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What question(s) related to SLA do the Cook (1992) and/or Ortega (2019) articles raise for you? Click the + to post your question and use the comments feature to react to your classmates.

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I alluded to it in the previous post, but after reading the Cook article, I want to know more about how to balance using L1 in the classroom to aid instruction and also encouraging L2 production even when the student is not 100% confident that they have the "right" way of saying something.
- Rebecca

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Share a quote or key idea from Cook (1992) or Ortega (2019) that really made you rethink your understanding of SLA so far.  Explain the significance of the quote/take away for you.  Click the + to add your post and use the comments feature to respond to classmates.

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"The accompanying assumption, also prevalent from the inception of the field, is that only the language being learned, the L2, needs to be
analyzed. To date, most SLA studies have kept the other languages of the individual—the first languages (L1s), or other already familiar or known languages—outside the purview of inquiry" (Ortega, 2019)
This is an important perspective for me, because as a multilingual person myself, I feel like the languages I speak are aspects of my identity. To research SLA and ignore a large aspect of someone's identity and the knowledge they carry in their L1 is missing out on a dimension of the person's knowledge, which could affect how they learn the L2.
-Kylie

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As someone who is not multilingual, I have a hard time understanding how the two languages interact in the brain. I have specifically struggled with how to integrate the L1 into the classroom when I have little to no knowledge of all my students' L1s. In the Cook (1992) article, it states that students will enhance their L2 learning if they integrate their L1 knowledge. Teachers do students a disservice when they do not allow students to use their L1. It is my job as a teacher to engineer learning opportunities where the student is using their L1 to facilitate their learning, but still uses the L2 to interact with peers and the teacher.
- Rebecca

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The quote from Cook (1992) struck me: "The Institute of Linguists' (1988) examinations test whether candidates can mediate between two languages.  At beginners level this may be reading an L2 travel brochure or listening to L2 answerphone messages to get information that can be used in the L1.  At advanced stages it might be researching a topic through reading L2 texts and conducting interviews in the L2 in order to write L1 report in the L1." This made me think of a lot of research projects I do with my class. I love to have students write about issues, people, etc. from their home cultures, but really have trouble with some because it's hard to find information in English from places like the Democratic Republic of Congo, where a lot of our students are from.  Because we want our students to practice reading in English and paraphrasing, I always had made them do their research in English, but this quote reminds me that being able to use both languages to your advantage is so important!
--Heather

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As I mentioned in the other column, I like the idea of having students research in any language they can find the information, but I am worried about how that could affect their research skills. In the level I teach, students are still not great at paraphrasing, and I am worried about them translating word for word instead of paraphrasing. I also worry about students thinking in their L1 and translating in their head instead of thinking in English. How can we as instructors help students to use all the resources available to them but also make sure they are learning important academic skills (especially if we don't know the L1 to be able to check)? --Heather

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"...the multi-competence state...yields more than the sum of its parts...multi-competent speakers think differently from monolinguals...multi-competence is a different state of mind." (Cook) This nicely summarizes the schematic shift this newer way of thinking about language acquisition requires. It encapsulates an exciting-to-contemplate conceptual shift. Beth

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"...the multi-competence state...yields more than the sum of its parts...multi-competent speakers think differently from monolinguals...multi-competence is a different state of mind." (Cook) This nicely summarizes the schematic shift this newer way of thinking about language acquisition requires. It encapsulates an exciting-to-contemplate conceptual shift. Beth

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Language "competence" will be defined in any number of different ways by parents, principals, school districts, teachers, classmates, and students themselves. Within the multi-competencies' framework, what is the teacher's role in reconciling all of these related but differing competency benchmarks? Beth

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Language "competence" will be defined in any number of different ways by parents, principals, school districts, teachers, classmates, and students themselves. Within the multi-competencies' framework, what is the teacher's role in reconciling all of these related but differing competency benchmarks? Beth

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"Many multilinguals have been socialized in school into an ideology of language separation and have grown accustomed to see and feel language in normative ways, at considerable cost to their linguistic confidence and well-being." (Ortega, L., 2019)

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"Many multilinguals have been socialized in school into an ideology of language separation and have grown accustomed to see and feel language in normative ways, at considerable cost to their linguistic confidence and well-being." (Ortega, L., 2019)

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This school and next, our department within our district is placing more focus and importance on the idea of translanguaging. The more that I learn and explore, the more important I find this to be. This quote I found seems to reflect that frame of mind. So many people that do not speak a standard "acceptable" variety of a language are looked down upon and judged. This may also be true for many of our students arriving new to this country to start a new life. They may face judgment or criticism for not speaking 'well enough' or 'correctly' or for acting, looking, and/or behaving a different way. The idea of translanguaging in the classroom may reduce stress for so many students in one area of their lives. Not only does it make content more accessible but also validates their life as they've known it up until this point. (JQ)

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I found several things interesting in the Cook article in particular:

1) Bilinguals were slower than monolinguals in all comprehension tasks, both in their L2 AND in their L1!

2)  Seliger’s (1989) hypothesis stating that the language with the simpler grammar will win out very intriguing, a process called redundancy reduction.  This observation makes a lot of sense in Seliger’s study because the subject was a child.  I think younger language learners would be more apt to adopt this grammar reduction than older learners.  Adults who have grown up monolingual are probably more set in their ways as they have used their L1 to communicate for a much longer time span than children.  Young learners, on the other hand, have not yet developed the habit of L1 grammar use, on account of their limited life experience.  Consequently, they are probably more likely to simplify their grammar between L1 and L2 in order to communicate in the most efficient way possible. (LH)

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In the Cook article it stated that bilinguals were slower than monolinguals in all comprehension tasks, both in their L2 AND in their L1!  I wonder why this difference in processing speed exists.  It makes sense that students would be slower to process tasks in a new language, but you would think that bilinguals could ‘switch’ back into their L1 and function like monolinguals from a speed perspective.  I also wonder at what point in the L2 learning process this phenomenon occurs.  Does it occur immediately, right from the beginning of the L2 learning process?  Or do students’ processing speeds gradually slow down as they learn more L2?

Another musing I have is about Diaz's (1985) notation regarding other areas of “cognitive superiority” in bilingual 5-year-olds, namely “conceptual development, creativity, and analogical reasoning.”  As I’ve taught in various schools, including immersion-style schools, I’ve noticed a huge difference in students’ academic abilities – where the bilingual students were more advanced than their monolingual counterparts.  However, I’ve often wondered if this is not ONLY because linguistic variety strengthens these cognitive abilities.  As I’ve observed bilingual students (in immersion schools) I’ve noticed that, as a group, their listening skills FAR exceed those of their monolingual counterparts.  Perhaps they perform better in academia because they have had to pay close attention from the very beginning?  Excellent listening skills seem to be a natural byproduct of L2 learning.  If students are developing this particular skill in preschool, then they are less likely to miss content instruction in the future, leading to greater academic achievement.  At least that's my theory. (LH)

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The point made by Ortega (2019) that 'multilingualism is continuous, gradient, and probabilistic' stuck out to me. Before reading this section of the article, my perception of a 'true' multilingual was someone 'fluent' or at least proficient in all the languages spoken. After reading the two study examples, where participants didn't fit into the rigidly constructed boxes of monolingual or bilingual, I can see that monolingualism and multilingualism are not separate categories, but are on a continuum. That makes a big difference in the way I not only view my own linguistic resources, but those of learners as well. (CH)

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One of the interesting points from Cook (1992) is that cross-linguistic influence goes both ways, that the L2 affects the L1 as well. Since language is so intertwined with identity, I wonder how that affects the way the learner feels about learning the L2 (if they even are aware of it)? Does anyone have any examples of a learner becoming aware of how their L2 was affecting their L1? (CH)

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A basic question that comes to mind when reading about the importance of including L1 in the classroom is: how do we do it effectively? How do teachers authentically incorporate students' L1s without it seeming gimmicky?
- Yashkumarie

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Something that made me stop and think was Ortega's idea of a world that is often invisibly multilingual. This idea struck me because throughout my upbringing, it seemed like much of my world, specifically my home country (USA)  was multilingual. There seems to be a stigma associated with bi/multilingualism, even among people who speak more than one language. There is prestige attached only to certain types of SLA (for example, learning a second language in school is viewed as prestigious whereas learning a heritage language is not). I found this interesting, especially in light of the current political climate and the president's view on immigration. "... our 21st century world looks fraught with real threats to human difference, and many language learners and multilinguals are under siege."
(YP)

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Ortega briefly discussed the difference between people who choose to be multilinguals and those who are multilinguals due to necessity. The multilinguals who need more than one language out of necessity outnumber those who are multilingual by choice, but are underrepresented in research. I wonder how much we are missing, and what we are missing from ignoring this group of speakers. Ortega mentions this as well, but I think it's a valid point that we need to take into account all peoples in research. For me, this connects to how medical research often has a bias toward white, male patients, and many medicines, health conditions, and treatments are not effective or presents in the same way in other populations.
-Kylie

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I found this definition of interference in Cook's discussion of transfer really interesting. "Weinreich (1953) defined interference in terms that allow it to go in both directions - 'Those instances of deviation from the norms of either language which occur in the speech of bilinguals as a result of their familiarity with more than one language'"

I'm planning on reading the "teaching Transfer" article, because the effect of the L1 on L2 development has always been really interesting to me, and one of my goals as an ESL teacher is to do as much as I can to support my students in their continued development in the languages they speak besides English.  I wonder if making students aware of this phenomenon (since their metalinguistic skills will be pretty strong) could be useful.
Janney

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"The first one is the mono-

lingual bias associated with the nation state project, just described. Inadvertently augmenting

it and intertwined with it is the second ideology: the native speaker bias (or nativespeakerism, Hol-

liday, 2006), which holds that owning a language from birth results in a form of linguistic competence superior to the competencies that may develop through any other means over the life trajectory. Both biases work together to cast a deficit

light on the object of study, portraying language

learners as doomed to failure" (Ortega, 2019).

This quote made me reflect on the biases associated with bilingual and multilingualism. It made me think about how bilingualism can be seen as an asset, or deficit. For example, students who attend immersion schools and learn an additional language is this setting are often praised for their bilingualism. On the other hand, immigrants in the United States learning English, are viewed differently as bilinguals.
-Nicole

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This quote from Ortega (2019),   "Adults, too, are found to initially learn faster and more efficiently when directly compared to children" (e.g., Kim, Clayards, & Goad, 2018; Oh et al., 2011), surprised me. Previously, I read research that it is easier for children to acquire languages than adults. This quote seems to contradict that statement. Therefore, I am wondering if adults only initially learn quickly and efficiently, and over time childrens' learning outpaces that of the adults.
-Nicole

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Oh there were so many things that stuck out to me! Here are a few of the quotes:
"In sum, the new research shows that, across diverse contexts and timings, the best predictor of bilingual outcomes is experience with each language. ... it has become clear that experience of language trumps starting age." (Ortega, 2019)
I love hearing this because it makes so much sense. The more interaction and practice you get with a language, the more you will learn it and acquire it.

"...whenever language acquisition or learning or development are portrayed as a ladder to native-likeness, imagining monolingual-likeness as the finish line of L2 learning. The idea of a finish line in itself also instills linguistic insecurity in language learners." (Ortega, 2019)
This idea of a "finish line" makes me cringe and want to cry a little because I feel like this is exactly how ESL/EL students feel in our schools! Especially with my 5th graders because we put a lot of emphasis on the WIDA ACCESS proficiency test and they work SO hard! But what are we comparing them to? When is their English "good enough" to not have to take another standardized test?!
(Leah B)

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" ... bottom-up statistics were used, such as cluster analysis, factor analysis, or latent class analysis, which do not require researchers to assign participants to predetermined categories. The strategy is bold and here-to unexplored in SLA, but it would certainly enhance construct validity." (Ortega, 2019)
I had a question mark in the margin by this quote. What are these types of analysis, why aren't they being used? As the field moves forward, will these things be pursued?
(Leah B)

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Those who start from the balanced bilingual see the L2 learner as a failure for not achieving full L2 competence; even bilinguals, according to Grosjean (1989), 'often assume and amplify the monolingual view and hence criticise their own language competence'.

This concept helped me gain a new perspective of how L2 learners should be viewed and taught. It connected with my own feelings and apprehensions about my ability to speak Korean. I have always compared myself with the monolingual ideal and felt embarrassment over my lack of competence in comparison. It made me appreciate the importance of moving away from the monolingual view as the norm.

- Ian Suh

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Similar to the questions raised by others, I am concerned with the implications of teaching multicompetence. I appreciate the concepts from it and what they represent especially regarding social justice. However, how does one teach multicompetence in an academic context where L2 acquisition and the language of school is the goal?

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 Respecting  the L1 of  ESL and minority students  means respecting   their heritage and ultimately respecting  who the students are 

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 Respecting  the L1 of  ESL and minority students  means respecting   their heritage and ultimately respecting  who the students are 

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“Whenever the linguistic repertoires of certain speakers are rejected,their ethnocultural heritages and affiliations are also rejected. Namely, speakers who fall short of normative, monolingual, elitist conceptions of linguistic competence are told (by researchers,teachers, parents, peers, and circulating collective societal discourses) that their language is not(yet) good enough and that all doors will open to them in life once they fix it and appropriate communicative repertoires of the kinds that are valued”-(Ortega, p. 30)
This quote shows how not valuing the L1 of second language learners and minority students is perceived by the students as not respecting their heritage and culture. It is therefore extremely important to make the students feel that even though they need the Standard English to achieve good results in school , their language and heritage are valued and respected.

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I had never considered that the target we expect students to strive for is unfair and a bit unrealistic. Why should students who are learning multiple language strive for "near native" language use? As long as they know enough to communicate and express themselves in their needed context, others expectations are somewhat irrelevant. I also never thought about the fact that all of the L2 English learners we have been reading about in T & S are college educated multilingual learners. So, the research that we, and many in the field have relied on is not necessarily a fair representation of the multilingual populations and potentially skews what we know about multilingual learners.
-Ashley Gilbertson

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How much translanguaging should be encouraged? Free reign, or limited to times of misunderstanding/need? This practice is not encouraged in my school, so I'm trying to think of a way to ease people into it.

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“Whenever the linguistic repertoires of certain speakers are rejected, their ethnocultural heritages and affiliations are also rejected. Namely, speakers who fall short of normative, monolingual, elitist conceptions of linguistic competence are told (by researchers, teachers, parents, peers, and circulating collective societal discourses) that their language is not(yet) good enough and that all doors will open to them in life once they fix it and appropriate communicative repertoires of the kinds that are valued”-(Ortega, p. 30)

Much of the readings this week illustrated how integrating a students L1 knowledge into the L2 classroom and learning experiences are a vital component to developing their language proficiency. As teachers, it is our job to create learning opportunities/tasks where students are able to use their L1 to facilitate their learning, while still using their L2 to interact with their peers and their teacher. This quote shown above from the Ortega article illustrates how not valuing the L1 of your language learning students shows them that you do not respect where they came from (heritage and culture). In order to make students feel respected and valued with their language, teachers need to be more aware of ways that they can use a student’s L1 to facilitate their L2 learning. -Steph Noble

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What are ways to balance using L1 in the classroom to facilitate L2 learning? What are some strategies that teachers can use to do so? -Steph Noble

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"Unlike adult grammatical competence, multi-competence is not a final steady-state of knowledge, since this is rare in L2 users and denies knowledge of the L2 below the level of balanced bilinguals.  Multi-competence refers to a person's knowledge of more than one language system; wherever there is language knowledge of an L2 that is not simply assimilated by the L1, such as lexical borrowing, there is multi-competence. (Cook, 1992)"

This caught me by surprise! I may not be fluent in Spanish or Korean but I still possess multicompetence. :) -Kenya