegal drugs during pregnancy can result in miscarriage, low birth weight, premature labor, placental abruption, fetal death, and even maternal death.

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When you are pregnant, it is important that you watch what you put into your body. Consumption of illegal drugs is not safe for the unborn baby or for the mother.

Studies have shown that consumption of illegal drugs during pregnancy can result in miscarriage, low birth weight, premature labor, placental abruption, fetal death, and even maternal death.
The following information can help you understand these drugs and their effects:
Marijuana

Common slang names: pot, weed, grass and reefer

What happens when a pregnant woman smokes marijuana? Marijuana crosses the placenta to your baby. Marijuana, like cigarette smoke, contains toxins that keep your baby from getting the proper supply of oxygen that he or she needs to grow.

How can marijuana affect the baby? Studies of marijuana in pregnancy are inconclusive, because many women who smoke marijuana also use tobacco and alcohol. Smoking marijuana increases the levels of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in the blood, which reduces the oxygen supply to the baby. Smoking marijuana during pregnancy can increase the chance of miscarriage, low birth weight, premature births, developmental delays, and behavioral and learning problems.

What if I smoked marijuana before I knew I was pregnant? According to Dr. Richard S. Abram, author of Will it Hurt the Baby, "occasional use of marijuana during the first trimester is unlikely to cause birth defects." Once you are aware you are pregnant, you should stop smoking. Doing this will decrease the chance of harming your baby.

Cocaine

Common slang names: bump, toot, C, coke, crack, flake, snow, and candy

What happens when a pregnant woman consumes cocaine? Cocaine crosses the placenta and enters your baby's circulation. The elimination of cocaine is slower in a fetus than in an adult. This means that cocaine remains in the baby's body much longer than it does in your body.

How can cocaine affect my baby? According to the Organization of Teratology Information Services (OTIS), during the early months of pregnancy cocaine exposure may increase the risk of miscarriage. Later in pregnancy, cocaine use can cause placental abruption, which can lead to severe bleeding, preterm birth, and fetal death. OTIS also states that the risk of birth defects appears to be greater when the mother has used cocaine frequently during pregnancy. According to the American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecology (ACOG), women who use cocaine during their pregnancy have a 25 % increased chance of premature labor. Babies born to mothers who use cocaine throughout their pregnancy may also have a smaller head and be growth restricted. Babies who are exposed to cocaine later in pregnancy may be born dependent and suffer from withdrawal symptoms such as tremors, sleeplessness, muscle spasms, and feeding difficulties. Some experts believe that learning difficulties may result as the child gets older. Defects of the genitals, kidneys, and brain are also possible.

What if I consumed cocaine before I knew I was pregnant? There have not been any conclusive studies done on single doses of cocaine during pregnancy. Birth defects and other side effects are usually a result of prolonged use, but because studies are inconclusive, it is best to avoid cocaine altogether. Cocaine is a very addictive drug and experimentation often leads to abuse of the drug.

Heroin

Common slang names: horse, smack, junk, and H-stuff

What happens when a pregnant woman uses heroin? Heroin is a very addictive drug that crosses the placenta to the baby. Because this drug is so addictive, the unborn baby can become dependent on the drug.

How can heroin affect my baby? Using heroin during pregnancy increases the chance of premature birth, low birth weight, breathing difficulties, low blood sugar (hypoglycemia), bleeding within the brain (intracranial hemorrhage), and infant death. Babies can also be born addicted to heroin and can suffer from withdrawal symptoms. Withdrawal symptoms include irritability, convulsions, diarrhea, fever, sleep abnormalities, and joint stiffness. Mothers who inject narcotics are more susceptible to HIV, which can be passed to their unborn children.

What if I am addicted to heroin and I am pregnant? Treating an addiction to heroin can be complicated, especially when you are pregnant. Your healthcare provider may prescribe methadone as a form of treatment. It is best that you communicate with your healthcare provider so he or she can provide the best treatment for you and your baby.

PCP & LSD

What happens when a pregnant woman takes PCP and LSD? PCP and LSD are hallucinogens. Both PCP and LSD users can behave violently, which may harm the baby if the mother hurts herself.

How can PCP and LSD affect my baby? PCP use during pregnancy can lead to low birth weight, poor muscle control, brain damage, and withdrawal syndrome if used frequently. Withdrawal symptoms include lethargy, alternating with tremors. LSD can lead to birth defects if used frequently.

What if I experimented with LSD or PCP before I knew I was pregnant? No conclusive studies have been done on one-time use effects of these drugs on the fetus. It is best not to experiment if you are trying to get pregnant or think you might be pregnant.

Methamphetamine

Common slang names: meth, speed, crystal, glass, and crank

What happens when a pregnant woman takes methamphetamine? Methamphetamine is chemically related to amphetamine, which causes the heart rate of the mother and baby to increase.

How can methamphetamine affect my baby: Taking methamphetamine during pregnancy can result in problems similar to those seen with the use of cocaine in pregnancy. The use of speed can cause the baby to get less oxygen, which can lead to low birth weight. Methamphetamine can also increase the likelihood of premature labor, miscarriage, and placental abruption. Babies can be born addicted to methamphetamine and suffer withdrawal symptoms that include tremors, sleeplessness, muscle spasms, and feeding difficulties. Some experts believe that learning difficulties may result as the child gets older.

What if I experimented with methamphetamine before I knew I was pregnant? There have not been any significant studies done on the effect of one-time use of methamphetamine during pregnancy. It is best not to experiment if you are trying to get pregnant or think you might be pregnant.

What does the law say?

Currently, Tennessee is the only state that holds prenatal substance abuse as a criminal act of child abuse and neglect. That does not always stop prosecutors from trying to charge mothers with endangerment or neglect. Women are typically offered a choice between serving time in jail or joining a rehab program.

Many states have expanded their civil child-welfare requirements to include substance abuse during pregnancy as grounds for terminating parental rights in relation to child abuse and neglect.
The laws that address prenatal substance abuse are as follows:

Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Minnesota, North Dakota, and Rhode Island's healthcare providers are required to test for and report prenatal drug exposure. Indiana health care providers are only required to test.

Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, District of Columbia, Illinois, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Utah, Virginia, and Wisconsin's health care providers are required to report prenatal drug exposure. Reporting and testing can be evidence used in child welfare proceedings.

Some states consider prenatal substance abuse as part of their child welfare laws. Therefore, prenatal drug exposure can provide grounds for terminating parental rights because of child abuse or neglect. These states include Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, District of Columbia, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, Nevada, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin.

Indiana's laws only allow a healthcare provider to release drug use information with the woman's consent.

Missouri's laws state that testing positive for drugs within 8 hours post delivery AND she has either a previous child abuse/neglect conviction or if she did not complete a recommended substance abuse treatment program, constitutes unfitness as a parent.

Some states have policies that enforce admission to an inpatient treatment program for pregnant women who use drugs. These states include Minnesota, South Dakota, and Wisconsin.

In 2014, Tennessee made drug use during pregnancy a criminal offense.

How can I get help?

You can get help from counseling, support groups, and treatment programs. Popular groups include the 12 step program.
Numbers that can help you locate a treatment center include:

National Drug Help Hotline 1-800-662-4357

National Alcohol and Drug Dependence Hopeline 1-800-622-2255

Last updated: February 1, 2018 at 17:56 pm
Compiled using information from the following sources:
Organization of Teratology Information Services, http://otispregnancy.org/ Motherisk.org, http://www.motherisk.org/ American Council for Drug's Education, http://www.acde.org/ March of Dimes, http://www.marchofdimes.com/ The Alan Guttmacher Institute, http://www.guttmacher.org/

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When you are pregnant, it is important that you watch what you put into your body. Consumption of illegal drugs is not safe for the unborn baby or for the mother. Studies have shown that consumption of illegal drugs during pregnancy can result in miscarriage, low birth weight, premature labor, placental abruption, fetal death, and even maternal death.

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Can the drug cause health complications/Lifestyle diseases?

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Can the drug cause health complications/Lifestyle diseases?

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Some long term effects of hallucinogens are that the user of the drug will have psychological dependence on the drug itself

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LSD, Psilocybin/Psilocyn Mushrooms, and Peyote/Mescaline
LSD, mushrooms, and mescaline cause similar psychological effects. Light, colors, and shapes are altered, and imaginary objects appear. Walls "melt." Abusers feel like they are floating, being pressed down, or moving in slow motion. Users focus on tiny details for hours. They lose track of long periods of time.

Hallucinogens cause extreme, upsetting mood swings. Thoughts jump from idea to idea, memory to memory. Users feel their bodies growing, shrinking, or changing shape, or they feel as if they no longer exist.
Short-term Effects of LSD, Mushrooms, and Mescaline
LSD, mushrooms, and mescaline can cause these physical symptoms:

Dilated pupils

Dizziness

Dry mouth

Numbness

Tremors

Heavy perspiration

Bad body odor

Chills

"Goose bumps"

Nausea

Muscle weakness

Trembling

Poor coordination

Lowered body temperature (LSD or psilocybin mushrooms)

Higher body temperature (peyote/mescaline)

Rapid heart rate (LSD or psilocybin mushrooms)

Depressed heart rate and breathing (peyote/mescaline)

High blood pressure (LSD or psilocybin mushrooms)

Lowered blood pressure (peyote/mescaline)

Seizures (LSD or psilocybin mushrooms)

Long-term Effects of LSD, Mushrooms, and Mescaline
LSD, mushrooms, and mescaline can cause these effects with heavy or continued use:

Psychological dependence

Cross-tolerance -- the need for increasing amounts to feel effects; covers various substances, not just those someone has used

Depression

Anxiety

Increased risk of developing schizophrenia or psychotic episodes

Miscarriages

Birth defects

Fatal liver damage if the wrong mushroom is ingested.

Flashbacks

Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD) -- trailing images, spots, auras, and other visual disturbances; depression, or panic attacks; long after use or perhaps permanent

PCP Short-term Effects of PCP
Phencyclidine/PCP is the most hazardous and damaging of the hallucinogens. Users often injure themselves or others, cause property damage, or become dangerously ill.

Effects become worse with higher dosages. They include:

Lower doses:

Elevated breathing and heart rates

Elevated blood pressure

Shallow breathing

Flushing

Heavy perspiration

Numbness

Lack of coordination

Higher doses:

Distorted speech

Psychosis or catatonia

Low blood pressure

Depressed breathing and heart rates

Nausea and vomiting

Blurred vision

Rapid eye movements

Drooling

Dizziness, loss of balance

Seizures

Coma

Accidental injuries

Suicide attempts

Death

Long-term Effects of PCP
Heavy or prolonged use of PCP can cause these effects:

Memory loss

Difficulty speaking

Impaired thinking ability

Depression

Unwanted weight loss

Mood disorder

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LSD, Psilocybin/Psilocyn Mushrooms, and Peyote/Mescaline LSD, mushrooms, and mescaline cause similar psychological effects. Light, colors, and shapes are altered, and imaginary objects appear. Walls "melt." Abusers feel like they are floating, being pressed down, or moving in slow motion. Users focus on tiny details for hours. They lose track of long periods of time.

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Hallucinogens can be taken orally, injected, smoked, or sniffed.

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Providing youth with access to a comprehensive web of information so that they can make informed decisions about substance use.

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Many hallucinogens are addictive but not all of them. Some hallucinogens have yet to be studied enough to determine whether they really possess long-term addictive qualities or if they cause serious long-term side effects.

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Hallucinogens such as LSD, PCP and Peyote are widely abused drugs that cause dissociative behaviors and can lead to hallucinations, delusions and psychosis. Every case of hallucinogen abuse is different on both a user-by-user basis and on time-to-time basis. For instance, a user may experience a particular effect on a hallucinogen such as LSD one time and experience widely different effects the next time.

Many hallucinogens are addictive but not all of them. Some hallucinogens have yet to be studied enough to determine whether they really possess long-term addictive qualities or if they cause serious long-term side effects. The reaction that a user has to a particular hallucinogen can be altered based on the amount of the drug used, the environment in which the drug is used, the individual psychological well-being of the user and various other factors.
If you or someone you know is addicted to hallucinogens, call 800-592-1193 to get needed treatment help.
Types of Hallucinogens that May be Addictive

There are three umbrella categories that hallucinogenic drugs fall within. These categories include:

Psychedelics such as LSD, Psilocybin, PCP and Peyote

Dissociatives such as Ketamine and nitrous oxide

Deliriants such as certain over the counter medications like Benadryl and Dramamine

According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, when hallucinogens are described the user is referring to the use of psychedelic drugs such as LSD or Psilocybin (magic mushrooms). Dissociatives such as Ketamine actually do have a high potential for causing addiction but these drugs are not always considered hallucinogenic. The dissociative qualities of the drug can cause some to classify it as such but most people don't think of a prescription medication such as Ketamine as an actual hallucinogen.

Is LSD Addictive?

LSD is actually not considered an addictive hallucinogen as it does not cause any distinct desire or craving to use after it has been abused. Addiction is the presence of physical or psychological dependence that develops as a result of having used a drug in repeat doses. While a user may take LSD in multiple instances, the ability for this drug to cause physical dependence or a psychological craving to continue using is typically not present.

This doesn't mean that repeat use of LSD is not dangerous or that people should not be aware of the potential risks of using LSD. This drug can cause serious side effects and, if a user enjoys the time that they have while under the influence of LSD, they may be at increased risk of repeating the process of taking LSD and this can pose serious dangers. Unfortunately, using hallucinogens such as LSD can be highly unpredictable and this can quickly lead to serious danger.

Is PCP Addictive?

PCP was once an approved anesthetic that was discontinued in the 1960s because it caused patients to become irritable, delusional and irrational. This drug is addictive when the user repeatedly uses the substance. Unfortunately, PCP can cause serious mood disturbances and can cause major anxiety or panic attacks in those who abuse the drug.

Studies show that taking PCP repeatedly can cause intense cravings and compulsive behaviors associated with seeking PCP for additional use. Despite the severe consequences that may arise from abusing PCP, people who become addicted to the drug tend to overlook the problems and continue abusing the drug unless they get professional help.

Is Peyote Addictive?

Unfortunately, not enough research has been conducted to fully understand the effects of Peyote. The principle active ingredient in this cactus is mescaline which causes hallucinogenic effects and may lead to dissociative thoughts or behaviors. While there have been recent studies into the regular use of Peyote by Native Americans, these studies are not fully conclusive as to whether the drug will cause addiction. The study did find that Peyote abusers could experience flashbacks that may linger with the user for a period of days, weeks or even months following the last known use of the drug.

Which Hallucinogens are Addictive?

Is Psilocybin Addictive?

Psilocybin, or magic mushrooms, are often eaten for their LSD-like hallucinogenic qualities. These mushrooms can lead to a wide array of effects including an increased tolerance with repeat doses. Tolerance is one of the key signs of addiction and although there are no definitive studies that claim that psilocybin does actually lead to physical dependence, the presence of tolerance described in case reports does lead one to believe that this hallucinogenic drug is potentially addictive.

Taking mushrooms does pose another serious danger in addition to the potential for addiction; eating the wrong mushroom in an effort to get high may lead to poisoning. Many mushrooms are actually poisonous to eat and some users mistakenly take the wrong mushrooms in an effort to get high not realizing that they are eating a poisonous fungus.
For more information on hallucinogen addiction, or for help finding treatment that fits your needs, call 800-592-1193.

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Hallucinogens such as LSD, PCP and Peyote are widely abused drugs that cause dissociative behaviors and can lead to hallucinations, delusions and psychosis. Every case of hallucinogen abuse is different on both a user-by-user basis and on time-to-time basis.

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A hallucinogen is a psychoactive agent which can cause hallucinations, perceptual anomalies, and other substantial subjective changes in thoughts, emotion, and consciousness

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Highlights

Psychedelic and dissociative drugs can temporarily alter a person's mood, thoughts, and perceptions. Among other health effects and safety concerns, people who use these substances report feeling strong emotions ranging from bliss to fear and experiencing vast changes in how they perceive reality.

In recent years, there has been growing research interest in the potential of psychedelic and dissociative drugs to treat medical conditions, including mental health disorders. An increasing number of people also report taking these drugs outside of medical settings for recreation, to improve well-being, or for spiritual or self-exploration.

NIDA supports and conducts research to better understand the health effects of psychedelic and dissociative drugs and to learn whether some of these drugs may help treat substance use disorders in medical settings.

Expand All

What are psychedelic and dissociative drugs?

Psychedelic and dissociative drugs can temporarily alter a person's mood, thoughts, and perceptions of reality.¹ Among other health effects and safety concerns, people who use psychedelic and dissociative drugs report feeling strong emotions, ranging from intense happiness and a feeling of connectedness to fear, anxiety, and confusion.2,3 People who use these drugs also report experiencing intense or distorted visions or sensations.¹

Many psychedelic drugs derive from plants and fungi, and some have been used for thousands of years in traditional or religious rituals. Some psychedelic and dissociative drugs are also synthetic (lab-made).² People report using psychedelic and dissociative drugs for a variety of reasons, including seeking new, fun, healing, or spiritual experiences.1,3

Psychedelic drugs

Dissociative drugs

Other

Drugs that primarily influence the way the brain processes the chemical serotonin. They can bring on vivid visions and affect a person's sense of self.²

Includes: psilocybin, LSD, DMT, mescaline, NBOMes

Drugs that primarily affect how the brain processes the chemical glutamate. These drugs can make people feel disconnected from their body and environment.⁶

Includes: ketamine, PCP

Drugs such as MDMA,⁷ ibogaine,⁸ and salvia⁹ affect a variety of brain functions to cause psychedelic and/or dissociative effects.

All of these substances have mind-altering properties with the potential to cause changes in thought processes, mood, and perception of reality.3,7,8,9

Psychedelic drugs (also called "classic psychedelics" or "psychedelics"), including psilocybin and LSD, mainly interact with specific receptors, which are molecular structures in the brain. Known as 5-hydroxy-tryptamine (5-HT) 2A receptors, these are targets for the neurotransmitter (chemical messenger) serotonin. At certain doses, psychedelics may bring on vivid visions or sensations, alter a person's sense of self, and promote feelings of insightfulness or connection.¹⁰

Dissociative drugs, including ketamine and PCP, block the action of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. These are part of the brain's system for transporting glutamate, another neurotransmitter. While dissociative drugs can alter perception, they also typically make people feel disconnected from their body and environment.⁶

Other drugs such as MDMA, ibogaine, and salvia work on a variety of brain functions to cause psychedelic or dissociative effects. For more information, see " How do psychedelic and dissociative drugs work in the brain? "

How do psychedelic and dissociative drugs affect the mind and body?

NIDA supports and conducts research on the short- and long-term health effects of psychedelic and dissociative drugs to better inform health decisions and policies related to their use. While research is ongoing, scientific studies have revealed important information about how these drugs work:

Psychedelic and dissociative drugs temporarily alter thought patterns, mood, and perceptions of reality. People who use these substances report feeling strong emotions, ranging from intense happiness and a feeling of connectedness to fear, anxiety, and confusion.1,3 Many people who use psychedelic drugs, such as psilocybin and LSD, report seeing vibrant shapes, colors, and scenes and reliving vivid memories.¹⁰ People who use dissociative drugs, such as ketamine and PCP, describe experiencing distorted vision and hearing.⁶

Dissociative drugs can make people feel "detached."Many people who use dissociative drugs report feeling as though they are floating or are disconnected from their body.¹³

People may experience adverse health effects. Physical side-effects of these substances, such as headache, nausea, or changes in heart rate, are generally not life-threatening.¹⁴ However, illicitly manufactured or processed drugs may be contaminated with colorless and odorless fentanyl or other dangerous substances that can cause serious adverse events, including overdose and death.¹⁵ Psychedelic or dissociative drugs may also produce adverse or debilitating psychological effects such as fear or anxiety.3,16 Research is ongoing to better understand short- and long-term health effects of psychedelic and dissociative drugs. For more information, see "Are psychedelic and dissociative drugs safe?"

Using psychedelic and dissociative drugs has been linked to dangerous behavior and injuries. People using these drugs may have impaired thought processes and perception that cause them to behave in unusual and sometimes dangerous ways. This may lead to injuries and other safety issues, particularly if there is not another individual present who can help prevent or respond to an emergency.¹⁴ For more information, see "Are psychedelic and dissociative drugs safe?"

How do psychedelic and dissociative drugs work in the brain?

More studies are needed to better understand how psychedelic and dissociative drugs work. While researchers debate how to describe these drugs and how specific drugs should be classified, they generally group them according to what is known about how they work in the brain. Better understanding these mechanisms is an active area of NIDA-funded research. This basic research plays an important role in identifying their health effects and potential therapeutic uses.

Top left: 2D chemical structure depiction of psilocybin Top right: 2D chemical structure depiction of LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) Bottom: 2D chemical structure depiction of DMT (N,N-dimethyltryptamine)

Although research is ongoing, studies suggest psychedelic drugs-such as psilocybin, LSD, and DMT-primarily affect 5-HT 2A receptors in the brain, which ordinarily are activated by the neurotransmitter (chemical messenger) serotonin.¹⁰

Research suggests that the most prominent psychedelic effects stem from activity in the brain's prefrontal cortex, an area involved in mood, cognition, and perception.17,18 Psychedelic drugs also temporarily disrupt communication between different brain regions, including the regions collectively known as the default mode network (DMN). The DMN is most active during brain activity that's related to self-awareness-such as reflecting on past events or making plans.¹⁹ This may account for why psychedelic drugs can make a person's thoughts less self-centered and more expansive, promoting a sense of connectedness with others and the world.¹⁰

Left: 2D chemical structure depiction of ketamine Right: 2D chemical structure depiction of PCP (phencyclidine)

Dissociative drugs, such as ketamine and PCP, also affect the balance of certain chemicals in the brain.⁶ Some of these changes lead to altered perception, as well as feelings of being disconnected from the body or environment.²⁰ Ketamine and PCP disrupt the actions of the brain chemical glutamate at a type of receptor called the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor.⁶ Glutamate plays a major role in learning and memory, emotion, and the perception of pain.⁷

2D chemical structure depiction of MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine)

Researchers are also investigating other drugs sometimes classified as psychedelic and dissociative drugs, such as MDMA, and the way they work in the brain.

MDMA stimulates the brain to release serotonin and weakly activates serotonin receptors in the brain, producing some mind-altering effects associated with psychedelic drugs. MDMA also increases activity of other neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and norepinephrine, which are involved in mood and attention.⁷

Other drugs that produce effects associated with psychedelic and dissociative drugs work differently. For example, salvia activates kappa opioid receptors in the brain,²¹ while ibogaine affects a variety of brain receptors.⁸

How is NIDA advancing research on psychedelic and dissociative drugs?

NIDA conducts and supports research on psychedelic and dissociative drugs to help inform health decisions and policies related to their use. This research includes efforts to better understand the health effects of psychedelic and dissociative drugs, how chemicals in-or similar to-these drugs work in the brain, and whether they may be able to treat substance use disorders and other conditions. NIDA also funds research on how and why people use these substances.

In June 2022, NIDA's Office of Translational Initiatives and Program Innovations also announced a new program to support small businesses to develop psychedelic-based therapies for substance use disorders.

Along with other agencies, NIDA also supports major coordination efforts in this evolving field, such as the 2022 Psychedelics as Therapeutics workshop co-sponsored by the National Institute on Mental Health and the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Addiction.

See NIDA-funded projects related to psychedelic and dissociative drugs, and learn more about related clinical trials.

Why do people use psychedelic and dissociative drugs?

Some psychedelic drugs are derived from plants and fungi that have a long history of use in many different cultures around the world.²³ Aztec shamans used psilocybin in healing rituals, and some Native American tribes used peyote as long ago as 5,700 B.C. in religious ceremonies.²⁴ References to psychedelic drug use have been found in ancient texts from India and Greece.²

More recently, researchers are exploring the use of psychedelic and dissociative drugs in medical settings as treatments for substance use disorders and for other mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).4,25

Are psychedelic and dissociative drugs safe?

While more research is needed, the reported incidence of serious adverse events from professionally supervised use of specific psychedelic and dissociative drugs, such as in clinical trials, is relatively low.2,10,11,26 However, many past clinical studies on these drugs have not adequately assessed or reported on adverse events.²⁷

Most people who report using psychedelic and dissociative drugs do so outside of medical or research settings.1,28 While further research is also needed to better understand the health and safety impacts of typical use of these drugs, some serious adverse effects and safety issues have been identified.14,27

Short-term physical side effects are typically mild or moderate but may require professional care. People who take psychedelic or dissociative drugs may experience short-term side effects such as a headache, abdominal pain, nausea or vomiting, high blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, trembling, and diarrhea.4,29 These are typically mild or moderate but may require medical care.³⁰ Importantly, reported cases of side-effects likely represent only a very small number of people who use psychedelic or dissociative drugs, and most people who use these drugs do not seek emergency services.

However, related data can provide insights on the side effects that may lead people to seek help. For example, according to U.S. poison control hotline data from 2000-2016, the most common negative short-term effects experienced by people who called in about using LSD and psilocybin were agitation, rapid heartbeat, pupil dilation, confusion, and vomiting. An analysis of these data found about 17% of these callers (600 people) who had used LSD and 6% of callers (363 people) who had used psilocybin mushrooms were admitted to critical care.³¹

Adverse reactions include fear and anxiety. People may also feel extreme emotions such as fear, confusion, or panic. These challenging experiences are also known as having a "bad trip."³² Research on the extent to which such experiences occur and their impact on health is limited, in part because definitions and reporting of these experiences vary.

Emerging evidence suggests certain psychedelic and dissociative drugs may contain dangerous adulterants. For more information, see "Can psychedelic and dissociative drugs be adulterated with fentanyl and other dangerous contaminants?"

Fatal overdoses and serious adverse effects are rarely associated with typical use of commonly used psychedelic and dissociative drugs. 14,34,35 A 2004 analysis of multiple studies estimated that psilocybin and LSD both have a safety ratio of 1000, meaning that the lethal dose of either drug is about 1000 times larger than a person would typically take for non-medical use.³⁶ However, some psychedelic and dissociative drugs-including NBOMes,37,38 ibogaine,³⁹ and PCP⁴⁰ -have been associated with a small number of reported deaths and serious adverse health effects. Though more research is needed, evidence to date shows that fatal overdoses involving these substances are typically associated with taking very high doses or using combinations of drugs, particularly combining these substances with alcohol, or being placed in excessive physical restraints while displaying unsafe behavior.¹⁶ More research is needed to understand to what extent certain psychedelic and dissociative drugs may be mixed with contaminants (such as fentanyl) that may cause an overdose. For more information, see "Can psychedelic and dissociative drugs be adulterated with fentanyl and other dangerous contaminants?"

Drug interactions may influence effects. Though more study in this area is needed and reported cases are exceedingly rare, some researchers suspect psychedelic drugs may interact with other drugs or medications a person has taken, including prescription medicines that also increase levels of the hormone serotonin in the brain. Too much serotonin in the brain is called serotonin toxicity or serotonin syndrome. Symptoms are typically mild but can be life-threatening in rare cases.41,42

Some psychedelic and dissociative drugs have been associated with specific long-term health problems. Research shows that long-term use of ketamine may cause ketamine-induced uropathy, a treatable but potentially serious condition that causes symptoms similar to those of a urinary tract infection.⁴⁶ Limited research also suggests using MDMA (considered by some to have psychedelic properties) may be associated with mild or moderate heart valve disease, in which one or more of the four valves controlling blood flow from the heart do not function normally.⁴⁷ In an analysis of studies conducted from 2015 through 2020, ibogaine use was associated with long QT syndrome, in which the electric impulses that control heartbeats function irregularly.⁴⁸

Research on long-term mental health effects of psychedelic and dissociative drugs is ongoing. More research is needed to better understand the long-term impacts of psychedelic and dissociative drugs on mental health. Mental health complications from psychedelic and dissociative drugs are currently extremely rare in clinical research settings, in part because these studies are highly controlled and participants are screened for existing mental illnesses.³² For more information, see "What is the relationship between psychedelic and dissociative drugs and mental illness?"

Can psychedelic and dissociative drugs be used as medicine?

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved the ketamine derivative esketamine (under the brand name Spravato ®) as a treatment for severe depression in patients who do not respond to other treatments.⁴⁹ The FDA has also granted Breakthrough Therapy designation for two formulations of psilocybin being studied as potential medical treatments for depression.

NIDA supports and conducts research to learn whether some of these drugs may help treat substance use disorders in medical settings.

What is the relationship between psychedelic and dissociative drugs and mental illness?

While scientists are still studying their effects, research suggests that some psychedelic and dissociative drugs may promote positive changes in thinking and mood.³ Researchers have suggested that these effects, including changes in brain functions that promote openness to new thoughts and experiences, may be valuable for supplementing mental health treatment.⁵⁰ The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved the ketamine derivative esketamine (under the brand name Spravato®) as a treatment for severe depression in patients who do not respond to other treatments. The FDA has also granted Breakthrough Therapy designation for two formulations of psilocybin being studied as potential medical treatments for depression.

While short-term positive and negative mood changes are common with psychedelic and dissociative drugs, more research is needed to better understand the long-term effects these substances may have on mental health.

There is some evidence that psychedelic drugs might bring about or trigger schizophrenia-like illness in people with predisposing factors, but little evidence that they cause long-term psychiatric problems for most people. In a 1996 study where people with pre-existing psychoses were given LSD, three of 65 participants experienced persistent worsening of their psychiatric symptoms lasting 3-8 months.⁵¹

In modern psychedelic research, as a precaution, participants with previously diagnosed psychosis or bipolar disorder, and sometimes other mental illnesses, are excluded from participation. Under these conditions, the risk of psychosis or suicide among people who participate in research on psychedelic drugs, or who receive them as medication, is extremely low.⁵² An analysis of 34 clinical studies of LSD, psilocybin, or ayahuasca, published from 2006-2020 and involving 549 participants, found no evidence of longer-term adverse effects.²⁶ However, poor mental health outcomes may be more likely outside of clinical use.¹⁴

Research suggests, though, that the dissociative drugs PCP⁴¹ and ketamine⁵³ can make symptoms worse in people who have schizophrenia, and can cause short-term episodes of psychosis, in which a person experiences hallucinations and delusions, and has trouble experiencing what is real and what is not. PCP can also cause psychosis that persists for days to weeks.6,54 While it is not clear whether ketamine raises the risk of long-term psychosis, people who engage in regular recreational use of ketamine are more likely to experience delusions, even after weeks of abstinence.⁵⁵ Animal studies show that long-term use of PCP or ketamine can cause brain changes resembling those seen in people with schizophrenia.⁵⁶

One analysis found higher rates of suicidal ideation-thinking about, considering or planning suicide-but not attempted or completed suicide, in people who took esketamine, a ketamine derivative, compared to venlafaxine, an antidepressant medication.⁵⁷ In another analysis of 25 studies, medically unsupervised ketamine use was associated with related substance use disorder symptoms, memory loss, depression, and anxiety.⁵⁸

Can psychedelic and dissociative drugs be adulterated with fentanyl and other dangerous contaminants?

Many illicitly manufactured or processed drugs are increasingly found to contain contaminants that produce effects-including overdose and death-not associated with the substance or amount of substance a person intended to take.28,59 Adulteration of heroin, cocaine, and other drugs with highly potent fentanyl and related substances is a major contributor to rising drug overdose deaths.⁶⁰ Because fentanyl and related substances are colorless and odorless, they are difficult to detect without chemical testing. This means adulteration of psychedelic and dissociative drugs with fentanyl and similar compounds is possible, but more research is needed to understand to what extent this occurs. Some organizations are using harm reduction practices to help avoid drug overdose deaths related to possible adulteration of certain psychedelic and dissociative drugs, particularly those taken in pill, powder, or liquid form.¹⁵

How do psychedelic and dissociative drugs affect pregnancy?

The effects of psychedelic and dissociative drugs during pregnancy are not well understood, as data are limited. PCP use during pregnancy has been linked to a range of congenital abnormalities in an infant's heart, lung, urinary, cardiovascular, respiratory, urinary, and musculoskeletal systems.⁶¹ Some laboratory and epidemiological studies suggest MDMA (considered by some to have psychedelic properties) may cause motor delays and congenital abnormalities (particularly heart defects) in infants exposed to it during pregnancy.62,63

Are psychedelic and dissociative drugs addictive? Can people experience withdrawal?

To be diagnosed with a substance use disorder, a person must meet specific diagnostic criteria for continued substance use despite negative consequences. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5)-a reference text professionals use to diagnose substance use disorders and other psychiatric disorders-includes diagnoses of phencyclidine (PCP) use disorder and "other hallucinogen use disorder"64,65 but does not include substance use disorder diagnoses related to other specific psychedelic and dissociative drugs.

Limited research suggests that use of psychedelic drugs, such as psilocybin and LSD, does not typically lead to addiction.1,35 Researchers think that one reason may be because people commonly experience unpleasant side effects when taking these substances, including headaches and nausea, which reduces their desire to take them again.⁶⁶

A small laboratory study published on psilocybin, DMT, and mescaline suggested that these psychedelic drugs are "weakly reinforcing," indicating their use is not likely to lead to a substance use disorder.⁶⁷ However, some evidence suggests people may quickly develop a tolerance to psychedelic drugs, meaning they must keep taking more of the drug to experience the same level of effects.²⁴

While more research is needed, laboratory research and a few human studies suggest that using the dissociative drug ketamine outside of a clinical setting can lead to cravings as well as symptoms of withdrawal.⁶⁸

NIDA conducts and supports research to better understand how often and to what extent people experience tolerance, withdrawal, and other substance use disorder symptoms related to the use of psychedelic and dissociative drugs.

What is the scope of psychedelic and dissociative drug use in the United States?

Information on the use of psychedelic and dissociative drugs is collected by several national surveys. These surveys use the terms "hallucinogen" and "hallucinogen use disorder" and data from those surveys are reported below.

How many people use hallucinogens*?

Among people aged 12 or older in 2021, 2.6% (or about 7.4 million people) reported using hallucinogens in the past 12 months.

Source: 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health

How many young students use hallucinogens**?

Among young people in 2022:

An estimated 1.2% of 8th graders, 2.1% of 10th graders, and 4.4% of 12th graders reported using any hallucinogen*in the past 12 months.

An estimated 0.6% of 8th graders, 1.3% of 10th graders, and 2.5% of 12th graders reported using LSD in the past 12 months.

An estimated 1% of 8th graders, 1.6% of 10th graders, and 3.4% of 12th graders reported using hallucinogens other than LSD in the past 12 months.

An estimated 0.6% of 8th graders, 0.7% of 10th graders, and 1.4% of 12th graders reported using MDMA.

An estimated 1.2% of 12th graders reported using ketamine in the past 12 months.

An estimated 0.8% of 8th graders, 0.8% of 10th graders, and 0.8% of 12th graders reported using salvia in the past 12 months.

Source: 2022 Monitoring the Future Survey

How many young adults use hallucinogens?

Among young adults aged 19 to 30 in 2021:

An estimated 8% reported using any hallucinogen*, representing an all-time high since the category was first surveyed in 1988.

Source: 2021 Monitoring the Future Panel Study Annual Report

How many people have a hallucinogen use disorder?

Among people aged 12 or older in 2020, 0.2% (or about 493,000 people) had a hallucinogen use disorder in the past 12 months.

Source: 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health

* Types of hallucinogens reported by participants in the National Survey on Drug Use and Health include DMT/AMT/Foxy, ketamine, LSD, MDMA, PCP, peyote/mescaline, psilocybin mushrooms, and Salvia divinorum.

**Types of hallucinogens reported by participants in the Monitoring the Future surveys included LSD, MDMA, mescaline, peyote, "shrooms" or psilocybin, and PCP.

What are examples of psychedelic and dissociative drugs?

While many emerging and established substances are classified as psychedelic and dissociative drugs, NIDA-supported research mainly focuses on the following substances, which are more commonly used and/or are being investigated as potential medical treatments. While some debate remains on how to describe these drugs and how specific drugs are classified, researchers generally classify them according to how they work in the brain.

Psychedelic Drugs

Psilocybin is a chemical compound in certain types of mushrooms, also called "shrooms" or "magic mushrooms."²³

LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), or "acid," is a clear or white, odorless, lab-made (synthetic) substance derived from chemicals in fungi that grow on rye and other grains.⁶⁹

DMT (N,N-dimethyltryptamine) is a chemical compound found in plants native to the Amazon rainforest. These plants are sometimes used to make a tea called ayahuasca.⁷⁰ Lab-made (synthetic) DMT is a white crystalline powder that is usually smoked.⁷¹

Mescaline is a chemical compound found in peyote, a small cactus native to America's southwest and northern Mexico. Mescaline can also be lab-made (synthetic).⁷²

NBOMes (N-Benzylphenethylamines) are lab-made (synthetic) chemical compounds originally developed for use in brain research.⁷³ They are sometimes sold as LSD but are more potent with higher risk of adverse effects.

Dissociative Drugs

Ketamine is a chemical compound used in prescription medications for anesthesia in humans and animals. It is also illegally manufactured as a liquid or off-white powder.²⁸ A derivative called esketamine is FDA-approved for treatment-resistant depression.

PCP (phencyclidine) is a synthetic chemical compound mostly commonly used as a liquid or white crystal powder.⁴⁰

Other

Researchers are also interested in the psychedelic and dissociative properties of other drugs. These include:

MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine), also called "Molly" or "Ecstasy," is a lab-made (synthetic) drug that has effects similar to stimulants like methamphetamine. Some researchers and organizations consider MDMA to be a psychedelic drug because it can also mildly alter visual and time perception.⁷

Ibogaine is a chemical compound that comes from the bark of certain plants. These include the iboga shrub, which is used in religious rites in Western Africa. While ibogaine does have psychedelic properties, it affects a different spectrum of brain activity than psychedelic or dissociative drugs.⁸

Salvia (salvia divinorum) is a plant common to southern Mexico and Central and South America. Salvia leaves are typically chewed, extracted as juices, smoked, or vaporized. Unlike psychedelic or dissociative drugs, it primarily activates kappa opioid receptors in the brain.²¹

What is microdosing?

Some people report "microdosing" psychedelic drugs, typically LSD or psilocybin. Microdosing refers to regularly taking these drugs in very small amounts, typically one tenth to one twentieth of a typical non-clinical dose. People report that they microdose to lessen mental health symptoms such as depression and stress, improve productivity, and ease pain. However, research to date has not established that microdosing is safe or effective.²²,74

Are psychedelic and dissociative drugs legal?

Find More Resources on Psychedelic and Dissociative Drugs

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59. Ivory ST, Rotella JA, Schumann J, Greene SL. A cluster of 25B-NBOH poisonings following exposure to powder sold as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2022;60(8):966-969. doi:10.1080/15563650.2022.2053150

60. D'Errico S. Commentary. Fentanyl-related death and the underreporting risk. J Forensic Leg Med. 2018;60:35-37. doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2018.09.007

61. Holbrook BD, Rayburn WF. Teratogenic risks from exposure to illicit drugs. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 2014;41(2):229-239. doi:10.1016/j.ogc.2014.02.008

62. McElhatton PR, Bateman DN, Evans C, Pughe KR, Thomas SH. Congenital anomalies after prenatal ecstasy exposure. Lancet. 1999;354(9188):1441-1442. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(99)02423-x

63. Singer LT, Moore DG, Min MO, et al. Motor delays in MDMA (ecstasy) exposed infants persist to 2 years. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2016;54:22-28. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2016.01.003

64. Ryu IS, Kim OH, Lee YE, Kim JS, Li ZH, Kim TW, Lim RN, Lee YJ, Cheong JH, Kim HJ, Lee YS, Steffensen SC, Lee BH, Seo JW, Jang EY. The Abuse Potential of Novel Synthetic Phencyclidine Derivative 1-(1-(4-Fluorophenyl)Cyclohexyl) Piperidine (4'-F-PCP) in Rodents. Int J Mol Sci. 2020 Jun 29;21(13):4631. doi: 10.3390/ijms21134631

65. American Psychiatric Association, Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787, (2022)

66. Johnson MW, Sewell RA, Griffiths RR. Psilocybin dose-dependently causes delayed, transient headaches in healthy volunteers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012;123(1-3):132-140. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.10.029

67. Fantegrossi WE, Woods JH, Winger G. Transient reinforcing effects of phenylisopropylamine and indolealkylamine hallucinogens in rhesus monkeys . Behav Pharmacol. 2004;15(2):149-157. doi:10.1097/00008877-200403000-00007

68. Kokane SS, Armant RJ, Bolaños-Guzmán CA, Perrotti LI. Overlap in the neural circuitry and molecular mechanisms underlying ketamine abuse and its use as an antidepressant. Behav Brain Res. 2020;384:112548. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112548

69. Passie T, Halpern JH, Stichtenoth DO, Emrich HM, Hintzen A. The pharmacology of lysergic acid diethylamide: a review. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2008;14(4):295-314. doi:10.1111/j.1755-5949.2008.00059.x

70. Domínguez-Clavé E, Soler J, Elices M, et al. Ayahuasca: Pharmacology, neuroscience and therapeutic potential. Brain Res Bull. 2016;126(Pt 1):89-101. doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.03.002

71. Carbonaro TM, Gatch MB. Neuropharmacology of N,N-dimethyltryptamine. Brain Res Bull. 2016;126(Pt 1):74-88. doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.04.016

72. Dinis-Oliveira RJ, Pereira CL, da Silva DD. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic aspects of peyote and mescaline: clinical and forensic repercussions. Curr Mol Pharmacol. 2019;12(3):184-194. doi:10.2174/1874467211666181010154139

73. Poulie CBM, Jensen AA, Halberstadt AL, Kristensen JL. DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: NBOMes [published online ahead of print, 2019 Nov 12]. ACS Chem Neurosci. 2019;10.1021/acschemneuro.9b00528. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.9b00528

74. de Wit H, Molla HM, Bershad A, Bremmer M, Lee R. Repeated low doses of LSD in healthy adults: A placebo-controlled, dose-response study [published online ahead of print, 2022 Feb 1]. Addict Biol. 2022;e13143. doi:10.1111/adb.13143

75. Siegel JS, Daily JE, Perry DA, Nicol GE. Psychedelic Drug Legislative Reform and Legalization in the US. JAMA Psychiatry. Published online December 07, 2022. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.4101

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NIDA. 2023, April 14. Psychedelic and Dissociative Drugs. Retrieved from https://nida.nih.gov/research-topics/psychedelic-dissociative-drugs

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What are psychedelic and dissociative drugs?

Psychedelic and dissociative drugs can temporarily alter a person's mood, thoughts, and perceptions of reality.¹ Among other health effects and safety concerns, people who use psychedelic and dissociative drugs report feeling strong emotions, ranging from intense happiness and a feeling of connectedness to fear, anxiety, and confusion.2,3 People who use these drugs also report experiencing intense or distorted visions or sensations.¹

Many psychedelic drugs derive from plants and fungi, and some have been used for thousands of years in traditional or religious rituals. Some psychedelic and dissociative drugs are also synthetic (lab-made).² People report using psychedelic and dissociative drugs for a variety of reasons, including seeking new, fun, healing, or spiritual experiences.1,3

Psychedelic drugs

Dissociative drugs

Other

Drugs that primarily influence the way the brain processes the chemical serotonin. They can bring on vivid visions and affect a person's sense of self.²

Includes: psilocybin, LSD, DMT, mescaline, NBOMes

Drugs that primarily affect how the brain processes the chemical glutamate. These drugs can make people feel disconnected from their body and environment.⁶

Includes: ketamine, PCP

Drugs such as MDMA,⁷ ibogaine,⁸ and salvia⁹ affect a variety of brain functions to cause psychedelic and/or dissociative effects.

All of these substances have mind-altering properties with the potential to cause changes in thought processes, mood, and perception of reality.3,7,8,9

Psychedelic drugs (also called "classic psychedelics" or "psychedelics"), including psilocybin and LSD, mainly interact with specific receptors, which are molecular structures in the brain. Known as 5-hydroxy-tryptamine (5-HT) 2A receptors, these are targets for the neurotransmitter (chemical messenger) serotonin. At certain doses, psychedelics may bring on vivid visions or sensations, alter a person's sense of self, and promote feelings of insightfulness or connection.¹⁰

Dissociative drugs, including ketamine and PCP, block the action of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. These are part of the brain's system for transporting glutamate, another neurotransmitter. While dissociative drugs can alter perception, they also typically make people feel disconnected from their body and environment.⁶

Other drugs such as MDMA, ibogaine, and salvia work on a variety of brain functions to cause psychedelic or dissociative effects. For more information, see " How do psychedelic and dissociative drugs work in the brain? "

How do psychedelic and dissociative drugs affect the mind and body?

NIDA supports and conducts research on the short- and long-term health effects of psychedelic and dissociative drugs to better inform health decisions and policies related to their use. While research is ongoing, scientific studies have revealed important information about how these drugs work:

Psychedelic and dissociative drugs temporarily alter thought patterns, mood, and perceptions of reality. People who use these substances report feeling strong emotions, ranging from intense happiness and a feeling of connectedness to fear, anxiety, and confusion.1,3 Many people who use psychedelic drugs, such as psilocybin and LSD, report seeing vibrant shapes, colors, and scenes and reliving vivid memories.¹⁰ People who use dissociative drugs, such as ketamine and PCP, describe experiencing distorted vision and hearing.⁶

Dissociative drugs can make people feel "detached."Many people who use dissociative drugs report feeling as though they are floating or are disconnected from their body.¹³

People may experience adverse health effects. Physical side-effects of these substances, such as headache, nausea, or changes in heart rate, are generally not life-threatening.¹⁴ However, illicitly manufactured or processed drugs may be contaminated with colorless and odorless fentanyl or other dangerous substances that can cause serious adverse events, including overdose and death.¹⁵ Psychedelic or dissociative drugs may also produce adverse or debilitating psychological effects such as fear or anxiety.3,16 Research is ongoing to better understand short- and long-term health effects of psychedelic and dissociative drugs. For more information, see "Are psychedelic and dissociative drugs safe?"

Using psychedelic and dissociative drugs has been linked to dangerous behavior and injuries. People using these drugs may have impaired thought processes and perception that cause them to behave in unusual and sometimes dangerous ways. This may lead to injuries and other safety issues, particularly if there is not another individual present who can help prevent or respond to an emergency.¹⁴ For more information, see "Are psychedelic and dissociative drugs safe?"

How do psychedelic and dissociative drugs work in the brain?

More studies are needed to better understand how psychedelic and dissociative drugs work. While researchers debate how to describe these drugs and how specific drugs should be classified, they generally group them according to what is known about how they work in the brain. Better understanding these mechanisms is an active area of NIDA-funded research. This basic research plays an important role in identifying their health effects and potential therapeutic uses.

Top left: 2D chemical structure depiction of psilocybin Top right: 2D chemical structure depiction of LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) Bottom: 2D chemical structure depiction of DMT (N,N-dimethyltryptamine)

Although research is ongoing, studies suggest psychedelic drugs-such as psilocybin, LSD, and DMT-primarily affect 5-HT 2A receptors in the brain, which ordinarily are activated by the neurotransmitter (chemical messenger) serotonin.¹⁰

Research suggests that the most prominent psychedelic effects stem from activity in the brain's prefrontal cortex, an area involved in mood, cognition, and perception.17,18 Psychedelic drugs also temporarily disrupt communication between different brain regions, including the regions collectively known as the default mode network (DMN). The DMN is most active during brain activity that's related to self-awareness-such as reflecting on past events or making plans.¹⁹ This may account for why psychedelic drugs can make a person's thoughts less self-centered and more expansive, promoting a sense of connectedness with others and the world.¹⁰

Left: 2D chemical structure depiction of ketamine Right: 2D chemical structure depiction of PCP (phencyclidine)

Dissociative drugs, such as ketamine and PCP, also affect the balance of certain chemicals in the brain.⁶ Some of these changes lead to altered perception, as well as feelings of being disconnected from the body or environment.²⁰ Ketamine and PCP disrupt the actions of the brain chemical glutamate at a type of receptor called the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor.⁶ Glutamate plays a major role in learning and memory, emotion, and the perception of pain.⁷

2D chemical structure depiction of MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine)

Researchers are also investigating other drugs sometimes classified as psychedelic and dissociative drugs, such as MDMA, and the way they work in the brain.

MDMA stimulates the brain to release serotonin and weakly activates serotonin receptors in the brain, producing some mind-altering effects associated with psychedelic drugs. MDMA also increases activity of other neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and norepinephrine, which are involved in mood and attention.⁷

Other drugs that produce effects associated with psychedelic and dissociative drugs work differently. For example, salvia activates kappa opioid receptors in the brain,²¹ while ibogaine affects a variety of brain receptors.⁸

How is NIDA advancing research on psychedelic and dissociative drugs?

NIDA conducts and supports research on psychedelic and dissociative drugs to help inform health decisions and policies related to their use. This research includes efforts to better understand the health effects of psychedelic and dissociative drugs, how chemicals in-or similar to-these drugs work in the brain, and whether they may be able to treat substance use disorders and other conditions. NIDA also funds research on how and why people use these substances.

In June 2022, NIDA's Office of Translational Initiatives and Program Innovations also announced a new program to support small businesses to develop psychedelic-based therapies for substance use disorders.

Along with other agencies, NIDA also supports major coordination efforts in this evolving field, such as the 2022 Psychedelics as Therapeutics workshop co-sponsored by the National Institute on Mental Health and the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Addiction.

See NIDA-funded projects related to psychedelic and dissociative drugs, and learn more about related clinical trials.

Why do people use psychedelic and dissociative drugs?

Some psychedelic drugs are derived from plants and fungi that have a long history of use in many different cultures around the world.²³ Aztec shamans used psilocybin in healing rituals, and some Native American tribes used peyote as long ago as 5,700 B.C. in religious ceremonies.²⁴ References to psychedelic drug use have been found in ancient texts from India and Greece.²

More recently, researchers are exploring the use of psychedelic and dissociative drugs in medical settings as treatments for substance use disorders and for other mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).4,25

Are psychedelic and dissociative drugs safe?

While more research is needed, the reported incidence of serious adverse events from professionally supervised use of specific psychedelic and dissociative drugs, such as in clinical trials, is relatively low.2,10,11,26 However, many past clinical studies on these drugs have not adequately assessed or reported on adverse events.²⁷

Most people who report using psychedelic and dissociative drugs do so outside of medical or research settings.1,28 While further research is also needed to better understand the health and safety impacts of typical use of these drugs, some serious adverse effects and safety issues have been identified.14,27

Short-term physical side effects are typically mild or moderate but may require professional care. People who take psychedelic or dissociative drugs may experience short-term side effects such as a headache, abdominal pain, nausea or vomiting, high blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, trembling, and diarrhea.4,29 These are typically mild or moderate but may require medical care.³⁰ Importantly, reported cases of side-effects likely represent only a very small number of people who use psychedelic or dissociative drugs, and most people who use these drugs do not seek emergency services.

However, related data can provide insights on the side effects that may lead people to seek help. For example, according to U.S. poison control hotline data from 2000-2016, the most common negative short-term effects experienced by people who called in about using LSD and psilocybin were agitation, rapid heartbeat, pupil dilation, confusion, and vomiting. An analysis of these data found about 17% of these callers (600 people) who had used LSD and 6% of callers (363 people) who had used psilocybin mushrooms were admitted to critical care.³¹

Adverse reactions include fear and anxiety. People may also feel extreme emotions such as fear, confusion, or panic. These challenging experiences are also known as having a "bad trip."³² Research on the extent to which such experiences occur and their impact on health is limited, in part because definitions and reporting of these experiences vary.

Emerging evidence suggests certain psychedelic and dissociative drugs may contain dangerous adulterants. For more information, see "Can psychedelic and dissociative drugs be adulterated with fentanyl and other dangerous contaminants?"

Fatal overdoses and serious adverse effects are rarely associated with typical use of commonly used psychedelic and dissociative drugs. 14,34,35 A 2004 analysis of multiple studies estimated that psilocybin and LSD both have a safety ratio of 1000, meaning that the lethal dose of either drug is about 1000 times larger than a person would typically take for non-medical use.³⁶ However, some psychedelic and dissociative drugs-including NBOMes,37,38 ibogaine,³⁹ and PCP⁴⁰ -have been associated with a small number of reported deaths and serious adverse health effects. Though more research is needed, evidence to date shows that fatal overdoses involving these substances are typically associated with taking very high doses or using combinations of drugs, particularly combining these substances with alcohol, or being placed in excessive physical restraints while displaying unsafe behavior.¹⁶ More research is needed to understand to what extent certain psychedelic and dissociative drugs may be mixed with contaminants (such as fentanyl) that may cause an overdose. For more information, see "Can psychedelic and dissociative drugs be adulterated with fentanyl and other dangerous contaminants?"

Drug interactions may influence effects. Though more study in this area is needed and reported cases are exceedingly rare, some researchers suspect psychedelic drugs may interact with other drugs or medications a person has taken, including prescription medicines that also increase levels of the hormone serotonin in the brain. Too much serotonin in the brain is called serotonin toxicity or serotonin syndrome. Symptoms are typically mild but can be life-threatening in rare cases.41,42

Some psychedelic and dissociative drugs have been associated with specific long-term health problems. Research shows that long-term use of ketamine may cause ketamine-induced uropathy, a treatable but potentially serious condition that causes symptoms similar to those of a urinary tract infection.⁴⁶ Limited research also suggests using MDMA (considered by some to have psychedelic properties) may be associated with mild or moderate heart valve disease, in which one or more of the four valves controlling blood flow from the heart do not function normally.⁴⁷ In an analysis of studies conducted from 2015 through 2020, ibogaine use was associated with long QT syndrome, in which the electric impulses that control heartbeats function irregularly.⁴⁸

Research on long-term mental health effects of psychedelic and dissociative drugs is ongoing. More research is needed to better understand the long-term impacts of psychedelic and dissociative drugs on mental health. Mental health complications from psychedelic and dissociative drugs are currently extremely rare in clinical research settings, in part because these studies are highly controlled and participants are screened for existing mental illnesses.³² For more information, see "What is the relationship between psychedelic and dissociative drugs and mental illness?"

Can psychedelic and dissociative drugs be used as medicine?

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved the ketamine derivative esketamine (under the brand name Spravato ®) as a treatment for severe depression in patients who do not respond to other treatments.⁴⁹ The FDA has also granted Breakthrough Therapy designation for two formulations of psilocybin being studied as potential medical treatments for depression.

NIDA supports and conducts research to learn whether some of these drugs may help treat substance use disorders in medical settings.

What is the relationship between psychedelic and dissociative drugs and mental illness?

While scientists are still studying their effects, research suggests that some psychedelic and dissociative drugs may promote positive changes in thinking and mood.³ Researchers have suggested that these effects, including changes in brain functions that promote openness to new thoughts and experiences, may be valuable for supplementing mental health treatment.⁵⁰ The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved the ketamine derivative esketamine (under the brand name Spravato®) as a treatment for severe depression in patients who do not respond to other treatments. The FDA has also granted Breakthrough Therapy designation for two formulations of psilocybin being studied as potential medical treatments for depression.

While short-term positive and negative mood changes are common with psychedelic and dissociative drugs, more research is needed to better understand the long-term effects these substances may have on mental health.

There is some evidence that psychedelic drugs might bring about or trigger schizophrenia-like illness in people with predisposing factors, but little evidence that they cause long-term psychiatric problems for most people. In a 1996 study where people with pre-existing psychoses were given LSD, three of 65 participants experienced persistent worsening of their psychiatric symptoms lasting 3-8 months.⁵¹

In modern psychedelic research, as a precaution, participants with previously diagnosed psychosis or bipolar disorder, and sometimes other mental illnesses, are excluded from participation. Under these conditions, the risk of psychosis or suicide among people who participate in research on psychedelic drugs, or who receive them as medication, is extremely low.⁵² An analysis of 34 clinical studies of LSD, psilocybin, or ayahuasca, published from 2006-2020 and involving 549 participants, found no evidence of longer-term adverse effects.²⁶ However, poor mental health outcomes may be more likely outside of clinical use.¹⁴

Research suggests, though, that the dissociative drugs PCP⁴¹ and ketamine⁵³ can make symptoms worse in people who have schizophrenia, and can cause short-term episodes of psychosis, in which a person experiences hallucinations and delusions, and has trouble experiencing what is real and what is not. PCP can also cause psychosis that persists for days to weeks.6,54 While it is not clear whether ketamine raises the risk of long-term psychosis, people who engage in regular recreational use of ketamine are more likely to experience delusions, even after weeks of abstinence.⁵⁵ Animal studies show that long-term use of PCP or ketamine can cause brain changes resembling those seen in people with schizophrenia.⁵⁶

One analysis found higher rates of suicidal ideation-thinking about, considering or planning suicide-but not attempted or completed suicide, in people who took esketamine, a ketamine derivative, compared to venlafaxine, an antidepressant medication.⁵⁷ In another analysis of 25 studies, medically unsupervised ketamine use was associated with related substance use disorder symptoms, memory loss, depression, and anxiety.⁵⁸

Can psychedelic and dissociative drugs be adulterated with fentanyl and other dangerous contaminants?

Many illicitly manufactured or processed drugs are increasingly found to contain contaminants that produce effects-including overdose and death-not associated with the substance or amount of substance a person intended to take.28,59 Adulteration of heroin, cocaine, and other drugs with highly potent fentanyl and related substances is a major contributor to rising drug overdose deaths.⁶⁰ Because fentanyl and related substances are colorless and odorless, they are difficult to detect without chemical testing. This means adulteration of psychedelic and dissociative drugs with fentanyl and similar compounds is possible, but more research is needed to understand to what extent this occurs. Some organizations are using harm reduction practices to help avoid drug overdose deaths related to possible adulteration of certain psychedelic and dissociative drugs, particularly those taken in pill, powder, or liquid form.¹⁵

How do psychedelic and dissociative drugs affect pregnancy?

The effects of psychedelic and dissociative drugs during pregnancy are not well understood, as data are limited. PCP use during pregnancy has been linked to a range of congenital abnormalities in an infant's heart, lung, urinary, cardiovascular, respiratory, urinary, and musculoskeletal systems.⁶¹ Some laboratory and epidemiological studies suggest MDMA (considered by some to have psychedelic properties) may cause motor delays and congenital abnormalities (particularly heart defects) in infants exposed to it during pregnancy.62,63

Are psychedelic and dissociative drugs addictive? Can people experience withdrawal?

To be diagnosed with a substance use disorder, a person must meet specific diagnostic criteria for continued substance use despite negative consequences. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5)-a reference text professionals use to diagnose substance use disorders and other psychiatric disorders-includes diagnoses of phencyclidine (PCP) use disorder and "other hallucinogen use disorder"64,65 but does not include substance use disorder diagnoses related to other specific psychedelic and dissociative drugs.

Limited research suggests that use of psychedelic drugs, such as psilocybin and LSD, does not typically lead to addiction.1,35 Researchers think that one reason may be because people commonly experience unpleasant side effects when taking these substances, including headaches and nausea, which reduces their desire to take them again.⁶⁶

A small laboratory study published on psilocybin, DMT, and mescaline suggested that these psychedelic drugs are "weakly reinforcing," indicating their use is not likely to lead to a substance use disorder.⁶⁷ However, some evidence suggests people may quickly develop a tolerance to psychedelic drugs, meaning they must keep taking more of the drug to experience the same level of effects.²⁴

While more research is needed, laboratory research and a few human studies suggest that using the dissociative drug ketamine outside of a clinical setting can lead to cravings as well as symptoms of withdrawal.⁶⁸

NIDA conducts and supports research to better understand how often and to what extent people experience tolerance, withdrawal, and other substance use disorder symptoms related to the use of psychedelic and dissociative drugs.

What is the scope of psychedelic and dissociative drug use in the United States?

Information on the use of psychedelic and dissociative drugs is collected by several national surveys. These surveys use the terms "hallucinogen" and "hallucinogen use disorder" and data from those surveys are reported below.

How many people use hallucinogens*?

Among people aged 12 or older in 2021, 2.6% (or about 7.4 million people) reported using hallucinogens in the past 12 months.

Source: 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health

How many young students use hallucinogens**?

Among young people in 2022:

An estimated 1.2% of 8th graders, 2.1% of 10th graders, and 4.4% of 12th graders reported using any hallucinogen*in the past 12 months.

An estimated 0.6% of 8th graders, 1.3% of 10th graders, and 2.5% of 12th graders reported using LSD in the past 12 months.

An estimated 1% of 8th graders, 1.6% of 10th graders, and 3.4% of 12th graders reported using hallucinogens other than LSD in the past 12 months.

An estimated 0.6% of 8th graders, 0.7% of 10th graders, and 1.4% of 12th graders reported using MDMA.

An estimated 1.2% of 12th graders reported using ketamine in the past 12 months.

An estimated 0.8% of 8th graders, 0.8% of 10th graders, and 0.8% of 12th graders reported using salvia in the past 12 months.

Source: 2022 Monitoring the Future Survey

How many young adults use hallucinogens?

Among young adults aged 19 to 30 in 2021:

An estimated 8% reported using any hallucinogen*, representing an all-time high since the category was first surveyed in 1988.

Source: 2021 Monitoring the Future Panel Study Annual Report

How many people have a hallucinogen use disorder?

Among people aged 12 or older in 2020, 0.2% (or about 493,000 people) had a hallucinogen use disorder in the past 12 months.

Source: 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health

* Types of hallucinogens reported by participants in the National Survey on Drug Use and Health include DMT/AMT/Foxy, ketamine, LSD, MDMA, PCP, peyote/mescaline, psilocybin mushrooms, and Salvia divinorum.

**Types of hallucinogens reported by participants in the Monitoring the Future surveys included LSD, MDMA, mescaline, peyote, "shrooms" or psilocybin, and PCP.

What are examples of psychedelic and dissociative drugs?

While many emerging and established substances are classified as psychedelic and dissociative drugs, NIDA-supported research mainly focuses on the following substances, which are more commonly used and/or are being investigated as potential medical treatments. While some debate remains on how to describe these drugs and how specific drugs are classified, researchers generally classify them according to how they work in the brain.

Psychedelic Drugs

Psilocybin is a chemical compound in certain types of mushrooms, also called "shrooms" or "magic mushrooms."²³

LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), or "acid," is a clear or white, odorless, lab-made (synthetic) substance derived from chemicals in fungi that grow on rye and other grains.⁶⁹

DMT (N,N-dimethyltryptamine) is a chemical compound found in plants native to the Amazon rainforest. These plants are sometimes used to make a tea called ayahuasca.⁷⁰ Lab-made (synthetic) DMT is a white crystalline powder that is usually smoked.⁷¹

Mescaline is a chemical compound found in peyote, a small cactus native to America's southwest and northern Mexico. Mescaline can also be lab-made (synthetic).⁷²

NBOMes (N-Benzylphenethylamines) are lab-made (synthetic) chemical compounds originally developed for use in brain research.⁷³ They are sometimes sold as LSD but are more potent with higher risk of adverse effects.

Dissociative Drugs

Ketamine is a chemical compound used in prescription medications for anesthesia in humans and animals. It is also illegally manufactured as a liquid or off-white powder.²⁸ A derivative called esketamine is FDA-approved for treatment-resistant depression.

PCP (phencyclidine) is a synthetic chemical compound mostly commonly used as a liquid or white crystal powder.⁴⁰

Other

Researchers are also interested in the psychedelic and dissociative properties of other drugs. These include:

MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine), also called "Molly" or "Ecstasy," is a lab-made (synthetic) drug that has effects similar to stimulants like methamphetamine. Some researchers and organizations consider MDMA to be a psychedelic drug because it can also mildly alter visual and time perception.⁷

Ibogaine is a chemical compound that comes from the bark of certain plants. These include the iboga shrub, which is used in religious rites in Western Africa. While ibogaine does have psychedelic properties, it affects a different spectrum of brain activity than psychedelic or dissociative drugs.⁸

Salvia (salvia divinorum) is a plant common to southern Mexico and Central and South America. Salvia leaves are typically chewed, extracted as juices, smoked, or vaporized. Unlike psychedelic or dissociative drugs, it primarily activates kappa opioid receptors in the brain.²¹

What is microdosing?

Some people report "microdosing" psychedelic drugs, typically LSD or psilocybin. Microdosing refers to regularly taking these drugs in very small amounts, typically one tenth to one twentieth of a typical non-clinical dose. People report that they microdose to lessen mental health symptoms such as depression and stress, improve productivity, and ease pain. However, research to date has not established that microdosing is safe or effective.²²,74

Are psychedelic and dissociative drugs legal?

Find More Resources on Psychedelic and Dissociative Drugs

References

1. Nichols DE. Psychedelics. Pharmacol Rev 2016;68:264-355.doi:10.1124/pr.115.011478

2. Johnson MW, Hendricks PS, Barrett FS, Griffiths RR. Classic psychedelics: An integrative review of epidemiology, therapeutics, mystical experience, and brain network function. Pharmacol Ther. 2019;197:83-102. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.11.010

3. Garcia-Romeu A, Kersgaard B, Addy PH. Clinical applications of hallucinogens: A review. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2016;24 (4):229-268. doi:10.1037/pha0000084

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Psychedelic and Dissociative Drugs | National Institute on Drug Abuse

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Psychedelic and dissociative drugs can temporarily alter a person's mood, thoughts, and perceptions. Among other health effects and safety concerns, people who use these substances report feeling strong emotions ranging from bliss to fear and experiencing vast changes in how they perceive reality.