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Muhamad Nur Asyraf bin Mohamad Isa
A151440

Assalamualaikum and hi,

Auditory approach and earworm to acquire/improve knowledge on ESL.

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ERIC Identifier: Publication Date: Author:
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Using Music in the Adult ESL Classroom. ERIC Digest.

Music can be used in the adult English as a second language (ESL) classroom to create a learning environment; to build listening comprehension, speaking, reading, and writing skills; to increase vocabulary; and to expand cultural knowledge. This digest looks briefly at research and offers strategies for using music in the adult ESL classroom.

RESEARCH

Neurologists have found that musical and language processing occur in the same area of the brain, and there appear to be parallels in how musical and linguistic syntax are processed (Maess & Koelsch, 2001). In one study, college students demonstrated improved short-term spatial reasoning ability after listening to Mozart. This was dubbed the "Mozart effect" in the popular press (Rauscher, Shaw, & Ky, 1993).

Adult learners in South Africa, exposed to instrumental music during an intensive English course, showed benefits in language learning (Puhl, 1989). Many educators report success using instrumental music as a warm up and relaxation tool, as a background for other activities, and as the inspiration for writing activities (Eken, 1996).

USING SONGS IN INSTRUCTION

Most classroom music activities focus on lyrics. Educator Tim Murphey conducted an analysis of the lyrics of a large corpus of pop songs and found that they have several features that help second- language learners: They contain common, short words and many personal pronouns (94% of the songs had a first person, I, referent and are written at about a fifth-grade level); the language is conversational (imperatives and questions made up 25% of the sentences in the corpus); time and place are usually imprecise (except for some folk ballads); the lyrics are often sung at a slower rate than words are spoken with more pauses between utterances; and there is repetition of vocabulary and structures. These factors allow learners to understand and relate to the songs (Murphey, 1992). A further benefit of pop song lyrics is that their meanings are fluid, and, like poetry, allow for many different interpretations (Moi, 1994). Following are strategies to use with songs.

LISTENING AND ORAL ACTIVITIES

Songs contextually introduce the features of supra-segmentals (how rhythm, stress, and intonation affect the pronunciation of English in context). Through songs, students discover the natural stretching and compacting of the stream of English speech. For example, the reduction of the auxiliary have to the sound /uv/ can be heard in the song by Toni Braxton "You've Been Wrong for So Long" (2000). Similarly, the change of word final t + word initial y to /ch/ can be heard in a line from the Tracy Chapman Song "All that You Have Is Your Soul" (1989), where the singer says, "Don't you eat of a bitter fruit." Moriya (1988) points out the value of using songs for pronunciation practice with Asian learners because of the many phonemic differences between Asian languages and English. However, students from any language background can benefit from a choral or individual reading of the lyrics of the songs mentioned above, practicing the natural reductions that occur in spoken English.

Students may summarize orally the action or theme of a song or give oral presentations about a song or musician, playing musical selections for the class. To involve the whole class, students can fill out response sheets about each presentation, answering questions about the featured topic, something new they learned, and something they enjoyed.

READING AND WRITING ACTIVITIES

Students can fill in the blanks before, during, or after listening to a song, and then check to see whether their word choices made sense semantically, even if they did not pick the exact word used. This helps build the important skill of forming hypotheses based on context (predicting). This activity, called cloze, is usually created by deleting words at predetermined intervals, e.g., every 5th or 7th word. However, words can be deleted instead to practice a target grammar point, such as past tense verbs, prepositions, or compound nouns, or to identify key words (Griffee, 1990). For example, in the popular Enya song "Only Time" (2001), the auxiliary "can" could be omitted. ("Who can say where the road goes, where the day flows, only time. And who can say if your love grows, as your heart chose, only time.")

One popular activity is to cut the lyrics into lines and have students put them in the correct order as they listen to the song. This can be done individually or in small groups. It may be necessary to play the song several times. After the lines of the song have been put in order, the song can be played once more as students read or sing along. Alternatively, the class can be divided into teams with identical sets of strips and compete to see which group can put the strips in the correct order first.

For short songs, students can work in small groups to write the words of a song. The process of putting the lyrics together as a group involves making decisions about word order, verb tense, and parts of speech. It also builds the teamwork skills so important to the workplace and community. When the lyric sheet is handed out, the groups can compare what they heard and wrote with the actual words.

Adult students enjoy writing responses to songs, either in class or at home. Possible responses include topics comparing music in the students' homeland with music in the United States. This assignment draws upon the knowledge and experiences that adult ESL learners bring to language learning and provides a known context for comparing and contrasting, often a difficult skill for beginning writers.

Many songs tell a story, and these stories can be rewritten or retold to practice narrative or summarizing skills or direct and reported speech. Students can also complete a writing prompt or answer a question from the point of view of the narrator or other characters in a song. For example, the Nancy Wilson song, "Guess Who I Saw Today" (1960) is sung by a wife catching her husband having a romantic lunch with another woman. The prompt could require the students to respond to the accusations in writing, saying what the husband might say.

VOCABULARY BUILDING ACTIVITIES

Pop songs are written to be easily understood and enjoyed. As discussed above, they tend to use high frequency lyrics that have emotional content. This makes them strong candidates for word study or for reinforcing words already learned through written means. If a series of songs is to be used, students can be paired and given a song to teach the class.

However, the songs may also have idioms in them that might be difficult to explain, depending on the level of the students. For example, Cat Stevens' rendition of "Morning Has Broken" (1975) may appear initially to be a solid intermediate-level song that practices the present perfect tense. On closer examination, the expression "morning has broken" can be confusing to English language learners and may need to be discussed prior to listening to the song.

CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE ACTIVITIES

Songs can be used in discussions of culture. They are a rich mine of information about human relations, ethics, customs, history, humor, and regional and cultural differences. A song can be part of a unit that also contains poems, video footage, or still photographs. Recordings of freedom songs from the civil rights movement can be a powerful accompaniment to watching Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech on video, for example.

SELECTING MUSIC

Songs should be carefully selected for the adult ESL classroom. Lems (1996) and Poppleton (2001), make the following suggestions:

1. Song lyrics should be clear and loud, not submerged in the instrumental music.

2. The vocabulary load for the song should be appropriate to the proficiency level. For example, Led Zepplin's "Stairway to Heaven" (1971)-with its vivid imagery and possibilities for multiple interpretations-might be successful with an advanced-level class. With other learners, however, its fast pace, obscure references, and lack of repetition could prove troublesome, as could the word inversion in lines such as, "There walks a lady we all know."

3. Songs should be pre-screened for potentially problematic content, such as explicit language, references to violent acts or sex, or inappropriate religious allusions.

Griffee (1990) recommends using short, slow songs for beginning-level students and discusses activities such as creating song word puzzles, drawing a song, or showing related pictures. With higher levels, he suggests using songs that tell stories, moving toward short, fast songs, and finally, longer, fast songs that have fewer high frequency vocabulary items.

Finding copies of song lyrics is not difficult. Many are available on the Internet, and many recordings contain lyric sheets. Beatles' songs such as "Yesterday" (1965) and "In My Life" (1966) have clear, direct lyrics and a timeless quality that make them appropriate with adult English language learners. Because teachers will show care and effort when presenting songs they are especially fond of, their favorites are also good. Finally, students are often strongly motivated to learn the lyrics of a new pop song or an old favorite they have heard and never understood, so their choices for classroom music should not be overlooked.

REFERENCES

Eken, D. K. (1996). Ideas for using songs in the English language classroom. "English Teaching Forum, 34"(1), 46-47.

Griffee, D. T. (1990). Hey baby! Teaching short and slow songs in the ESL classroom. "TESL Reporter, 23"(4), 3-8.

Lems, K. (1996). "For a song: Music across the ESL curriculum". Paper presented at the annual convention of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Chicago. (ED No. 396 524)

Maess, B., & Koelsch, S. (2001). Musical syntax is processed in Broca's area: An MEG study. "Nature Neuroscience 4", 540-545.

Moi, C. M. (1994). Rock poetry: The literature our students listen to. "Journal of the Imagination in Language Learning, 2", 56-59.

Moriya, Y. (1988). "English speech rhythm and its teaching to non-native speakers". Paper presented at the annual convention of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. Chicago. (ED No. 303 033)

Murphey, T.(1992).The discourse of pop songs. "TESOL Quarterly, 26"(4), 770-774.

Poppleton, C. (2001). Music to our ears. "American Language Review, 5"(1), 23-26.

Puhl, C. A. (1989). "Up from under: English training on the mines". (Report on 1988 research project conducted at Gold Field Training Services). Stellenbosch, South Africa: University of Stellenbosch. (ED No. 335 864)

Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G., & Ky, K. (1993). Mozart and spatial reasoning. "Nature,(365)" 611.

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Using Music in the Adult ESL Classroom. ERIC Digest.

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Music can be used in the adult English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) classroom to create a learning environment; to build listening comprehension, speaking, reading, and writing skills; to increase vocabulary; and to expand cultural knowledge. This digest looks briefly at research and offers strategies for using music in the adult ESL classroom.

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Teacher's Beliefs of Code Switching in the ESL Classroom 

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Teacher's Beliefs of Code Switching in the ESL Classroom 

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MUHAMAD ASRUL NIZAM BIN AMBO
A151410

This paper discusses on how ELS teachers view code switching during the lesson

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Error Analysis of the Written English Essays of Secondary School Students in Malaysia: A Case Study 

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Error Analysis of the Written English Essays of Secondary School Students in Malaysia: A Case Study 

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Faizah Binti Hussin A149273
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Good day. This is my sample of an article.

The case study discusses about;

- Common errors made by secondary students of a non-English background when writing an essay

Its problem statements are;

- Malaysian children having a decline in English standard despite learning for years
- Several research on the same topic shown that Malaysian ESL students repeatedly committed errors of the similar type throughout a few decades
- Teachers and students alike did not take mistakes as a part of learning process and thus did not understand that learning process varies from an individual to another

Their objective;

- Recognising the 6 common errors that students make in their essays

Their methodology;

- Students from a secondary school in Semenyih
- 72 form four students of a non-English background
- Essays are done within the SPM format
- Use of electronic device (computers and such) for data collecting (recognising grammar errors through a software)

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Students’ Self-Esteem and their Perception of Teacher Behavior: A Study of Between-Class Ability Grouping. 

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Students’ Self-Esteem and their Perception of Teacher Behavior: A Study of Between-Class Ability Grouping. 

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Novelia Bernice Jeffree
A150959

Greetings!

This article discusses the perceptions of different groups of students on their teachers and their self-esteem which then  affects their academic performance.

This paper reveals that lower achiever group tends to perceive their teacher as someone who controls their behavior in order to
avoid any disciplinary problems which at the same time lower their self-esteem. On the other hand, for the higher achiever  group, they perceive their teachers as people who are supportive.

The paper has  stated that self-esteem and the students' perceptions towards their teachers definitely affect their academic performance.

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EJREP :: Students' Self-Esteem and their Perception of Teacher Behavior: A Study of Between-Class Ability Grouping by PRIHADI, Kususanto; HAIRUL, Nizam Ismail; HAZRI, Jamil

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Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology

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Challenges for Using ICT in Education: Teachers’ Insights.

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Challenges for Using ICT in Education: Teachers’ Insights.

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Sharifah Atirah Binti Syed Hisham
A151419

Assalamualaikum and Hello,

The article reveals teachers’ perceptions of the barriers and challenges preventing teachers to integrate ICT in the classroom.

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Challenges for Using ICT in Education- Teachers’ Insights.

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Using Technology to Help ESL/EFL Students Develop Language Skills

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Using Technology to Help ESL/EFL Students Develop Language Skills

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Anis Marjan Binti Azmimurad A150477

Assalamualaikum & hi everyone,

The article that I have chosen focuses on the implementations of technology in conducting lesson in facilitating students' progress of learning language. As we are the future teachers with the technology skills being essential to be inculcated in teaching and learning process.

http://iteslj.org/Articles/Ybarra-Technology.html

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The Problems of First Language Interference in the Process ofTeaching Second Languages

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The Problems of First Language Interference in the Process ofTeaching Second Languages

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Wirda Syaheera Binti Mohd Sulaiman
A150711

Good day everyone.

The paper concentrates on the issue of L1 influencing the process of teaching and learning a second language. It focuses on the impact of interference of the native language during the process of teaching and learning English as a second language. It is emphatically trusted that linguistic interference is one of the basic challenges confronted by the learners of second dialects.

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The Problems of First Language Interference in the Process of

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Challenges in Learning English as a Second Language (2016)

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Challenges in Learning English as a Second Language (2016)

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Rebecca Lydia anak Richmond
A150386

A very good day I bid to all.

This paper discusses on the drawbacks in learning English as a second language in a student perspective. There are various drawbacks in this issue however there are several solutions that were discussed as well in sync with the problem brought up which highlight mainly on how both student and teacher can solve this problem together.

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Study on Classroom Management and Classroom Discipline Problems, Reasons and Solutions.

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Study on Classroom Management and Classroom Discipline Problems, Reasons and Solutions.

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Naufal Binti Johari
A151393

A very good day I bid to all.

This paper reveals about classroom management and classroom discipline problems faced by IT teachers. The writers suggest solutions for the problems faced by the IT teachers in order to ensure the classroom is managed in an orderly manner to ensure learning.

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A Study of Teachers' Strategies so Develop Students' Interest towards Learning English as Second Language

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A Study of Teachers' Strategies so Develop Students' Interest towards Learning English as Second Language

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Sharimah binti Jarail
A151404

Assalamualaikum and hi everyone.
This article reveals about a few strategies in developing students' interest towards Learning English as Second Language. There are a few strategies that were mostly applied applied by teachers in developing students' interest towards English language learning, mentioned in this journal.

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Problematizing the Hybrid Classroom for ESL/EFL students

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Problematizing the Hybrid Classroom for ESL/EFL students

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Nur Alia Syahida binti Nik Hasbullah
A151349

Assalamualaikum and Hello Everyone,

This paper highlighted about Hybrid courses which replace 20% – 80% of class meetings with online activities which are predicted to increase as educators embrace the benefits of blending online technologies with face-to-face class meetings. Hybrid courses are also expected to increase enrollments of ESL/EFL students.

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Lexical Borrowings in the ESL Classrooms in Malaysia (2013)

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Lexical Borrowings in the ESL Classrooms in Malaysia (2013)

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Fatin Kamilia Binti Mohd Arif
A150003

A very good day I bid to all.

This paper reveals that teaching materials with local context are found to be engaging and appealing to students because of their familiarity and local flavour. In this manner, students can instantly recognise the cultural context and respond to the situations and settings. As such they are able to interact with teaching materials in a more meaningful way.

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Student- School Bonding and Adolescent Problems Behaviour

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Student- School Bonding and Adolescent Problems Behaviour

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Nur Hasmirah binti Hassan (A151385)
https://academic.oup.com/her/article/14/1/99/670968/Student-school-bonding-and-adolescent-problem

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Abstract

Introduction

The dramatic increase in the prevalence of problem behaviors during adolescence is a national concern ( Dryfoos, 1990; Feldman and Elliot, 1990; USDHHS, 1991). By grade 8, 31.5% use alcohol and 26.2% smoke cigarettes monthly, 44.2% have been in a physical fight in the past year, and truancy, bullying, theft and vandalism are common ( USDHHS, 1989; CDC, 1990; Dryfoos, 1990; Johnston et al., 1994). While low-income, minority youth ( Lorion et al., 1991) and those who experience family dissolution and transience ( Furstenburg, 1991) are at greatest risk, a large proportion of adolescents eventually engage in some form of problem behavior, placing them at increased risk for school failure, involvement in the criminal justice system and health problems ( Dryfoos, 1990; McCord, 1990).

Problem behaviors are of particular concern in middle school, where a contagious youth culture of academic negativism and misconduct can thwart learning and disrupt the school routine. Many early adolescents, engaged in an intense period of development known as the adolescent transition, are poorly prepared for secondary school and highly susceptible to antisocial influences ( 2Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989). However, there is theoretical and empirical evidence that changes in the way middle grade schooling is conducted can promote academic achievement, improve school conduct and mediate the initiation of problem behavior ( Hawkins and Weis, 1985; Kumpfer and Turner, 1991).

Middle school was conceived of as an innovative means of easing the transition of early adolescents to secondary education by providing a social and academic environment that is appropriate to the developmental level of early adolescents. Middle schools so developed compete for students' affiliation. Theoretically, well adjusted students who develop a positive affiliation, or social bond, with their school are more likely to remain academically engaged, and less likely to become involved in school misconduct and other antisocial behaviors, than students who develop a negative affiliation with school (Hawkins and Weis, 1985). While social bonding is not the only mediator of problem behavior, student-school bonding can protect students from the loss of academic ambition and the propensity for misconduct.

In this paper we discuss student-school bonding as it applies to middle school and problem behavior prevention, present the findings from a survey of middle school students on school bonding, school adjustment and problem behavior, and describe the development of Going Places, a primary prevention program designed to prevent problem behavior by increasing school bonding among middle school students.

Background

Problem behavior

Adolescent problem behaviors are associated with a host of negative health and social outcomes, including school failure, arrest, addiction, sexually transmitted diseases, pregnancy, injury and death ( Jessor and Jessor, 1977; Feldman and Elliott, 1990; Dryfoos, 1990). The prevalence of problem behaviors is relatively rare prior to middle school, but increases dramatically during adolescence. For example, less than 10% of sixth graders have used tobacco, but about 30% of eighth graders and 60% of 11th graders have. While only 5% of sixth graders have used alcohol, nearly 70% of eighth graders have ( Johnston et al., 1994). Further, delinquency increases 10-fold from age 10 to 14 ( Dryfoos, 1990) and experience with sexual intercourse increases from almost zero among preadolescents to 61.6% of ninth graders ( CDC, 1995). These increases in prevalence occur among both males and females in all socioeconomic groups ( Dryfoos, 1990; Johnston et al., 1994).

Problem behaviors tend to cluster ( Jessor 1984; Lorion et al., 1991), the presence of one increasing the likelihood of another. Also, problem behaviors tend to have common psychosocial mediators ( Jessor and Jessor, 1977; Jessor, 1984; Perry and Jessor, 1984). Poor social skills, perceptions of low social competence, academic underachievement, negative attitudes toward school and lack of parental guidance have been identified as modifiable risk factors for problem behavior ( Hawkins and Weis, 1985; Dryfoos, 1990; Steinberg, 1990; Schinke et al., 1991). Elevated and unrealistic expectations about the benefits, prevalence and social acceptance of problem behaviors also place youth at risk for engaging in these behaviors ( Hansen and Graham, 1991). Conversely, a perceived social norm that is conservative, in the sense that it is consistent with the actual, relatively low level of prevalence among adolescents, is protective against problem behavior. Peer affiliation can be a risk or protective factor because adolescents tend to behave in ways that are consistent with the behavior of their friends ( Jessor and Jessor, 1977; Kandel et al., 1986). Adolescents whose parents are demanding, involved and supportive are at lower risk of engaging in problem behavior than adolescents whose parents are uninvolved and unsupportive ( Baumrind, 1991; Steinberg, 1990).

The transitions to middle school and then to high school are particularly difficult for students who are academically or socially deficient ( Entwisle, 1990; Seidman et al., 1994). The transition to middle school is notably difficult for students who fail to make friends with well-behaved children, lack the organizational and study skills required to keep up with assignments, and do not become involved in academic and co-curricular school activities. To protect themselves from feelings of failure and incompetence, students may become apathetic or develop anti-social attitudes and behavior. Often the school is the target of discontented students, who rebel against school rules, ignore academics, treat teachers and other students with disrespect, and vandalize school property and facilities.

The adolescent transition and middle school

Adolescence is typified by dramatic physical, cognitive and psychosocial maturation that varies widely in timing and tempo ( Brooks-Gunn et al., 1985; Feldman and Elliott, 1990). Cognitively, adolescents' abilities to deal with relative, abstract and social concepts gradually advances. Socially, the quality of relationships between early adolescents and their peers and adults becomes increasingly important in middle school. Psychosocially, adolescents continue to deal with the life-long issues of achievement and competence, while identity, autonomy, intimacy, sexuality and social status emerge as other dominant concerns ( Steinberg, 1990; Steinberg, 1993). Clearly, educating early adolescents is a complex task, which can be all the more difficult when students dislike school.

Aside from school, few institutions and social programs are substantially devoted to adolescents. Participation in youth sports and recreation programs, for example, declines dramatically after elementary school ( Smith, 1991; Seefeldt et al., 1993), and few supervised after-school programs are available for this age group ( Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1992). Hence, the school is the primary institution outside the family within which the development of adolescents can be directed and shaped. Within this context, adolescent problem behavior can be seen in part as the failure of schools to capture students' sense of social affiliation and provide educational experiences and a social context within which adolescents can develop social competence ( Harter, 1982) and experience success ( Bandura, 1986). Youth who get off to a bad start in middle school are at risk for subsequent academic underachievement and problem behavior ( Hawkins and Weis, 1985; Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989).

Middle school usually includes grades 6, 7 and 8, when most students are early adolescents, 10-14 years old. A product of the progressive education movement of the 1960s, middle schools were conceptualized to serve the unique academic and social needs of early adolescents, providing a transition between the relatively safe and academically flexible environment of elementary school and the relatively competitive, rigid and impersonal environment of high school (]Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989).

In practice many middle schools differ little from the junior high schools they replaced ( Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989; Magendollar; 1993; Wigfield and Eccles, 1994a). Relative to junior high schools, middle schools ideally have fewer students and are smaller overall. The curriculum is less hierarchical (e.g. grade 6, 7 and 8 math) and less departmentalized (e.g. math, English, science, social studies). Each grade is treated as a separate group or team. Student and staff team members have frequent opportunities to interact with and get to know each other in class and participate in co-curricular activities. Students in each grade are mostly separated from the students in the other grades to prevent bullying and to insulate grade-level norms. Tracking by academic ability is discouraged, while grading is flexible and individualized. The pedagogy favors problem solving, critical thinking, and interactive teaching methods within integrated and interdisciplinary curricula.

Theoretically, these middle school innovations would facilitate students' adjustment to school, enabling them to become involved in academic and co-curricular school activities, increasing motivation for learning, and decreasing motivation for misconduct and other anti-social behavior. Because underachievement and misconduct are two of the most important concerns of teachers and administrators, there is great interest in the concept and methods of increasing student-school bonding.

School bonding and problem behavior

Adolescents who form a positive affiliation or social bond with their school are more likely than adolescents who fail to establish this social bond to engage in a variety of prosocial behaviors and achieve up to their potential academically, and less likely to engage in problem behaviors such as fighting, bullying, truancy, vandalism and substance use.

The concept of social bonding arose from social control theory, which suggests that attachment to family and school, commitment to conventional pathways of achievement and beliefs in the legitimacy of societal order are primary elements of establishing a social bond ( Hirschi, 1969). The theory and some empirical data suggest that social bonding is protective against anti-social behavior ( Hawkins and Weis, 1985; Kumpfer and Turner, 1991; McBride et al., 1995). Similarly, bonding to the school, conceptualized by Hawkins and Weis (1985), includes attachment to prosocial peers, commitment to conventional academic and social activities at school, and belief in the established norms for school behavior.

Student-school bonding can be advanced by developing social skills and social competence, improving school climate, and encouraging authoritative parenting practices ( Perry and Jessor, 1984; Hawkins and Catalano, 1990; Schaps and Battistich, 1991).

Social skills training

Middle school students have an acute need to demonstrate competence and be recognized for achievement ( Steinberg, 1993; Wigfield and Eccles, 1994b). Those who feel blocked from academic achievement may be tempted to quit trying, misbehave or seek other anti-social avenues of achievement and recognition. If students do not develop the social skills they need to compete academically and do not have other opportunities for demonstrating achievement and competence within the school setting, they may develop antisocial attitudes and behavior ( Hawkins and Weis, 1985; Steinberg, 1990). Conversely, students who are committed to school are less likely to engage in anti-social behavior than students who are uninvolved, alienated or hostile toward school ( Elliot et al., 1985; Gottfredson, 1986; Schaps and Battistich, 1991; Kumpfer and Turner, 1991). Social skills curricula can improve self management and self control skills, thereby improving school adjustment and performance ( Hawkins and Weis, 1985; Schaps and Battistich, 1991).

School climate

School climate has an important influence on school bonding ( Pyper et al., 1987). Students are motivated by an authoritative teaching style that is demanding, supportive and fair ( Hawkins et al., 1988; Schaps and Battistich, 1991; Olweus, 1993). Students who like their classes, believe their teachers are supportive and fair, have good peer relations, and accept their school's mission, values and standards are more likely to bond to the school. Student-school bonding may be improved by defining in positive ways the culture and personality of the school, establishing school policies and practices that are relevant and fair, and increasing opportunities for students to participate in school activities ( Gottfredson, 1986). Participation in academic and co-curricular activities increases bonding because students are reinforced by their own success experiences and enjoy the opportunity to affiliate with peers and teachers who share their interests ( Hawkins and Weis, 1985).

Parent education

Children are likely to place a value on their academic and behavioral performance at school that is equal to the interest and concern demonstrated by their parents ( Steinberg, 1993; Paulson, 1994). Parents can be encouraged to establish high expectations, become highly involved in their children's school life, and support academic achievement and school participation ( Baumrind, 1991; Dornbusch, 1994).

Methods

In preparation for the implementation of a middle school problem behavior prevention program we conducted a survey of consenting students in grades 6, 7 and 8 in all seven middle schools in a suburban Maryland school district. Parental consent was obtained through passive procedures (Severson and Biglan, 1989). Special education students with reading difficulties were excluded. Two trained proctors administered the survey in each class of 20-35 students. To emphasize confidentiality, students first completed and turned in a cover page that included their name, survey identification number, birth date and homeroom teacher's name. Thus, the students' names were not on the questionnaires. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the NICHD and authorized representatives of the school district.

Measures

We developed an index of problem behavior that included eight items measuring the frequency during the last 12 months of smoking, drinking, other substance use, bullying, fighting, stealing, vandalism and weapons carrying. An index assessing school bonding included 6 items assessing students commitment to school. Perceived school climate was assessed by a 15-item index adapted from Pyper and colleagues (1987). An index assessing school adjustment included 11 items regarding students' perceptions about how well they do on school work, making friends at school, staying out of trouble, and getting along with students and teachers.

Analysis

We examined correlations between the variables of interest, and assessed grade and gender differences in the mean scores for each variable using ANOVA and t- tests.

Findings

A total of 4263 students out of 4668 (91.3%) completed the survey, The parents of 302 students refused participation, 103 students were absent at the time of the survey and make up, and 417 special education students with reading problems were excluded.

Shown in Table I are the α coefficients for each variable and the correlations among variables. The internal consistency coefficients ranged from α = 0.76 for school climate to α = 0.87 for school adjustment. School bonding, school adjustment and perceived school climate were positively correlated with each other but inversely correlated with problem behavior.

Shown in Table II, school bonding, school climate and school adjustment were significantly higher ( P < 0.001) among females than males, and higher among sixth graders than seventh or eighth graders, and higher among seventh graders than eighth graders. Conversely, problem behavior was significantly higher ( P < 0.0001) among males than females, and higher among eighth graders than sixth or seventh graders, and seventh graders than sixth graders.

Discussion

The findings indicated that while school bonding, perceived school climate and school adjustment were positively associated, each of these variables was negatively associated with problem behavior. The findings are consistent with the hypothesis that positive attitudes toward school may be protective against problem behavior. The inverse relationship between school variables and problem behavior underscores the potential importance of student-school bonding.

We also found that problem behavior was higher among males than females and among students in higher grades, which is consistent with other findings ( CDC, 1990; Dryfoos, 1990; Johnston et al., 1994). Students in higher grades in our sample, rather than developing more positive attitudes toward school over time, actually liked school less, perceived school climate less favorably, felt less closely affiliated with school and were less well adjusted to school than students in lower grades. These findings suggest that creating middle schools that promote student-school bonding may help prevent adolescent problem behavior.

Currently, we are implementing a problem behavior prevention project entitled Going Places that builds on the work of earlier primary prevention studies that have attempted to prevent problem behavior by increasing school bonding through skills training ( Schinke et al., 1991), parent education ( Hawkins et al., 1988) and environmental change ( Gottfredson, 1986). The program is unique in applying multiple components over all 3 years of middle school. The curriculum, teacher, school environment and parent program components are based on social development ( Hirschi, 1969) and social learning ( Bandura, 1986) theories and data from the baseline survey presented in this paper.

The curriculum consists of 18 class lessons offered in both the sixth and seventh grades, and nine lessons in the eighth grade. The objectives of the curricula are to (1) foster skills and social competence through skills training; (2) increase participation in classroom and school activities; (3) influence perceived social norms about academic achievement, school conduct and problem behavior; and (4) increase school bonding. Problem solving, self-management and self-control skills, school involvement, communication, peer resistance, and conflict resolution are emphasized. A typical lesson begins with the objectives for the class and the introduction of a new skill, followed by a brief `trigger' videotape (featuring local talent and locations) in which common problems are presented and problem solving approaches are modeled by the actors. The teacher then leads a brief analysis of the problem using the ICAN (Identify the problem, Consider the alternatives, Act carefully and Note the results) problem solving approach. Students then practice problem solving using a variety of skills through various interactive, group activities and role plays. Thus, the students obtain substantial practice, while the teacher provides constructive feedback.

Teacher training emphasizes authoritative classroom management techniques, including the establishment of high expectations for academic achievement and classroom behavior, and teacher support for student achievement. Teachers are encouraged to adopt interactive and cooperative learning methods and provide copious individual feedback.

The enhanced school environment component is based on social marketing and social change strategies to establish realistic, prosocial norms, establish a positive image for the school, reinforce student achievement, extend exposure to Going Places curriculum concepts and improve school climate. Strategies designed to promote school bonding by extending the lessons of the classroom to the larger school environment include the following: (1) an informational `roll-out' to precede each unit; (2) posters and short video segments presented in the cafeteria and display areas; (3) travelers' checks awarded to students by a teacher for applying skills learned in a Going Places lesson; and (4) special activities, such as assemblies and a year-end field trip, which students earn the right to attend by completing their passport and earning travelers' checks. Strategies designed to improve school climate include the following: (1) teacher training in techniques for establishing an authoritative classroom climate and (2) completion of the School Climate Checklist by school administrators. The School Climate Checklist is a self-assessment tool that addresses the following areas: student morale, teacher morale, discipline, school safety, and parent and community involvement. The idea is for administrators to identify areas in need of improvement at their school and develop strategies for improving climate.

The parent education component includes informational newsletters, involvement in curriculum-related homework, a 20-min instructional video, an informational booklet and newsletters. The video, booklet and newsletters are designed to teach parents how to supervise and monitor their children's behavior, be involved in their children's school activities, and establish appropriately high performance expectations. Parents are encouraged to provide warmth and support, while enforcing rules and involving children in the process of making decisions that affect their lives. Periodic newsletters are designed to update parents on Going Places activities, prompt them to remain actively involved with their children, and encourage them to review the booklet and video. Student homework assignments are designed to engage students and parents in interactive learning activities in which parents find out more about what students are learning in the curriculum and have opportunities to reinforce students social skills.

Conclusion

This paper has identified school bonding as a potential mediator of problem behavior. If schools compete successfully for students' affiliation, students may remain more committed to academic achievement, and be less likely to engage in problem behaviors in and out of school. Middle school is a particularly promising setting in which to address problem behavior. Schools can compete for students' affiliation by teaching social skills, improving classroom climate, modifying school environment, and enlisting active involvement and support by parents. Studies such as Going Places that test the utility of interventions designed to increase student-school bonding may provide particularly valuable information about how middle schools can be altered to increase bonding, thereby improving academic achievement, reducing misbehavior and delaying or preventing the onset of problem behavior.

*All values significant ( P ⩽ 0.001). Grades with different superscripts are significantly different from one another ( P ⩽ 0.001).

References

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Student-school bonding and adolescent problem behavior | Health Education Research | Oxford Academic

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Adolescent problem behavior, including substance use, school misconduct and delinquency, is a national concern. Implicit in the concept of middle school is the recognition that students who develop positive social bonds with their school are more likely to perform well academically, and refrain from misconduct and other antisocial behavior.

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Using Creative Strategies to Promote Students' Speaking Skills -Research paper by Mona Khameis

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Using Creative Strategies to Promote Students' Speaking Skills -Research paper by Mona Khameis

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Fatin Syamimi bt Roslan A148952

Assalamualaikum. Greetings, everyone.

The issue highlighted in this paper is similar to Malaysian schools' whereby communication in English is less practiced. The writer suggests some practical ways in a concise manner that may encourage students to participate in English speaking activities as well as to use it in their daily conversations.

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Learner Background and Their Attitudes Towards Studying Literature

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Learner Background and Their Attitudes Towards Studying Literature

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Natasha Zaireen binti Zubir
A148091

Hello, everyone.

This paper addresses the following questions :

1. What are students' general attitudes towards English and Literature in English Component?
2. What are the factors that affect students' attitudes towards literature?
3. Who are the students with positive or negative attitudes towards literature?

I hope that this journal could help in tackling students who seem 'less motivated' in learning literature. Besides, there are prescripted profiles of students that could future teachers in planning the best of lessons that would help to enjoy literature.

Thank you.

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Creating A Bigger Z.P.D. For ESL Learners Via Online Forum In Malaysia

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Creating A Bigger Z.P.D. For ESL Learners Via Online Forum In Malaysia

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Muhammad Naqib Syahmi bin Salan
A150002

Assalamualaikum.

This paper is about the usage of online forum and virtual learning in order to create a bigger zone of proximal development (ZPT) among ESL learners. This is suitable as we're sort of practicing "out-of-classroom" learning process in this space.

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ELL High School Students’ Metacognitive awareness of Reading Strategy Use and Reading Proficiency

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ELL High School Students’ Metacognitive awareness of Reading Strategy Use and Reading Proficiency

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Fionna Anak Jeffery
A151239

Greetings to all,
This study addresses the following research question:

1.      What reading strategies are reported by high school ELLs?

2.      What is the relationship between high school ELLs’ reported strategy use and their reading proficiency as measured by standardized reading achievement test?

3.      What is the relationship between high school ELLs’ reading strategy use and their self-rated reading proficiency?

Findings:
1. English language learners at diverse levels vary their reading strategy use.

2. Among the four groups of students (Not So Good, OK, Good, and Great), Good students reported using reading strategies the most followed by Great and OK. Those in Not So Good group reported the least number of reading strategies.

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Nur Amira Irdeena binti Mohamad Rafi (A151153)

Greetings and good day. This is an article about 'Extensive Reading' where I found interesting that maybe could be implement in our education system. Thank you.

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An extensive reading program was established for elementary level language learners at the British Council Language Center in Sanaa, Yemen.

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Improving Text Flow in ESL Learner Composition

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Improving Text Flow in ESL Learner Composition

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Marco Arlden Anak Mikai
A149911
Hello and good day. This is an article about teaching writing for students. I hope this journal will be helpful.

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The Internet TESL Journal Isabel Alonso
isabel.alonso [at] uam.es
University Autónoma of Madrid (Madrid, Spain)

Anne McCabe
mccabea [at] spmail.slu.edu
Saint Louis University, Madrid Campus (Madrid, Spain)

In the ESL writing classroom, we find that learners often write essays that consist of sentences which do not seem to connect together into a cohesive text. While ELT writing materials provide some focus on cohesive devices, little attention is paid to the progression of information in texts. In this article, we provide a way to focus on the progression of information through thematic patterning (Danes, 1974) in the writing classroom. We apply this as a tool to help in the rewriting of a student text, and suggest how it might be of practical use in the ESL classroom.

Introduction

In our professional experience, we have come across many teachers preparing students for academic writing in English who develop their tasks for the classroom in different university contexts, but somehow we all seem to face similar problems. It is indeed often the case that when we read and assess student compositions, we perceive little or no flow to their texts, that is, sentences are not well connected. We can see this in the following extract of a ESL student essay written in response to the Test of Written English prompt:

What are the qualities of a good parent? Everyone has got lot of problems with his parents. Every generation keeps with the tradition of yelling at home. This is something that doesn't change even if we are jealous when it seems like other people have the relationship with his parents that we always wanted. First of all something we like from anyone, and specially from a person who is close to you is to feel that person cares about you, about your interests. Parents tend to simply ask their children about their lives because they think, they have to, not because they are really interested. Another thing that a parent should take care along the life with his child is to create a relationship with them. It is so usual to feel that your relationship ended with your parents some time ago and now you just live together and still depend economically from them. That just make you feel that you are a bit alone and you need that person at your side. When you still growing up and need some independence, some freedom, parents should understand and be comprehensive of your needs, knowing when your freedom starts and being sure of the education they gave you.

As we can see, this writer lacks an awareness of how information should flow through text, as he moves from one idea to another using vague references, such as pronominal "this", "something we like from anyone" "another thing", and he includes information late in his sentences which he would do well to include earlier in the same sentence, such as "parents should understand and be comprehensive of your needs". These problems of cohesion and how they might be remedied will become more apparent throughout this article.

Cohesion and English Language Teaching

Traditionally, cohesion has often been neglected in language teaching, where sentences have been created, manipulated and assessed in isolation. Only from the mid 1970s onwards, in particular with the publication of Halliday and Hasan's Cohesion in English (1976), did it become progressively assumed in L2 writing teaching that a coherent text is more that a series of grammatical sentences lined up one after another; rather, they interlace, each sentence building on the preceding ones while at the same time advancing the discourse. Nowadays, all general ESL course books and most reading and writing courses incorporate work designed to help learners grasp the cohesive devices of written English: discourse connectors, ellipsis, conjunctions, and so forth. However, L2 writing instructors still come across ESL student compositions in which sentences, assessed in isolation, are grammatically correct and yet the overall effect is one of incoherence.

Information Progression through Thematic Patterning

In this article, we explore the progression of information in English texts and show how it can be exploited to provide for greater cohesion in our students' compositions. We feel that this can be very helpful as a tool of instruction at the level of discourse for the writing teacher. In the rest of this article, we explain how information progression is achieved through thematic patterning, and then demonstrate how it can be used to help improve the composition above.

Indeed, one way of achieving cohesion in text is through thematic patterning, which involves the relationships between clauses based on the information contained in their themes and rhemes. According to M.A.K. Halliday (1967a and b; 1968; 1976; 1994), theme is a structural category realized by the first constituent of the clause in English (not taking into account any initial discourse marker, such as however or probably); the remainder of the message, the part in which the theme is developed, is called rheme.

Some Examples

In text, the usual, unmarked pattern of information flow is for the theme to coincide with given information, and rheme to provide new information. Given information is that which the speaker/writer assumes is present in the reader/hearer's conscious framework (Prince, 1981). Information which is familiar or known is merely taken by the readers as a key upon the basis of which the following information is to be processed. New information, on the other hand, is that which has not been previously mentioned in the discourse, or is unpredictable by the reader/hearer (Prince, 1981). Discourse producers, being aware of this fact, try to place more relevant information (relevant to their intended topic or meaning) at more noticeable positions in the hierarchical organization of a text or sentence in order to boost the addressee's ability to take up the message as intended. In English, given information is usually placed at the beginning of the sentences (coinciding with the theme), whereas new information is usually located at the end (in the rheme), as in the following example:

Q. Where is Mary? A. Mary's at the movies
GIVEN NEW
THEME RHEME

Thematic patterning involves connecting sentences together in a way which moves the reader from the Given to the New. There are several main types of thematic patterning according to the different sequences of thematic and rhematic choices made throughout the text (Danes, 1974). In the first one, the constant pattern, the same topical theme is chosen over several clauses or sentences. We can see this in the following example:

Urea is a very important chemical because of its industrial uses and its role on biological processes. It is excreted in the urine as the chief nitrogen-containing end product of protein metabolism. It is produced on a large scale and used as a fertilizer and raw material in the manufacture of urea-formaldehyde plastics and of drugs. It is usually prepared in laboratories from the reaction between potassium cyanate and ammonium chloride, which is basically a repetition of the Wohler procedure. Urea => it => it => it

In this lab report, a student is describing urea, and thus repeats this theme in all of the sentences, forming a constant theme chain.

Another possibility is to pick something from the rest of the sentence, i.e. from the rheme, as the theme of a subsequent sentence. This is illustrated by the following text. (Themes are in italics, and referents which subsequently become themes are underlined):

The early feminist movement was greatly influenced by works like "On the Vindication of the Rights of Women" (1972) by Mary Wollstonecraft. She proposed a feminist agenda whose aims were to expose the exclusion of women from traditionally "male" spheres like politics, economics, education and religion, to take apart these structures, which denied women their deserved rights and attempt to achieve these rights for them in the male dominated spheres. These aims became a main focus for religious women in particular, at the time, in the United States.

The early feminist movement => Mary Wollstonecraft
=>
she => a feminist agenda whose aims...
=>
These aims

In this text about feminism, the student moves move the early feminist movement to Mary Wollstonecraft , and the latter then becomes the theme of the next sentence as she . Then the writer introduces the aims of the feminist agenda, lists those, and then goes on to make These aims the theme of the third sentence, and to develop a point about where these aims were important.

Thus, the constant pattern provides more of a static text, which works well with description, classification and often with narration. The linear pattern provides more of a dynamic text, which works well with explanation, as it allows writers to add to points by always moving from a given idea to a new one. Obviously, texts will combine patterns, depending on the intention of the writer.

Thematic patterning has been the subject of a great deal of research on different text types; this research shows typical thematic patternings of texts (including work by Danes, 1974 and Fries, 1983), as well as to the usefulness of this patterning for writing students to analyze their own texts to check for thematic flow (cf. Alonso Belmonte & McCabe, 1998a and b; Bloor & Bloor, 1992; Nwogu, 1995; Schleppegrell, 2000; Vande Kopple, 1991; Weissberg, 1984; Witte, 1983). However, Thematic patterning is virtually ignored in ESL text books, where there is little reference to text flow. [1]

How Thematic Patterning Might Be Applied

In order to show how thematic patterning might be applied in order for teachers to suggest to students how they might improve their writing exercises, we return to the student text included earlier in this article. We suggest certain changes in the text based on the above principles. We are aware that there are other discourse problems in the text (e.g. the use of colloquial "you"); however, here we focus on text flow through thematic patterning . The rewritten text appears below, followed by a commentary on the changes, which are numbered in the order they are discussed.

All young people have a lot of problems with their parents. These generational conflicts(1) keep up the tradition of yelling in every home. This tradition(2) is something that doesn't change even if we are jealous when it seems like other people have the relationship with his parents that we always wanted. One thing we want in a relationship with our parents(3) is to feel that they care about us, about our interests. Parents tend to simply ask their children about their lives because they think they have to, not because they are really interested. So parents(4) should be really interested in their children. Along with this interest(5), a parent should take care along the life with his child to create a relationship with them. It is so usual to feel that your relationship ended with your parents some time ago and now you just live together and still depend economically from them. That just make you feel that you are a bit alone and you need your parents at your side. So parents(6) should understand and be comprehensive of your needs when you are still growing up and need some independence, knowing when your freedom starts and being sure of the education they gave you.

1. "These generational conflicts" encapsulates problems with parents, and provides a connection with the rheme of the first sentence.

2. "This tradition" specifies the relationship with the rheme of the previous sentence, better than simply "this", as the writer used in the original.

3. Eliminating "first of all" and changing "something we like from anyone" to "one thing we want in a relationship with our parents" further specifies the idea and also connects back to the rheme of the previous sentence.

4. Repeating the information provided in the theme of the previous sentence, we have added a sentence to reiterate the point of the paragraph.

5. "Another thing" is replaced by "along with this interest", which provides a connection to the rheme of the previous sentence.

6. We have switched the order of the clauses, as the independent clause "parents...needs" connects directly with the rheme of the previous sentence, so we have placed it in initial position.

Conclusion

We have attempted to better the information flow of the extract without losing sight of the student's original intentions. This short extract is a very small sample of what can be done when applying thematic patterning to longer texts, and illustrates its usefulness as a discourse tool for aiding students in rewriting their essays. We also believe that thematic patterning can provide the basis for activities to help students produce naturally flowing texts.

References

Alonso Belmonte, I. & A. McCabe (1998a) 'Theme-Rheme Patterns in L2 Writing'. Didáctica (Lengua y Literatura) , 10: 13-31.

Alonso Belmonte, I. & A. McCabe (1998b) 'Looking for tools to assess ESL student compositions at the discourse level: the Theme/Rheme notion', GRETA, Journal for English Teachers , vol. 6/2: 52-57.

Bloor, M. & T. Bloor (1992) 'Given and new information in the thematic organization of text: an application to the teaching of academic writing.' Occasional Papers in Systemic Linguistics, Volume 6: 33-44.

Danes, F. (1974) 'Functional Sentence Perspective and the Organization of the Text'. In F. Dane? (ed.) Papers in Functional Sentence Perspective. Prague: Academia: 106-128.

Downing, A. & P. Locke (1992) A University Course in English Grammar . Prentice Hall International.

Fries, P. (1983) 'On the status of theme in English: Arguments from discourse'. In János S. Petöfi & E. Sözer (eds) Micro and Macro Connexity of Text . 6, 1, 1-38. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag (Papers in Text Linguistics 45).

Halliday, M.A.K. (1967a) ' Notes on Transitivity and Theme in English. Part 1'. Journal of Linguistics 3/1: 37-81.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1967b) ' Notes on Transitivity and Theme in English . Part 2'. Journal of Linguistics 3/2: 199-244.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1968) 'Notes on Transitivity and Theme in English. Part 3'. Journal of Linguistics 4/2: 179-215.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1976) 'Theme and Information in the English Clause'. In G. Kress (ed.) System and Function in Language . Oxford University Press: 174-188.

Halliday, M.A.K. & Ruqaiya Hasan (1976) Cohesion in English . Longman.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1994) Introduction to Functional Grammar . London; Edward Arnold.

Nwogu, K. (1995) 'Structuring Scientific Discourse Using the Given-New Perspective'. Forum , 33/4. Available online: http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol33/no4/p22.htm

Prince, E. F. (1981) 'Toward a Taxonomy of Given-new Information'. In Peter Cole (ed.) Radical Pragmatics . New York: Academic Press: 223-255.

Schleppegrell, M. (2000). How SFL can inform writing instruction: the grammar of expository essays. Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses , 40, 171-188.

Vande Kopple, W.J. (1991) 'Themes, Thematic Progressions, and Some Implications for Understanding Discourse'. Written Communication 8 (July): 311-347.

Weissberg, R.C. (1984) 'Given and New: Paragraph Development Models from Scientific English.' TESOL Quarterly 18/2 : 485-499.

Witte, Stephen P. (1983) 'Topical Structure and Revision: An Exploratory Study.' College Composition and Communication 34/3: 31

Footnote

[1] This is not entirely the case, as there is work on information structure in Willis' Students' Grammar (1991), published in the Cobuild Series, and in New Headway-Upper Intermediate (1998). The latter presents some emphatic word arrangements in English in units entitled "Changing the Focus of a Sentence" and "Adding Emphasis" respectively, and provides exercises in manipulating word order of sentences to allow for different Given and New information patterns.

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. IX, No. 2, February 2003
http://iteslj.org/ http://iteslj.org/Articles/Alonso-ImprovingFlow.html

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Improving Text Flow in ESL Learner Compositions

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The Internet TESL Journal Isabel Alonsoisabel.alonso [at] uam.esUniversity Autónoma of Madrid (Madrid, Spain) Anne McCabemccabea [at] spmail.slu.eduSaint Louis University, Madrid Campus (Madrid, Spain) In the ESL writing classroom, we find that learners often write essays that consist of sentences which do not seem to connect together into a cohesive text.

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Online Forum Discussion to Promote Sense of Learning Community among the Group Members

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Online Forum Discussion to Promote Sense of Learning Community among the Group Members

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Assalamualaikum. This article is on how online forum discussion is a medium which can help all students to actively participate andcontribute in the discussion.

NORAFAZIRA BINTI ROYAL
A149295

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Listening To the Concerns of Student Teachers InMalaysia During Teaching Practice

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Listening To the Concerns of Student Teachers InMalaysia During Teaching Practice

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Nurul Akmar Bt Mohamad Noor
A150551

Assalamualaikum. This paper is about the concerns of student teachers during their practicum in school. This paper might give some insights about the experiences that we might faced during our practicum.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of ESL Course Books

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Advantages and Disadvantages of ESL Course Books

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A.S.NOR FARAH FADZILA IBRAHIM (A151237)
advantages:
- set of achievement objectives for learners
- carefully planned and balanced selection of language content that can be easily followed by teachers and students (Kayapinar, 2009)

potemtial problems:
- many students may find the learning process boring and uninteresting
- do not provide enough details in other aspects of language study

solutions:
- reading outside of classroom besides in the course book
- add grammar studies to the language program

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Eaton - How to Use Skype in the ESL/EFL Classroom (TESL/TEFL)

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How ESL/EFL teachers can use Skype for teaching, professional development.

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Siti Noor Azilah binti Abdullah
A150605

Assalamualaikum and hi! This is an article on the causes of avoidance in L2 learning. I think this article may help us in finding ways to overcome the avoidance of L2 learning among learners.

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Developing Reading Comprehension Modules to Facilitate Reading Comprehension among Malaysian Secondary School ESL.

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Developing Reading Comprehension Modules to Facilitate Reading Comprehension among Malaysian Secondary School ESL.

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Siti Nurbaiti bt Mohamed
A150261

Assalamualaikum and hello everyone. This is article that I've found and that I believe it is very useful for us later when we will be teaching reading to our students for our practicum. Reading this article introduced me to another taxonomy which is Barrett's Taxonomy of Comprehension Skills special for reading activity. For further reading click link below. Happy reading.

Following are the research questions:

RQ1:What type of reading comprehension texts should be selected for the different levels of reading ability (Band 1-Band 6)?

RQ2:What type of reading comprehension questions should be constructed to develop the different sub-skills of reading comprehension to answer the literal, reorganisation and inferential comprehension questions?

RQ3:What is the content validity and reliability of the prototype RCMs

Findings:
1. The developed RCMs reached the reliability ranged between 0.804 and 0.923 that indicates high reliability

2. The results from the pilot study revealed that the participants improved their scores gradually.
3. The standardized RCMs would act as indicators for ESL teachers to enhance ESL students’ performance in reading comprehension.

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Developing Reading Comprehension Modules to Facilitate Reading Comprehension among Malaysian Secondary School ESL Students

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Title: An Investigation of the Effectiveness ofTeaching Pronunciation to MalaysianTESL Students

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Title: An Investigation of the Effectiveness ofTeaching Pronunciation to MalaysianTESL Students

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Hi everyone. This is an article that I've found about the effectiveness of pronunciation teaching in Malaysian ESL context.

MUHAMMAD AFIF BIN RAZALI
A150954

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Title : Implications of Multiple Intelligences Theory in ELT Field

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Title : Implications of Multiple Intelligences Theory in ELT Field

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Name : Tuan Nur Afzan Binti Tuan Nazam
Matric No. : A150980

Purpose :
(i)  This study aims at exploring features of the multi-intelligence theory.
(ii)  This study aims at exploring implications of the multi-intelligence theory in English Language Teaching field.
(iii) Familiarizing EFL teachers with implications of the multi-intelligence theory in the class.
(iv) Helping curriculum planners take the multi-intelligence theory into accounts while designing English language curricula.

Findings :

In the second language classroom it is possible to motivate learners by activating multiple ways of meaning- making through the use of tasks relating to the different intelligences. Providing a variety of language activities that stimulate the different tools or intelligences proposed by Gardner (1999) makes it possible to engage multiple memory pathways necessary to produce sustained deep learning (Schumann 1997).

Methodology :
(i) Background Research
(ii) Observation
(iii) Literate Study

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Reasons for Using Songs in the ESL/EFL Classroom

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Reasons for Using Songs in the ESL/EFL Classroom

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Assalamualaikum and hello everyone. This is an article that I have found. Thank you :))

Nur Hafizah bt Ab. Aziz
A151163

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The Internet TESL Journal Kevin Schoepp
schoepp [at] sabanciuniv.edu
Sabanci University, Istanbul, Turkey

Introduction

Songs have been part of the human experience for as long as we can remember. As Gugliemino (1986) stated, adults sing at religious services, bars, in the shower, and listening to the car radio. Songs have become an integral part of our language experience, and if used in coordination with a language lesson they can be of great value. Fortunately, with the expanding prevalence of the Internet and specifically the World Wide Web into both the classrooms and lives of students, access to music and lyrics has been made easier. This paper will focus on the reasons for using songs by demonstrating their effectiveness as a learning tool.

Theoretical Rationale

A large amount of literature which discusses the value of using songs in ESL/EFL classrooms is not empirically based. However, based upon teacher experience, the first hand knowledge of what actually occurs in a language classroom is, in fact, very valuable. The first step in developing a theoretical rationale for using songs in the classroom is to label the types of listening processes and then identify the reasons teachers and researchers provide. From here, we can see that the teachers' motives are actually grounded in theory. Patterns emerge from the literature as to why teachers and researchers find using songs valuable. These patterns include affective reasons, cognitive reasons, and linguistic reasons.

There are two processes involved in listening, and both can be utilized when songs are used in the classroom. The activity which is selected for a particular song will determine which of these processes is active. Cullen (1999) states that

The first is bottom-up processing where the listener builds up the sounds into words, sentences and meaning. The second is top-down processing where the listener uses background knowledge to understand the meaning of a message. Practicing both of these processes is essential for developing listening comprehension.

The affective, cognitive, and linguistic reasons for using songs which follow, are all grounded in learning theory, and provide insights into the benefits of songs in the classroom.

Affective Reasons

The Affective Filter Hypothesis is one of five proposed hypotheses developed by Steven Krashen. Basically, it is an explanation of how the affective factors relate to language learning. It is particularly appealing to teachers because it provides an explanation to why some learners learn and others do not.

Teachers have long recognized the need for students to have a positive attitude in regard to learning. Krashen (1982) explains that for optimal learning to occur the affective filter must be weak. A weak affective filter means that a positive attitude towards learning is present. If the affective filter is strong the learner will not seek language input, and in turn, not be open for language acquisition. The practical application of the Affective Filter Hypothesis is that teachers must provide a positive atmosphere conducive to language learning. Songs are one method for achieving a weak affective filter and promoting language learning.

With the affective filter weak, Saricoban and Metin (2000) have found that songs can develop the four skill areas of reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Eken (1996, p.46) states that songs can be used:

To present a topic, a language point, lexis, etc.

To practice a language point, lexis, etc.

To focus on common learner errors in a more direct way

To encourage extensive and intensive listening

To stimulate discussion of attitudes and feelings

To encourage creativity and use of imagination

To provide a relaxed classroom atmosphere

To bring variety and fun to learning

Lo and Li (1998) offer similar suggestions, writing that songs provide a break from classroom routine, and that learning English through songs develops a non-threatening classroom atmosphere in which the four language skills can be enhanced. The belief that songs provide enjoyment and develop language skills is also noted by several other authors (Adamowski, 1997; Bechtold, 1983; Domoney & Harris, 1993; Griffee, 1992; Guglielmino, 1986; Lems, 1984; Little, 1983; Monreal, 1982). The enjoyment aspect of learning language through song is directly related to affective factors.
Cognitive Reasons

Songs also present opportunities for developing automaticity which is the main cognitive reason for using songs in the classroom. Gatbonton and Segalowitz (1988, p.473) define automaticity as "a component of language fluency which involves both knowing what to say and producing language rapidly without pauses." Using songs can help automatize the language development process. Traditionally, it was believed that automatization would occur through repetitive exercises in a non-communicative environment. However, the major shift towards the communicative teaching methodology requires that automatization occur in a different manner. Gatbonton and Segalowitz (1988, p.476) state that we must "place students in an environment in which it is appropriate to use target utterances in a genuinely communicative fashion." The nature of songs is fairly repetitive and consistent. For example, a song such as "Sailing" by Rod Stewart provides ample opportunities for students to focus on the present progressive tense. The repetitive style of the song lends itself to an activity in which students create their own present progressive sentences based upon their own interest. After listening to the song, students create their own lyrics following the same tune as the song. Lyrics such as: I am writing, I am writing, in my notebook with my friends, are common examples of the type of language that students produce.

Linguistic Reasons

Besides automatization, there is also a linguistic reason for using songs in the classroom. Some songs are excellent examples of colloquial English, that is, the language of informal conversation. A song such as "My Best Was Never Good Enough" by Bruce Springsteen is a prime example of a song that demonstrates colloquial language use. This song is full of phrases like "Every cloud has a silver lining." and "Every dog has his day. " Of course, the majority of language most ESL students will encounter is in fact informal. Using songs can prepare students for the genuine language they will be faced with.

Finally, two studies, Domoney and Harris (1993) and Little (1983) investigated the prevalence of pop music in the lives of EFL students. Both studies found that music is often the major source of English outside of the classroom. The exposure to authentic English is an important factor in promoting language learning. It relates directly to both the affective filter and automaticity. If students are exposed to songs which they enjoy, more learning is likely to occur since they may seek out the music outside of the classroom. The repetitive style of songs then helps to promote automatization of colloquial language.

Conclusion

As demonstrated, the three theoretical reasons are all intertwined and help to demonstrate the value of using songs in the classroom. The next step in the procedure is to successfully integrate the songs into a language lesson. Because of the Internet, access to music, lyrics, and activities has been simplified which makes it easy for the teacher to effectively use songs in the classroom.

References

Adamowski, E. (1997). The ESL songbook. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press.

Bechtold, J. (1983). Musical ESL. TESL Talk, 14, 180-184.

Cullen, B. (November 1999). Song Dictation. The Internet TESL Journal.
http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Cullen-SongDictation.html

Domoney, L. & Harris, S. (1993). Justified and ancient: Pop music in EFL classrooms. ELT Journal, 47, 234-241.

Eken, D. K. (1996). Ideas for using pop songs in the English language classroom. English Teaching Forum, 34, 46-47.

Gatbonton, E. & Segalowitz, N. (1988). Creative automatization: Principles for promoting fluency within a communicative framework. TESOL Quarterly, 22, 473-492.

Gugliemino, L. M. (1986). The affective edge: Using songs and music in ESL instruction. Adult Literacy and Basic Education, 10, 19-26.

Griffee, D.T. (1992). Songs in action. Herfordshire, England: Phoenix ELT.

Krashen, S. D. (1983). Principles and practices in second language acquisition. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.

Lems, K. (1996, March). Music across the ESL curriculum. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the TESOL, San Francisco, CA.

Little, J. (1983). Pop and rock music in the ESL classroom. TESL Talk, 14, 40-44.

Lo, R. & Li, H.C. (1998). Songs enhance learner involvement. English Teaching Forum, 36, 8-11, 21.

Monreal, M. E. (1982). How I use songs. English Teaching Forum, 20, 44-45.

Saricoban, A. & Metin, E. (October 2000). Songs, Verse and Games for Teaching Grammar. The Internet TESL Journal.
http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Saricoban-Songs.html

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VII, No. 2, February 2001
http://iteslj.org/ http://iteslj.org/Articles/Schoepp-Songs.html

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Schoepp - Reasons for Usings Songs in the ESL/EFL Classroom (TESL/TEFL)

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The Internet TESL Journal Kevin Schoeppschoepp [at] sabanciuniv.eduSabanci University, Istanbul, Turkey Songs have been part of the human experience for as long as we can remember. As Gugliemino (1986) stated, adults sing at religious services, bars, in the shower, and listening to the car radio.

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Malaysian ESL Students' Writing Problems

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Malaysian ESL Students' Writing Problems

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Hi everyone. Here I found a journal about investigating Malaysian ESL students' writing problems on convention, punctuation and language use at secondary school level.

ENGKU NOR FATIN NADIA BINTI ENGKU RAZALI (A147921)

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Problems and challenges in teaching and learningspeaking at advanced level

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Problems and challenges in teaching and learningspeaking at advanced level

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Assalamualaikum and hello everyone. This is the article that I found interesting to share with all of you.

NIK ZULAIKHA YASMINE BINTI ZULKEPLI
A151437

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APPROACHES EMPLOYED BY SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS TO TEACHING THE LITERATURE COMPONENT IN ENGLISH

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APPROACHES EMPLOYED BY SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS TO TEACHING THE LITERATURE COMPONENT IN ENGLISH

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This article is to report on findings of a study designed to identify approaches employed by teachers to teaching the literature component in selected secondary schools in Sabah.

KHUZAIMAH BINTI BAHARI
A151215

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A Comparison of L1 and L2 Reading: Cultural Differences and Schema

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A Comparison of L1 and L2 Reading: Cultural Differences and Schema

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Assalammualaikum wbt and hello, everyone!  This interesting journal from Meena Singhal (has attempted to discuss some of the differences and similarities between reading in L1 and reading in L2. Happy reading!

NUR HALIMATUNSAADIAH BINTI MD SAID A150185

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The Internet TESL Journal Meena Singhal
http://www.gse.uci.edu/ed168/resume.html
The University of Arizona, USA

eading in the L1 shares numerous important basic elements with reading in a second or foreign language, the processes also differ greatly. Intriguing questions involve whether there are two parallel cognitive processes at work, or whether there are processing strategies that accommodate both first and second languages. This paper will examine how reading in the L1 is different from and similar to reading in the L2. More specifically, factors of cultural differences: content (background knowledge) schema, formal (textual) schema, linguistic (language) schema, will be examined. Based on such a discussion, a profile of a biliterate reader is provided.

Introduction

The ability to read is acknowledged to be the most stable and durable of the second language modalities (Bernhardt, 1991). In other words, learners may use their productive skills, yet still be able to comprehend texts with some degree of proficiency. Reading, whether in a first or second language context, involves the reader, the text, and the interaction between the reader and text (Rumelhart, 1977). Although reading in the L1 shares numerous important basic elements with reading in a second or foreign language, the processes also differ greatly. Intriguing questions involve whether there are two parallel cognitive processes at work, or whether there are processing strategies that accommodate both first and second languages. Despite these interests, second language research on reading, is frequently dismissed as being marginal and derivative from first language reading. Reading in a second language, for example, was often viewed as merely a slower version of doing the same task in the native language. Such comparisons, however, imply that second language tasks are mapping tasks – that is replacing one mode of behavior with another. While it is true that the L1 and L2 reading process have similarities, it is also important to recognize that many factors come into play, which in turn make second language reading a phenomenon unto itself. Despite the similarities between reading in an L1 and reading in an L2, a number of complex variables make the process of L1 different from L2. Because the reading process is essentially "unobservable" teachers need to make significant efforts in the classroom to understand their students' reading behaviors and be able to help students understand those behaviors as well. It is therefore important that teachers know as much as possible about the cultural, linguistic, and educational backgrounds of their readers since many of these factors that influence reading in an L2 context.

This paper will examine how reading in the L1 is different from and similar to reading in the L2. More specifically, factors of cultural differences: content (background knowledge) schema, formal (textual) schema, linguistic (language) schema, will be examined. Based on such a discussion, a profile of a biliterate reader is provided. While the research in this domain encompasses a great deal of literature which cannot possibly be covered in its entirety here, it is hoped that this discussion will nonetheless provide readers with an overview in this area.

Types of Schema

Before proceeding any further, the notion of schema must be defined. Schemas, or schema as they are sometimes known, have been described as "cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory (Widdowson, 1983). Cook (1989) states, "the mind, stimulated by key words or phrases in the text or by the context, activates a knowledge schema" (Cook, 1989, p. 69). Widdowson & Cook both empahsize the cognitive characteristics of schema which allow us to related incoming information to already known information. This covers the knowledge of the world, from everyday knowledge to very specialized knowledge, knowledge of language structures, and knowledge of texts and forms they take in terms of genre, and organization. In addition to allowing us to organize information and knowledge economically, schemas also allow us to predict the continuation of both spoken and written discourse. The first part of a text activates a schema, that is, calls up a schema which is either confirmed or disconfirmed by what follows.

Research on the theory of schema has had a great impact on understanding reading. Researchers have identified several types of schemata. Content schema, which refers to a reader's background or world knowledge, provides readers with a foundation, a basis for comparison (Carrell & Eisterhold, 1983; Carrell, Pharis, & Liberto, 1989). Formal schema, often known as textual schema, refers to the organizational forms and rhetorical structures of written texts. It can include knowledge of different text types and genres, and also includes the understanding that different types of texts use text organization, language structures, vocabulary, grammar, level of formality/register differently. Schooling and culture play the largest role in providing one with a knowledge base of formal schemata.

While formal schemata cover discourse level items, linguistic or language schemata include the decoding features needed to recognize words and how they fit together in a sentence. First language readers, may through repeated examples, be able to generalize a pattern or guess the meaning of a word, which may not have initially been part of their linguistic schema. The building of linguistic schema in a second language can proceed in the much the same way.

From the above discussion it is evident that schema plays an important role in text comprehension, both in the L1 and L2 context. For example, whether reading in a first or second language, one can assume that both native and non-native readers will understand more of a text when they are familiar with content, formal, and linguistic schema. An L2 reader, however, who does not possess such knowledge can experience schema interference, or lack of comprehension- ideas which are examined further in the following discussion pertaining to relevant research in this area.

Content Schema, Cultural Orientation, and Background Knowledge

Content schema or cultural orientation in terms of background knowledge is also a factor that influences L2/FL reading and has been discussed by Barnett (1989), Carrell and Eisterhold (1983), and Johnson (1982). Most methodologies investigating the role of schemata or background/prior knowledge were variations on Carrell's (1987) paradigm. This study involved 28 Muslim Arabs and 24 Catholic Hispanic ESL students of high-intermediate proficiency enrolled in an intensive English program at a midwestern university. Each student read two texts, one with Muslim-oriented content and the other with Catholic-oriented content. Each text was presented in either a well-organized rhetorical format or an unfamiliar, altered rhetorical format. After reading each text, the subjects answered a series of multiple-choice comprehension questions and were asked to recall the text in writing. Analysis of the recall protocols and scores on the comprehension questions suggested that schemata affected the ESL readers' comprehension and recall. Participants better comprehended and remembered passages that were similar in some way to their native cultures, or that were deemed more familiar to them. Other studies have shown similar effects in that participants better comprehended and/or remembered passages that were more familiar to them (Ammon, 1987; Carrell, 1981; Johnson, 1981, 1982; Langer, Barolome, Vasquez, & Lucas, 1990; Shimoda, 1989). Further evidence from such studies also suggested that readers' schemata for content affected comprehension and remembering more than did their formal schemata for text organization. For example in the Carrell's (1987) study described above, subjects remembered the most when both the content and rhetorical form was familiar to them. However, when only content or only form was unfamiliar, unfamiliar content caused more difficulty for the readers than did unfamiliar form.

Steffensen and Joag-Dev (1984) conducted a study using two descriptions of weddings both written in English. One was a descritption of an American wedding, while the other was of and Indian (subcontinent) wedding. Both the Indian students, for whom English was an L2, and the American students, for whom English was the L1, read the descriptions and were asked to recall the descriptions. It was found that readers comprehended texts about their own cultures more accurately than the other. While the readers indicated that the words were easy to understand, the unfamiliar cultural protocol of an Indian wedding made the passage more difficult to remember.

Johnson's (1981) study investigated the effects of the cultural origin of prose on the reading comprehension of 46 Iranian intermediate advanced ESL students at the university level. Half of the subjects read the unadapted English texts of two stories, one from Iranian folklore and one from American folklore, while the other half read the same stories in adapted English. The subjects' reading comprehension was tested through the use of multiple-choice questions. The recall questions and the texts were also given to 19 American subjects for comparison purposes. Results revealed that the cultural origin of the story had a greater effect on comprehension than syntactic or semantic complexity of the text. In another study, Johnson (1982) compared ESL students' recall on a reading passage on Halloween. Seventy-two ESL students at the university level read a passage on the topic of Halloween. The passage contained both unfamiliar and familiar information based on the subjects' recent experience of the custom. Some subjects studied the meanings for unfamiliar words in the text. Results of recall protocols suggested that prior cultural experience prepared readers for comprehension of the familiar information about Halloween on the passage. However, exposure to the unfamiliar words did not seem to have a significant effect on their reading comprehension. An interesting study was carried out by Kang (1992). Kang's study examined how second language readers filter information from second language texts through culture specific background knowledge. Korean graduate students with advanced English read stories and answered questions. A think-aloud protocol assessing their understanding and inferences indicated an effect of culture specific schemata and inferences upon text comprehension. Although all the variables and factors surrounding the issues of how culture shapes background knowledge and influences reading are not fully understood, there is agreement that background knowledge is important, and that content schema plays an integral role in reading comprehension. Overall, readers appeared to have a higher level of comprehension when the content was familiar to them. Given this, second language readers do not possess the same degree of content schema as first language readers, and hence, this can result in comprehension difficulties.

Formal and Linguistic Schema and Text Comprehension

Many studies have also examined the role of text schemata in relation to readers' comprehension. Most of these studies employed similar methodologies in that participants read texts and then recalled information, for the most part in writing. The structures inherent in the texts (e.g., compare-contrast, problem-solving structures in expository text, and standard versus structurally interleaved versions of stories) were identified. Recalled information was analyzed for specific variables such as the number of propositions recalled, and temporal sequence of story components.

For the most part, these studies suggested that different types of text structure affected comprehension and recall (Bean, Potter, & Clark, 1980; Carrell, 1984). Some studies also showed that there may have differences among language groups as to which text structures facilitated recall better (Carrell, 1984). For example, Carrell's (1984) study showed that Arabs remembered best from expository texts with comparison structures, next best from problem-solution structures and collections of descriptions, and least well from causation structures. Asians, however, recalled best from texts with either problem-solution or causation structures, and least well from either comparison structures or collections of descriptions. These results; however, must be taken as suggestive as further studies examining the interaction of language background with text structure are needed. Regardless of these findings, as previously stated, it is important to recognize that organizational structures in text will differ across cultures.

Stone's (1985) study examined whether language patterns found in English, which differed from those in Spanish, would have a significant effect on ESL learners' comprehension while reading English text. Average fifth grade readers were randomly assigned to either an initial Spanish-speaking group or an initial English speaking group. Nine stories were developed for the study, three for each of three different language patterns categories: similar, moderately similar, and dissimilar. Measures included a retelling and comprehension questions. Results showed that on the retelling measures, the lowest scores were found on stories that were most dissimilar from the students' initial language, and oral reading errors increased as language pattern similarity decreased. The results support the contention that texts violating readers' expectations about language patterns can have disruptive effects.

Over the last few years, the field of contrastive rhetoric has emerged initiated by the work of Kaplan (1966). Its areas of focus are the role of the first language conventions of discourse and rhetorical structure on L2 usage, as well as cognitive and cultural dimensions of transfer, particularly in relation to writing. For the most part, contrastive rhetoric identifies problems in composition encountered by L2 writers and by referring to rhetorical strategies of the first language, attempts to explain them. It is clear that such differences in text structure can lead to difficulties in reading.

Mauranen (1992) examined cohesion in both Finnish and English economic texts and found that Finnish writers employed relatively little metalanguage for organizing text and orienting the reader. In contrast, native English speakers used plenty of devices for orienting the reader in terms of what is to follow in the text and how the reader should understand the different sections of the text. This pattern was found in their writing as well. Finnish writers used less demonstrative references than native English writers. Lindeberg (1988), in her examination of text linguistic features, found differences between Finnish and English writers in terms of topic development and the functions of verbs. Numerous differences have also been found in terms of writing styles between American-English and other languages. American students for example will often comment on the more theoretical and abstract essays of French writers whose essays lack the details and rhetorical patterns found in the American essay tradition. Chinese writing is often described as being verbose, ornamental, and lacking in coherence from a Western point of view, while Japanese writing has been noted for differences in text organization. It appears that they prefer a specific-to-general pattern placing the general statement at the end of paragraphs (Connor, 1996). Lastly, it is important to point out that The differences between the writing systems and rhetorical structures of the native language and the target language may be another factor that influence reading. Orthographic systems vary widely and while some languages may contain many numbers of symbols, other languages contain a limited number. For example, Chinese calligraphy is a writing system with numerous symbols and one that has strong aesthetic elements thereby differing from Engish. Arabic also has a unique writing system in that it is written and read from right to left. These kinds of differences in writing systems can pose difficulties for second language readers. Undoubtedly, students reading in a second language will encounter such difficulties not faced by first language readers. In summary, teachers must therefore be explicit about the structures of the materials the students are reading in the L2 class through which students can become aware of culturally shaped expectations about text and language. Connor (1996) provides an extensive survey on this issue and considers the types of differences between the native and target language that can interfere with text comprehensibility.

Conclusion

In summary, it can be said that the reading in an L1 is similar to and different from reading in an L2. Reading in both contexts requires knowledge of content, formal, and linguistic schema. Reading is also a meaning-making process involving an interaction between the reader and the text. Readers use mental activities in order to construct meaning from text. These activities are generally referred to as reading strategies or reading skills. Successful L1 and L2 readers will consciously or unconsciously engage in specific behaviors to enhance their comprehension of texts. Both top-down and bottom-up strategies are used by effective readers as they read. Goodman (1996) and Smith (1986) suggest that readers go through an ongoing process while reading which involves the continuous process of sampling from the input text, predicting what will come next, testing and confirming predictions, and so on. Readers do not read word for word, but rather use their background knowledge, and various strategies such as predicting and confirming to comprehend text. To this extent then one can say in general terms that reading in the L1 and L2 can be similar. However, as seen from the studies above reading in the L2 is also very different from reading in the L1.

Second language refers to "the chronology of language learning; a second language being any language acquired after the native" (Stern, 1983, p. 12). This definition implies a firmly developed native language. In addition, the term second language implies that the language is probably not spoken in the home. Furthermore, the second language may contain a linguistic base that is syntactically, phonetically, semantically, and rhetorically distinct from the target language. As previously discussed, schema plays an important role in reading comprehension. An L2 reader who is not familiar with culturally based knowledge or content schema, or a reader who does not possess the same linguistic base as the L1 reader will encounter difficulties. Such difficulties may be greater when there is a greater difference between the L1 and the L2. If for example, syntactic structure in a second language student's native language is very different from that of the target language, a greater degree of cognitive restructuring is required (Segalowitz, 1986). Grabe (1991) also notes that students begin reading in an L2 with a different knowledge base than they had when starting to read in their L1. For example, L1 readers already have a sufficient vocabulary base and know thousands of words before they actually start to read. They also have some grammatical knowledge of their own language. L2 readers on the other hand, do not share these advantages. Furthermore, while the second language reader may have linguistic skills, they often do not have finely honed sociocultural skills, which often means that a second language reader is not equipped with the knowledge to perceive texts in a culturally authentic, culturally specific way, an idea related to lack of content schema. The end result, comprehension, is based on linguistic data.

Given the above discussion, a profile of a biliterate reader can be offered. Biliteracy means that one can read in two more languages. The ability to read and read successfully implies text comprehension and the knowledge of which reading strategies and skills to use, and under what conditions in the languages in question. A biliterate reader in Spanish and English, for example, would mean that the reader is able to read successfully in both languages and would engage in some of the following reading behaviors to enhance reading comprehension and to read effectively. Such a reader would overview text before reading, employ context clues such as titles, subheading, and diagrams, look for important information while reading and pay greater attention to it than other information, attempt to relate important points in text to one another in order to understand the text as a whole, activate and use prior knowledge to interpret text, (which includes content, formal, and linguistic schema), reconsider and revise hypotheses about the meaning of text based on text content, attempt to infer information from the text, attempt to determine the meaning of words not understood or recognized, monitor text comprehension, identify or infer main ideas, use strategies to remember text (paraphrasing, repetition, making notes, summarizing, self-questioning, etc), understand relationships between parts of text, recognize text structure, change reading strategies when comprehension is perceived not be proceeding smoothly; evaluate the qualities of text, reflect on and process additionally after a part has been read, and anticipate or plan for the use of knowledge gained from the reading. While this list is not prioritized or complete, it does provide one with a description of the characteristics of successful biliterate readers. Such a reader would employ these strategies and reading behaviors when reading in all languages. Furthermore, the biliterate reader, regardless of text type, language, or orthography would develop strategies and schemas for dealing with different languages and texts. The biliterate reader therefore is a flexible reader and one who possesses the knowledge, skills and strategies to accommodate to each language situation, and hence the process of reading in either language will not be seen as different by the reader.

In summary, this paper has attempted to discuss some of the differences and similarities between reading in a first language and reading in a second language. Factors of cultural differences were considered with special attention directed to the role of schema and how this relates to text comprehension in an L1 and L2. There are certainly a number of other factors which would contribute to the difference in L1 and L2 reading, but it hoped that this discussion shed some light on how cultural factors, namely differences in types of schema can contribute to this difference. While the two processes are also similar in some ways, it must be noted that students' perception of their reading difficulties are also similar in many ways across languages. Readers, especially L2 readers, can better understand some of those similarities. Teachers must therefore question students about their reading and reading behaviors, as students themselves can offer tremendous insights into both their L1 and L2 reading experiences.

References

Ammon, M.S. (1987). Patterns of performance among bilingual children who score low in reading. In S.R. Goldman & H.T. Trueba (Eds.). Becoming literate in English as a second language, pp. 71-105. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Barnett, M.A. (1989). More than meets the eye: Foreign language reading theory and Practice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: CAL & Prentice Hall.

Bean, T.W., Potter, T.C., & Clark, C. (1980). Selected semantic features of ESL materials and their effect on bilingual students' comprehension. In M. Kamil & A. Moe (Eds.) Perspectives on reading research and instruction. Twenty-ninth yearbook of the National Reading Conference, pp. 1-5. Washington, DC: National Reading Conference.

Bernhardt, E.B. (1991). Reading development in a second language. Norwood, NJ: Ablex

Carrell, P.L. (1981). Culture-specific schemata in L2 comprehension. In R. Orem & J. Haskell (Eds.). Selected papers from the Ninth Illinois TESOL/BE Annual Convention, First Midwest TESOL Conference, pp 123-132. Chicago: Illinois TESOL/BE.

Carrell, P.L. (1984). The effects of rhetorical organization on ESL readers. TESOL Quarterly, 18, 441-469.

Carrell, P.L. (1987). Content and formal schemata in ESL reading. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 461-481.

Carrell, P. & Eisterhold. J.C. (1983). Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly, 17(4), 553-573.

Carrell, P.L, B. Pharis, & J. Liberto. (1989). Metacognitive strategy training for ESL reading. TESOL Quarterly, 23(4), 647-678.

Connor, U. (1996). Contrastive Rhetoric: Cross-Cultural Aspects of Second Language Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cook, G. (1989). Discourse in language teaching: A scheme for teacher education. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Goodman, K. (1996). On Reading: A common-sense look at the nature lLanguage and the science of reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Grabe, W. (1991). Current developments in second language reading research. TESOL Quarterly, 25(3), 375-406.

Johnson, P. (1981). Effects on reading comprehension of language complexity and cultural background of a text. TESOL Quarterly, 15(2), 169-181.

Johnson, P. (1982). Effects on reading comprehension of building background knowledge. TESOL Quarterly, 16(4), 503-516.

Kang, H. (1992). The effects of culture-specific knowledge upon ESL reading comprehension. School of Education Review, 4, 93-105.

Kaplan, R.B. (1966). Cultural thought patterns in inter-cultural education. Language Learning, 16, 1-20.

Langer, J.A., Bartolome, L., Vasquez, O, & Lucas T. (1990). Meaning construction in school literacy tasks: A study of bilingual students. American Educational Research Journal, 27 (4), 427-471.

Lindeberg, A.C. (1988). Cohension, coherence, and coherence patterns in expository and Argumentative student essays in EFL: An Exploratory Study. Licenciate thesis, Department of English, Abo Akademi University, Turku, Finland.

Mauranen, A. (1993). Contrastive ESP rhetoric: Metatext in Finnish-English economic texts. English for Specific Purposes, 12, 3-22.

Rumelhart, D.E. (1977). Toward an interactive model of reading. In S. Dornic (Ed.), Attention and Performance VI (pp. 575-603). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Segalowitz, N. (1986). Skilled reading in the second language. In J. Vaid (Ed.), Language Processing in Bilinguals: Psycholinguistic and Neuropsychological Perspectives (pp.3-19). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Shimoda, T. (1989). The Effects of interesting examples and topic familiarity on text comprehension, attention, and reading speed. Journal of Experimental Education, 61(2), 93-103.

Smith, F. (1986). Understanding Reading: A Psycholinguistic Analysis of Reading and Learning Read. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Steffensen M.S., & Joag-Dev, C.(1984). Cultural knowledge and reading. In J.C. Alderson & A. H. Urquhart (Eds.), Reading in a Foreign Language (pp. 48-61). New York: Longman.

Stern, H.H. (1983). Fundamental concepts of language teaching. London: Oxford University Press.

Stone, R. (1985). Effects of English/Spanish language pattern differences on ESL learners' Comprehension of English text. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 266434).

Widdowson, H.G. (1983). Learning purpose and language use. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. IV, No. 10, October 1998
http://iteslj.org/ http://iteslj.org/Articles/Singhal-ReadingL1L2.html

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A Comparison of L1 and L2 Reading: Cultural Differences and Schema

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The Internet TESL Journal Meena Singhal http://www.gse.uci.edu/ed168/resume.html The University of Arizona, USA eading in the L1 shares numerous important basic elements with reading in a second or foreign language, the processes also differ greatly. Intriguing questions involve whether there are two parallel cognitive processes at work, or whether there are processing strategies that accommodate both first and second languages.

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THE EFFECT OF CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH INTEACHING SHORT STORIES AND POEMS TOTHE ENGLISH PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS

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THE EFFECT OF CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH INTEACHING SHORT STORIES AND POEMS TOTHE ENGLISH PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS

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Assalamualaikum and hi to all. From what we have learned, the constructivist theory of teaching is where the students will propel their own learning by using their experiences. Here is a journal on the effect of such method on teaching short stories and poems to the English performance of students.

Iqbal Syahmi bin Sabin
A150590

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THE EFFECT OF CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH IN

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Can Code Switching Enhance Learners' Academic Achievement?

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Can Code Switching Enhance Learners' Academic Achievement?

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Greetings to all. Code switching denotes as the practice of alternating between two or more languages or varieties of languages in a conversation. In this research paper, it begs the notion -- can it boost teaching and learning process?

NOR HANISAH ABDULLAH
A150339

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Assalammualaikum & hi everyone. Here I share a journal about reading comprehension because reading is a must for a language learner. Thank you :)

NAZEERAH BINTI ZUBAIR
(A151346)

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This article describes a study that examined ESL students’ perception of the role of teacher, peer and combined teacher-peer feedback in ESL writing.

NOR AMELIA YUSLIN MOHD YUSOFF
A 151289

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Salam and hi everyone! I found an interesting article about songs and the importance in teahing ESL. Spend some time to read ok? ;)

MOHD FARIDH REZZA
A151398

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The Internet TESL Journal Kevin Schoepp
schoepp [at] sabanciuniv.edu
Sabanci University, Istanbul, Turkey

Introduction

Songs have been part of the human experience for as long as we can remember. As Gugliemino (1986) stated, adults sing at religious services, bars, in the shower, and listening to the car radio. Songs have become an integral part of our language experience, and if used in coordination with a language lesson they can be of great value. Fortunately, with the expanding prevalence of the Internet and specifically the World Wide Web into both the classrooms and lives of students, access to music and lyrics has been made easier. This paper will focus on the reasons for using songs by demonstrating their effectiveness as a learning tool.

Theoretical Rationale

A large amount of literature which discusses the value of using songs in ESL/EFL classrooms is not empirically based. However, based upon teacher experience, the first hand knowledge of what actually occurs in a language classroom is, in fact, very valuable. The first step in developing a theoretical rationale for using songs in the classroom is to label the types of listening processes and then identify the reasons teachers and researchers provide. From here, we can see that the teachers' motives are actually grounded in theory. Patterns emerge from the literature as to why teachers and researchers find using songs valuable. These patterns include affective reasons, cognitive reasons, and linguistic reasons.

There are two processes involved in listening, and both can be utilized when songs are used in the classroom. The activity which is selected for a particular song will determine which of these processes is active. Cullen (1999) states that

The first is bottom-up processing where the listener builds up the sounds into words, sentences and meaning. The second is top-down processing where the listener uses background knowledge to understand the meaning of a message. Practicing both of these processes is essential for developing listening comprehension.

The affective, cognitive, and linguistic reasons for using songs which follow, are all grounded in learning theory, and provide insights into the benefits of songs in the classroom.

Affective Reasons

The Affective Filter Hypothesis is one of five proposed hypotheses developed by Steven Krashen. Basically, it is an explanation of how the affective factors relate to language learning. It is particularly appealing to teachers because it provides an explanation to why some learners learn and others do not.

Teachers have long recognized the need for students to have a positive attitude in regard to learning. Krashen (1982) explains that for optimal learning to occur the affective filter must be weak. A weak affective filter means that a positive attitude towards learning is present. If the affective filter is strong the learner will not seek language input, and in turn, not be open for language acquisition. The practical application of the Affective Filter Hypothesis is that teachers must provide a positive atmosphere conducive to language learning. Songs are one method for achieving a weak affective filter and promoting language learning.

With the affective filter weak, Saricoban and Metin (2000) have found that songs can develop the four skill areas of reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Eken (1996, p.46) states that songs can be used:

To present a topic, a language point, lexis, etc.

To practice a language point, lexis, etc.

To focus on common learner errors in a more direct way

To encourage extensive and intensive listening

To stimulate discussion of attitudes and feelings

To encourage creativity and use of imagination

To provide a relaxed classroom atmosphere

To bring variety and fun to learning

Lo and Li (1998) offer similar suggestions, writing that songs provide a break from classroom routine, and that learning English through songs develops a non-threatening classroom atmosphere in which the four language skills can be enhanced. The belief that songs provide enjoyment and develop language skills is also noted by several other authors (Adamowski, 1997; Bechtold, 1983; Domoney & Harris, 1993; Griffee, 1992; Guglielmino, 1986; Lems, 1984; Little, 1983; Monreal, 1982). The enjoyment aspect of learning language through song is directly related to affective factors.
Cognitive Reasons

Songs also present opportunities for developing automaticity which is the main cognitive reason for using songs in the classroom. Gatbonton and Segalowitz (1988, p.473) define automaticity as "a component of language fluency which involves both knowing what to say and producing language rapidly without pauses." Using songs can help automatize the language development process. Traditionally, it was believed that automatization would occur through repetitive exercises in a non-communicative environment. However, the major shift towards the communicative teaching methodology requires that automatization occur in a different manner. Gatbonton and Segalowitz (1988, p.476) state that we must "place students in an environment in which it is appropriate to use target utterances in a genuinely communicative fashion." The nature of songs is fairly repetitive and consistent. For example, a song such as "Sailing" by Rod Stewart provides ample opportunities for students to focus on the present progressive tense. The repetitive style of the song lends itself to an activity in which students create their own present progressive sentences based upon their own interest. After listening to the song, students create their own lyrics following the same tune as the song. Lyrics such as: I am writing, I am writing, in my notebook with my friends, are common examples of the type of language that students produce.

Linguistic Reasons

Besides automatization, there is also a linguistic reason for using songs in the classroom. Some songs are excellent examples of colloquial English, that is, the language of informal conversation. A song such as "My Best Was Never Good Enough" by Bruce Springsteen is a prime example of a song that demonstrates colloquial language use. This song is full of phrases like "Every cloud has a silver lining." and "Every dog has his day. " Of course, the majority of language most ESL students will encounter is in fact informal. Using songs can prepare students for the genuine language they will be faced with.

Finally, two studies, Domoney and Harris (1993) and Little (1983) investigated the prevalence of pop music in the lives of EFL students. Both studies found that music is often the major source of English outside of the classroom. The exposure to authentic English is an important factor in promoting language learning. It relates directly to both the affective filter and automaticity. If students are exposed to songs which they enjoy, more learning is likely to occur since they may seek out the music outside of the classroom. The repetitive style of songs then helps to promote automatization of colloquial language.

Conclusion

As demonstrated, the three theoretical reasons are all intertwined and help to demonstrate the value of using songs in the classroom. The next step in the procedure is to successfully integrate the songs into a language lesson. Because of the Internet, access to music, lyrics, and activities has been simplified which makes it easy for the teacher to effectively use songs in the classroom.

References

Adamowski, E. (1997). The ESL songbook. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press.

Bechtold, J. (1983). Musical ESL. TESL Talk, 14, 180-184.

Cullen, B. (November 1999). Song Dictation. The Internet TESL Journal.
http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Cullen-SongDictation.html

Domoney, L. & Harris, S. (1993). Justified and ancient: Pop music in EFL classrooms. ELT Journal, 47, 234-241.

Eken, D. K. (1996). Ideas for using pop songs in the English language classroom. English Teaching Forum, 34, 46-47.

Gatbonton, E. & Segalowitz, N. (1988). Creative automatization: Principles for promoting fluency within a communicative framework. TESOL Quarterly, 22, 473-492.

Gugliemino, L. M. (1986). The affective edge: Using songs and music in ESL instruction. Adult Literacy and Basic Education, 10, 19-26.

Griffee, D.T. (1992). Songs in action. Herfordshire, England: Phoenix ELT.

Krashen, S. D. (1983). Principles and practices in second language acquisition. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.

Lems, K. (1996, March). Music across the ESL curriculum. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the TESOL, San Francisco, CA.

Little, J. (1983). Pop and rock music in the ESL classroom. TESL Talk, 14, 40-44.

Lo, R. & Li, H.C. (1998). Songs enhance learner involvement. English Teaching Forum, 36, 8-11, 21.

Monreal, M. E. (1982). How I use songs. English Teaching Forum, 20, 44-45.

Saricoban, A. & Metin, E. (October 2000). Songs, Verse and Games for Teaching Grammar. The Internet TESL Journal.
http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Saricoban-Songs.html

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VII, No. 2, February 2001
http://iteslj.org/ http://iteslj.org/Articles/Schoepp-Songs.html

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Schoepp - Reasons for Usings Songs in the ESL/EFL Classroom (TESL/TEFL)

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The Internet TESL Journal Kevin Schoeppschoepp [at] sabanciuniv.eduSabanci University, Istanbul, Turkey Songs have been part of the human experience for as long as we can remember. As Gugliemino (1986) stated, adults sing at religious services, bars, in the shower, and listening to the car radio.

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Assalammualaikum, good day all. This is one of the journals I've found in accordance with my topic. Have fun reading!

Siti Nur'adilah 'Izzati Md. Daim
A150180

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Teachers' Readiness to Use Technology in the Classroom: An Empirical Study 

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Teachers' Readiness to Use Technology in the Classroom: An Empirical Study 

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Hi everyone, i found an article about teachers' readiness to use technology in the classroom.

MOHD FIKRI BIN OSIN
(A149619)

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Teacher's Readiness to Use Technology in the Classroom-An Empirical Study

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Teaching ESL Students to "Notice" Grammar

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Teaching ESL Students to "Notice" Grammar

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Hi everyone. I found an article that provides ways on how teachers can teach the students to be alert with grammar in writing.

AISHAH NURFITRI BINTI ABDUL MUHAIMIN (A151292)

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The Internet TESL Journal

Francis J. Noonan III
chipperchina [at] hotmail.com
Easton Area School District (Easton, PA, USA)

This article explains how to teach ESL/EFL students to notice grammar. There is also a suggested lesson plan.

Introduction

Many teachers are confused on how to teach grammar. The form-focused instruction of the audio-lingual method produced students that knew a lot about a language but could not apply what they knew to spontaneous speech. Conversely, the lack of grammar instruction in the Communicative Approach has often produced students who communicate well but lack grammatical competency. Is it possible to teach grammar in a way that will help students develop grammatical competency, even in spontaneous speech? This article explores a possible answer to this dilemma, the theory of noticing, and its application to the classroom.

Why Noticing?

The theoretical basis for noticing centers around the relationship between explicit and implicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge is conscious knowledge of grammar rules learned through formal classroom instruction. For example, Li knows every rule about subject-verb agreement but makes frequent mistakes in natural speech. This knowledge is only available to him when he has time to think about the rules and then apply them (i.e. a grammar exercise or a writing assignment). In contrast, implicit knowledge is unconscious, internalized knowledge of a language that is available for spontaneous speech. For example, Jim speaks English with near perfect use of the basic rules of subject-verb agreement. This is despite the fact that he may have no idea what subject-verb agreement is or what the rules are.

The question is can explicit grammar knowledge (Li's knowledge) become implicit knowledge (Jim's knowledge)? There are two basic answers to the question. The first is the non-interface position proposed by Krashen. In his view, explicit knowledge can never become implicit knowledge because these two types of knowledge are located in different parts of the brain. Li could keep studying grammatical rules for the rest of his life and never speak like Jim. On the other hand, the interface position claims that explicit knowledge can have some impact on implicit knowledge. The interface position is divided into two views, the strong and the weak position. The strong interface position holds explicit knowledge becomes internalized through practice, like the acquisition of other skills. The weak interface position, however, agrees with Krashen that explicit learning does not become implicit knowledge, but that it can aid or foster the acquisition of implicit knowledge (Brook). Proponents of this position acknowledge that there are simply too many linguistic rules for any learner, native speaker or not, to learn them all consciously. Thus, a strong interface is unlikely. Nevertheless, recent data suggests that students who have explicit grammar instruction as part of their study achieve a higher level of grammatical accuracy than those who do not (Ellis, 2002, p19). This suggests a weak-interface between explicit and implicit knowledge. Noticing is based on this position.

What is Noticing?

Noticing is basically the idea that if learners pay attention to the form and meaning of certain language structures in input, this will contribute to the internalization of the rule (Batstone, 1996). Ellis expounds on this idea:

". . . we don't actually try to influence the construction of the complex network [implicit knowledge] . . . because really learners can only do it themselves. We cannot implant rules into that network. Learners extract from the available information around them the regularities that form into their knowledge system. If this is the case, all that we can do is make them aware of some of these patterns . . . under the assumption that if you have an awareness of them, then ultimately your pattern detector might function a bit more efficiently" (Ryan, 2001, p2).

In addition, learners acquiring language through a natural approach often experience fossilization, certain errors do not get better despite a significant amount of experience with the target language. Perhaps once learners develop communicative sufficiency they do not make progress in accuracy. Noticing helps rectify this by helping learners "notice the gap." They recognize that the language features noticed are different from their current language.

Remember, according to this theory, the primary nature of explicit knowledge is to develop awareness of rather than production of target forms. Hence, teachers ought not to grade students on accurate use of these forms in spontaneous speech. Hopefully, this awareness will help learners notice target forms in future input and facilitate the eventual acquisition of these forms as implicit knowledge (Ellis, 2002, p 29).

How Do Teachers Help Students Notice?

How can we as teachers help students notice target forms? Cross (2002) summarizes factors that draw attention to certain features in input:

Explicit instruction -- instruction explaining and drawing attention to a particular form.

Frequency -- the regular occurrence of a certain structure in input.

Perceptual Salience -- highlighting or underlining to draw attention to a certain structure.

Task Demands -- constructing a task that requires learners to notice a structure in order to complete it.

Also, Rod Ellis outlines five teaching activities to develop grammatical knowledge of a problematic feature (Ellis 2002, pp. 30-31):

1. Listening to Comprehend: Students listen to comprehend a text that has been structured to contain several examples of the target form.

2. Listening to notice: Students listen to the same text again, but are given a gap-fill exercise. The target form is missing and the students simply fill it in exactly as they hear it to help them notice the form.

3. Understanding the grammar point: With help from the teacher, the students analyze the data and "discover" the rule.

4. Checking: Students are given a written text containing errors and are asked to correct them.

5. Trying it: Students apply their knowledge in a production activity.

Ellis warns that this is not designed to develop implicit knowledge, but simply to develop awareness of grammar, which -- when supplemented with other forms of input and communicative tasks -- may aid in the eventual acquisition of implicit knowledge.
Conclusion

In conclusion, explicit grammar knowledge can foster the acquisition of implicit knowledge through noticing. Teachers can draw students' attention to certain language features of input through explicit instruction, increasing the frequency and perceptual salience of the structure, and/or designing tasks that require the students to notice a structure to complete it.

Lesson Plan

The following lesson plan is a direct application of the five step approach by Rod Ellis (above), designed to teach the problematic features of tense and subjunctive use of "were" in imaginative conditionals to adult students.

TESOL 1.1 - To use English to communicate in social settings: Students will use English to participate in social interactions, engaging in conversation.
Objectives

Students will analyze the subjunctive mood in sample imaginative conditional sentences and synthesize a "rule" governing the behavior of these sentences.

Students will correct grammar mistakes in conditional sentences.

Students will create conditional sentences to engage in conversation.

Materials (Included at bottom)

Dialogue -- for teacher

Handouts: dialogue -- cloze, analyze sheet, exercises

Procedure:

1. Read dialogue orally to students one or more times.

2. Ask comprehension questions. 1) Where are these people? 2) What do they do for a living? 3) Do they think they could do the other person's job?

3. Cloze exercise -- Hand out dialogue-cloze. Read again to students. Students fill in blanks as they hear them.

4. Analysis -- Pass out "analyze" handout. In groups, students analyze the sample sentences and write a rule that describes the pattern they see.

5. Teacher led large group discussion of the rule.

6. Students write the real rule and compare it with their rule.

7. Application: In pairs, students complete exercises 1 & 2. In exercise 1 students correct errors in conditional sentences. In exercise 2, students use prompts to create conditional sentences for paired conversation.

Evaluation

Teacher observes student answers and conversations in exercise 1 and 2.

Dialogue - Listen to Comprehend

John: Hello. My name is John. What's your name?

Sue: My name is Sue. What brings you to this party?

John: I work with Tom.

Sue: Oh, so what do you do?

John: I am a teacher.

Sue: Oh really, well, I can't stand kids. If I were a teacher, I think I would go crazy.

John: Really? Well, what do you do?

Sue: I am a politician.

John: Oh wow! Well, if I were a politician, the world would be in even worse shape than it already is. And my wife . . . if she were a politician's wife, she would definitely be even unhappier than she already is. She is a woman that needs time to her work in her garden. Well . . . what does your husband do?

Sue: Presently, he is a lawyer. But if he were a teacher, I'm sure he would go crazy too.

John: You are being too hard on yourselves. You see that couple over there? They are teachers. If they can do it, so can you.

Sue: I suppose so, but if they were ballerinas, I'm sure they would be great too. I think anybody can be anything they want to if they try hard enough.

John: I suppose. But if we were ballerinas, I don't think we would be great ones. We are professionals who work in an office all day. I doubt we would have much success with professional athletics or arts.

Dialogue -- Cloze - Listen to Notice

John: Hello. My name is John. What's your name?

Sue: My name is Sue. What brings you to this party?

John: I work with Tom.

Sue: Oh, so what do you do?

John: I ______ a teacher.

Sue: Oh really, well, I can't stand kids. If I __________ a teacher, I think I _________ go crazy.

John: Really? Well, what do you do?

Sue: I _________ a politician.

John: Oh wow! Well, ______ I _____________ a politician, the world ____________ be an even worse shape than it already is. And my wife . . . ________ she _____________ a politician's wife, she ____________ definitely be unhappier than she already is. She ____________ a woman that needs time to her work in her garden. Well . . . what does your husband do?

Sue: Presently, he __________ a lawyer. But ______ he ___________ a teacher, I'm sure he ___________ go crazy too.

John: You are being too hard on yourselves. You see that couple over there? They are teachers. If they can do it, so can you.

Sue: I suppose so, but ______ they ____________ ballerinas, I'm sure they ____________ be great too. I think anybody can be anything they want to if they try hard enough.

John: I suppose. But ______ we ___________ ballerinas, I don't think we ___________ be great ones. We are professionals who work in an office all day. I doubt we would have much success with professional athletics or arts.

Analyze -- Understanding the Grammar Point

Analyze the following sentences. At the bottom of the page, write a rule to describe the patterns you find.

2.
A) I AM a politician.
B) If I WERE a politician, the world would be in even worse shape than it already is.

3.
A) She IS a woman that needs time to her work in her garden.
B) If she WERE a politician's wife, she would definitely be unhappier than she already is.

4.
A) He IS a lawyer.
B) If he WERE a teacher, I'm sure he would go crazy too.

5.
A) They ARE teachers.
B) If they WERE ballerinas, I'm sure they would be great too.

6.
A) We ARE professionals who work in an office all day.
B) If we WERE ballerinas, I don't think we would be great ones.

Extra Examples

8.
A) You ARE a good person.
B) If you WERE a good person, you would help me.

Exercise 1 -- Checking

Look at the underlined part in the following sentences. If the sentence contains an error, correct it. If it does not contain any errors, write Correct.

________ 1. I were a lawyer.

________ 2. If I were a lawyer, I would make more money.

________ 3. If I was a rock star, I would be happier.

________ 4. If you were an animal, what animal would you be?

________ 5. If he were the president, he will make many new laws.

________ 6. If they are popular, they would act differently.

________ 7. He were a math professor.

________ 8. If you were president, what laws would you make?

________ 9. If we were born in France, we would speak French.

________ 10. If I were a rich man, I would give to the poor.

Exercise 2 -- Trying it

Use the following prompts to make conditional sentences for conversation with a partner.

Example: (You) -- (President of the U.S.)
Person A: If you were the President of the U.S., what would you do?
Person B: If I were the President of the U.S., I would get rid of taxes.

1. (you) -- (movie star)

2. (he -- another student in the class) -- (rich man)

3. (she -- another person in the class) -- (the last woman on earth)

4. (you) -- (party animal)

5. (we) -- (teachers)

6. (they) -- (criminals)

7. (you) -- (most beautiful person alive)

Write a journal entry to answer this question: If you were the richest person alive, how would your life be different?
References

Batstone, Rob. (1996). Key Concepts in ELT: Noticing. ELT Journal, Volume 50/3, 8 paragraphs.
Available: http://www3.oup.co.uk/eltj/hdb/Volume_50/Issue_03/freepdf/500273.pdf

Brook, Andrew and Edina Torlakovic. The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Acquisition. 40 paragraphs.
Available: http://www.cognitivesciencesociety.org/confproc/gmu02/final_ind_files/torlakovic_brook.pdf

Cross, Jeremy. (December 2002) 'Noticing' in SLA: Is it a Valid Concept? TESL-EJ. Vol. 6, No.3.
Available: http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/ej23/a2.html

Ellis, Rod. Options in Grammar Teaching (Speech Notes).
Available: http://www.tki.org.nz/r/esol/esolonline/teachers/prof_read/rod_ellis_e.php

Ellis, Rod. (2001). Second Language Acquisition: The Role of Consciousness. Lecture given at National Chengchi University, Taiwan.
Available: http://english.nccu.edu.tw/academic/RodEllis/Lect1.doc

Ellis, Rod. (2002). The Place of Grammar Instruction in the Second/Foreign Language Curriculum. In Fotos, Sandra and Eli Hinkel (Eds.), New Perspectives on Grammar Teaching in Second Language Classrooms (pp. 17-34). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Krashen, Stephen. (1981). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Pergamon Press.
Also available on-line: http://www.sdkrashen.com/SL_Acquisition_and_Learning/index.html

Ryan, Kevin. (2001). Interview With Rod Ellis. ELT News Online Journal, 37 paragraphs.
Available: http://www/eltnews.com/features/interviews/015_rod_ellis1.shtml

Sysoyev, Pavel V. (1999). Integrative L2 Grammar Teaching: Exploration, Explanation and Expression. The Internet TESL Journal. Vol. V, No. 6.
Available: http://iteslj.org/Articles/Sysoyev-Integrative.html

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. X, No. 7, July 2004
http://iteslj.org/ http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Noonan-Noticing.html

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Teaching ESL Students to "Notice" Grammar

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Relations between preschool attention span-persistence and age 25 educational outcomes

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Relations between preschool attention span-persistence and age 25 educational outcomes

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Exactly what the title says. Also because this is something that I can relate to easily.

ISMAIL BIN ABD KHALIL (A150008)

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Relations between preschool attention span-persistence and age 25 educational outcomes

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This study examined relations between children's attention span-persistence in preschool and later school achievement and college completion. Children...

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Coping with the problems of mixed ability classes.

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Coping with the problems of mixed ability classes.

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Hello everyone. I found an article on coping with the problems of  mixed ability classes.

DALVEENDER KAUR A/P DILBIR SINGH  (A151433 )

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Salli-Copur - Coping with the Problems of Mixed Ability Classes (TESL_TEFL)

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Hello, everyone! I found an interesting article on second language writing anxiety based on a research done to 186 third year students of MARA University Technology of Terengganu.

SITI AISHAH BINTI ISMAIL (A151386)

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Teachers' Barriers to the Use of Computer

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Teachers' Barriers to the Use of Computer

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Hi, everyone. I found an article regarding one of the teachers' problems in classroom.

Nur Fatihah (A151131)

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The Internet TESL Journal Kuang-wu Lee
Johnny [at] hcu.edu.tw
Hsuan Chuang University (Hsinchu, Taiwan)

Computers have been used for language teaching ever since the 1960's. This 40-year period can be divided into three main stages: behaviorist CALL, communicative CALL, and integrative CALL. Each stage corresponds to a certain level of technology and certain pedagogical theories. The reasons for using Computer-assisted Language Learning include: (a) experiential learning, (b) motivation, (c) enhance student achievement, (d) authentic materials for study, (e) greater interaction, (f) individualization, (g) independence from a single source of information, and (h) global understanding. The barriers inhibiting the practice of Computer-assisted Language Learning can be classified in the following common categories: (a) financial barriers, (b) availability of computer hardware and software, (c) technical and theoretical knowledge, and (d) acceptance of the technology.

Introduction

In the last few years the number of teachers using Computer-assisted Language Learning (CALL) has increased markedly and numerous articles have been written about the role of technology in education in the 21st century. Although the potential of the Internet for educational use has not been fully explored yet and the average school still makes limited use of computers, it is obvious that we have entered a new information age in which the links between technology and TEFL have already been established.

In the early 90's education started being affected by the introduction of word processors in schools, colleges and universities. This mainly had to do with written assignments. The development of the Internet brought about a revolution in the teachers' perspective, as the teaching tools offered through the Internet were gradually becoming more reliable. Nowadays, the Internet is gaining immense popularity in foreign language teaching and more and more educators and learners are embracing it.

The History of CALL

Computers have been used for language teaching ever since the 1960's. According to Warschauer & Healey (1998), this 40-year period can be divided into three main stages: behaviorist CALL, communicative CALL, and integrative CALL. Each stage corresponds to a certain level of technology and certain pedagogical theories.

Behaviorist CALL

In the 1960's and 1970's the first form of computer-assisted Language Learning featured repetitive language drills, the so-called drill-and-practice method. It was based on the behaviorist learning model and as such the computer was viewed as little more than a mechanical tutor that never grew tired. Behaviorist CALL was first designed and implemented in the era of the mainframe and the best-known tutorial system, PLATO, ran on its own special hardware. It was mainly used for extensive drills, explicit grammar instruction, and translation tests (Ahmad, et al., 1985).

Communicative CALL

Communicative CALL emerged in the 1970's and 1980's as a reaction to the behaviorist approach to language learning. Proponents of communicative CALL rejected behaviorist approaches at both the theoretical and pedagogical level. They stressed that CALL should focus more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves. Grammar should be taught implicitly and students should be encouraged to generate original utterances instead of manipulating prefabricated forms (Jones & Fortescue, 1987; Philips, 1987). This form of computer-based instruction corresponded to cognitive theories which recognized that learning was a creative process of discovery, expression, and development. The mainframe was replaced by personal computers that allowed greater possibilities for individual work. Popular CALL software in this era included text reconstruction programmers and simulations.

Integrative CALL

The last stage of computer-assisted Language Learning is integrative CALL. Communicative CALL was criticized for using the computer in an ad hoc and disconnected fashion and using the computer made 'a greater contribution to marginal rather than central elements' of language learning (Kenning & Kenning, 1990: 90). Teachers have moved away from a cognitive view of communicative language teaching to a socio-cognitive view that emphasizes real language use in a meaningful, authentic context. Integrative CALL seeks both to integrate the various skills of language learning (listening, speaking, writing, and reading) and to integrate technology more fully into language teaching (Warschauer & Healey, 1998). To this end the multimedia-networked computer provides a range of informational, communicative, and publishing tools that are potentially available to every student.

Why Use CALL?

Research and practice suggest that, appropriately implemented, network-based technology can contribute significantly to:

Experiential Learning

The World Wide Web makes it possible for students to tackle a huge amount of human experience. In such a way, they can learn by doing things themselves. They become the creators not just the receivers of knowledge. As the way information is presented is not linear, users develop thinking skills and choose what to explore.

Motivation

Computers are most popular among students either because they are associated with fun and games or because they are considered to be fashionable. Student motivation is therefore increased, especially whenever a variety of activities are offered, which make them feel more independent.

Enhanced Student Achievement

Network-based instruction can help pupils strengthen their linguistic skills by positively affecting their learning attitude and by helping them build self-instruction strategies and promote their self-confidence.

Authentic Materials for Study

All students can use various resources of authentic reading materials either at school or from their home. Those materials can be accessed 24 hours a day at a relatively low cost.

Greater Interaction

Random access to Web pages breaks the linear flow of instruction. By sending E-mail and joining newsgroups, EFL students can communicate with people they have never met. They can also interact with their own classmates. Furthermore, some Internet activities give students positive and negative feedback by automatically correcting their on-line exercises.

Individualization

Shy or inhibited students can be greatly benefited by individualized, student-centered collaborative learning. High fliers can also realize their full potential without preventing their peers from working at their own pace.

Independence from a Single Source of Information

Although students can still use their books, they are given the chance to escape from canned knowledge and discover thousands of information sources. As a result, their education fulfils the need for interdisciplinary learning in a multicultural world.

Global Understanding

A foreign language is studied in a cultural context. In a world where the use of the Internet becomes more and more widespread, an English Language teacher's duty is to facilitate students' access to the web and make them feel citizens of a global classroom, practicing communication on a global level.

What Can We Do With CALL?

There is a wide range of on-line applications which are already available for use in the foreign language class. These include dictionaries and encyclopedias, links for teachers, chat-rooms, pronunciation tutors, grammar and vocabulary quizzes, games and puzzles, literary extracts. The World Wide Web (WWW) is a virtual library of information that can be accessed by any user around the clock. If someone wants to read or listen to the news, for example, there are a number of sources offering the latest news either printed or recorded. The most important newspapers and magazines in the world are available on-line and the same is the case with radio and TV channels.

Another example is communicating with electronic pen friends, something that most students would enjoy. Teachers should explain how it all works and help students find their keypals. Two EFL classes from different countries can arrange to send E-mail regularly to one another. This can be done quite easily thanks to the web sites providing lists of students looking for communication. It is also possible for two or more students to join a chat-room and talk on-line through E-mail. .

Another network-based EFL activity could be project writing. By working for a project a pupil can construct knowledge rather that only receive it. Students can work on their own, in groups of two or in larger teams, in order to write an assignment, the size of which may vary according to the objectives set by the instructor. A variety of sources can be used besides the Internet such as school libraries, encyclopedias, reference books etc. The Internet itself can provide a lot of food for thought. The final outcome of their research can be typed using a word processor. A word processor can be used in writing compositions, in preparing a class newsletter or in producing a school home page. In such a Web page students can publish their project work so that it can reach a wider audience. That makes them feel more responsible for the final product and consequently makes them work more laboriously.

The Internet and the rise of computer-mediated communication in particular have reshaped the uses of computers for language learning. The recent shift to global information-based economies means that students will need to learn how to deal with large amounts of information and have to be able to communicate across languages and cultures. At the same time, the role of the teacher has changed as well. Teachers are not the only source of information any more, but act as facilitators so that students can actively interpret and organize the information they are given, fitting it into prior knowledge (Dole, et al., 1991). Students have become active participants in learning and are encouraged to be explorers and creators of language rather than passive recipients of it (Brown, 1991). Integrative CALL stresses these issues and additionally lets learners of a language communicate inexpensively with other learners or native speakers. As such, it combines information processing, communication, use of authentic language, and learner autonomy, all of which are of major importance in current language learning theories.

Teachers' Barriers to the Use of Computer-assisted Language Learning

The barriers inhibiting the practice of Computer-assisted Language Learning can be classified in the following common categories (a) financial barriers, (b) availability of computer hardware and software, (c) technical and theoretical knowledge, and (d) acceptance of the technology.

Financial Barriers

Financial barriers are mentioned most frequently in the literature by language education practitioners. They include the cost of hardware, software, maintenance (particular of the most advanced equipment), and extend to some staff development. Froke (1994b) said, "concerning the money, the challenge was unique because of the nature of the technology." Existing universities policies and procedures for budgeting and accounting were well advanced for classroom instruction. The costs of media were accounted for in the university as a part of the cost of instruction. Though the initial investment in hardware is high, inhibiting institutions' introduction of advance technologies; but Hooper (1995) recommends that the cost of computers will be so low that they will be available in most schools and homes in the future.

Lewis et al. (1994) indicate three conditions under which Computer-assisted Learning and other technologies can be cost-effectiveness: Computer-assisted Learning costs the same as conventional instruction but ends up with producing higher achievement in the same amount of instructional time, it results in students achieving the same level but in less time. These authors indicate that in examples where costs of using technologies in education are calculated, they are usually understand because the value of factors, such as faculty time and cost of equipment utilization, is ignored (McClelland, 1996).

Herschbach (1994) argues firmly that new technologies are add-on expenses and will not, in many cases, lower the cost of providing educational services. He stated that that the new technologies probably will not replace the teachers, but will supplement their efforts, as has been the pattern with other technologies. The technologies will not decrease educational costs or increase teacher productivity as currently used. Low usage causes the cost barrier. Computers, interactive instruction TV, and other devices are used very few hours of the day, week, or month. Either the number of learners or the amount of time learners apply the technology must be increased substantially to approach the concept of cost-effectiveness. There are other more quick and less expensive ways of reducing costs, no matter how inexpensive the technology being used (Kincaid, McEachron, & McKinney,1994.

Availability of Computer Hardware and Software

The most significant aspects of computer are hardware and software. Availability of high quality software is the most pressing challenge in applying the new technologies in education (Herschbach, 1994; Miller, 1997; Office of Technology Assessment, 1995; Noreburg & Lundblad, 1997). Underlying this problem is a lack of knowledge of what elements in software will promote different kinds of learning. There are few educators skilled in designing it because software development is costly and time-consuming (McClelland, 1996).

McClelland (1996) indicated having sufficient hardware in locations where learners have access to it problematic and is, of course, partly a financial problem. Computer hardware and software compatibility goes on to be a significant problem. Choosing hardware is difficult because of the many choices of systems to be used in delivering education, the delivery of equipment, and the rapid changes in technology.

Technical and Theoretical Knowledge

A lack of technical and theoretical knowledge is another barrier to the use of Computer-assisted Language Learning technology. Not only is there a shortage of knowledge about developing software to promote learning, as shown above, but many instructors do not understand how to use the new technologies. Furthermore, little is known about integrating these new means of learning into an overall plan. In the communication between McClelland and C. Dede (1995), Dede indicated the more powerful technologies, such as artificial intelligence in computers, might promote learning of higher-order cognitive skills that are difficult to access with today's evaluation procedures and, therefore, the resulting pedagogical gains may be under-valued. Improper use of technologies can affect both the teacher and learner negatively (Office of Technical Assessment, 1995).

Acceptance of Technologies

We live in a time change. Gelatt (1995) stated that change itself has changed. Change has become so rapid, so turbulent, and so unpredictable that is now called "white water" change (p.10). Murphy & Terry (1998a) indicated the current of change move so quickly that they destroy what was considered the norm in the past, and by doing so, create new opportunities. But, there is a natural tendency for organizations to resist change. Wrong conceptions about the use of technology limit innovation and threaten teachers' job and security (Zuber-Skerritt, 1994). Instructors are tend not to use technologies that require substantially more preparation time, and it is tough to provide instructors and learners access to technologies that are easy to use (Herschbach, 1994).

Engaging in Computer-assisted Language Learning is a continuing challenge that requires time and commitment. As we approach the 21st century, we realize that technology as such is not the answer to all our problems. What really matters is how we use technology. Computers can/will never substitute teachers but they offer new opportunities for better language practice. They may actually make the process of language learning significantly richer and play a key role in the reform of a country's educational system. The next generation of students will feel a lot more confident with information technology than we do. As a result, they will also be able to use the Internet to communicate more effectively, practice language skills more thoroughly and solve language learning problems more easily.

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The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No. 12, December 2000
http://iteslj.org/ http://iteslj.org/Articles/Lee-CALLbarriers.html

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Lee - English Teachers’ Barriers to the Use of Computer-assisted Language Learning
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The reasons for using Computer-assisted Language Learning include: (a) experiential learning, (b) motivation, (c) enhance student achievement, (d) authentic materials for study, (e) greater interaction, (f) individualization, (g) independence from a single source of information, and (h) global under…

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