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The acquisition of new forms of behaviour, information, or concepts through exposure to others and the consequences they experience. Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded by many influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within their peer group and teachers at school. These models provide examples of behavior to observe and imitate.

PRINCIPLES OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
1- ATTENTION - In order to learn through attention one must direct his attention to appropriate models.We focus our attention on people who attract us, people who possess signs that they know what they are doing.
2- RETENTION - Our ability to retain a representation of others behaviour in memory. When we are able to retain some information then only we are able to perform in a similar way.
3- PRODUCTION PROCESSES- The ability to convert these memory representations into appropriate actions. They depend on :

ones own physical abilities- one must have the ability to perform the behaviour.

ones acapacity to monitor ones own performance and adjust it until it matches that of the model.

4- MOTIVATION - The will to perform the behavior. The rewards and punishment that follow a behavior will be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs (if there are any), then the behavior will be more likely to be imitated by the observer. If the vicarious reinforcement is not seen to be important enough to the observer, then they will not imitate the behavior.

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1- It has made learning as a purposeful and goal oriented task.
2- The emphasis on the imporatnce of viewing the situation as a whole. It has given rise to the maxim i.e. 'whole to parts' in the process of learning.
3- It requires the organisation of the perceptual field and learning material .

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FACTORS THAT PLAY A ROLE IN INSIGHTFUL LEARNING.

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FACTORS THAT PLAY A ROLE IN INSIGHTFUL LEARNING.

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a) EXPERIENCE- Past experiences equips an individulal to find solutions.
b) INTELLIGENCE - The solution depends upon the basic intelligence of the learner.
c) Learning situation - The way an individual responds to a situation will depend upon his perception and observation of the situation.
d) Initial Efforts - Efforts in the simple trial and error mechanism. But this process doesn't last long it just opens the way for insightful thought.
e) Repitition and Generalization - After having an insighting solution of a particular type of problem, the organism tries to repeat it in another situation, demanding similar type of solution.

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These experiments demonstrated the role of intelligence and cognitive abilities in highler learning such as problem solving.
They reacted intelligently by  :
1- identifying the problem
2- organising their perceptual field
3- using insight to reach solution.

Characteristics:

Insight is the sudden grasping of the solution of the problem.

It depends upon the intellectual ability of the learner.

It is facilitated by the previous experiences.

It involves understanding and reasoning about the problem.

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THEORY OF INSIGHTFUL LEARNING- WOLFGANG KOHLER

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THEORY OF INSIGHTFUL LEARNING- WOLFGANG KOHLER

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Gestalt psychologist consider the process of learning as a GESTALT- an organised whole. A thing cannot be understood by study of it's constituent parts but only by study of it as a totality, is the basic idea behind this theory. They tried to interpret learning as a purposive,exploratory and creative enterprise instead of trial and error or simple stimulus-response behaviour. Gestaltist used the term 'insight' to describe perception of the whole situation by the learner and uses his intelligence in responding to the proper relationships.

EXPERIMENT ON INSIGHTFUL LEARNING - MONKEY EXPERIMENT.
I- Kohlar kept an ape (named Sultan) hungry for some time, and then shut him in a large cage. He hung bananas from the ceiling, and kept a box on the floor of the cage, fast beneath. The monkey could not reach the banana. Another box was put in a corner of the cage. Suddenly he got an idea and used the box as a jumping platform to reach the banana's.
II- In another experiment Kohler kept two sticks in the cage. One end of the shorter sticks could be fitted in the one end of the longer sticks, so as to make them longer. The banana's were placed outside the cage and the monkey was supposed to use the sticks to get. Sultan used both the sticks one at a time but couldn't get the banana's. All of sudden he was struck by the idea to join both of the sticks and with that he was finally able to reach the banana's.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASSICAL & OPERANT CONDITIONING.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASSICAL & OPERANT CONDITIONING.

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1- The theory suggests the great potentiality of the shaping procedure for behaviour modification. Operant conditioning can be used for shaping behaviour of children by appropriate use of reinforcement or rewards.
2- Eliminating negative behaviour through extinction. When a learned response is repeated without reinforcement the strength to engage in that behaviour decreases.
3- Operant conditioning has valuable implications for reinforcement techniques in the class-room. Positive reinforcement is perhaps the most widely used behavioural technique in the school setting.
4- It lays emphasis on the importance of schedules in the process of reinforcement of the behaviour.

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It is the notion of behavior shaping through successive approximation. Skinner argues that the principles of operant conditioning can be used to produce extremely complex behavior if rewards and punishments are delivered in such a way as to encourage move an organism closer and closer to the desired behavior each time. To do this, the conditions (or contingencies) required to receive the reward should shift each time the organism moves a step closer to the desired behavior.
In one of his experiments for shaping he used a piegon - to teach it to walk in a figure eight. Skinner watched the piegon carefully and gave a small amount of grain whenit moved in the proper direction. So for each of the movement of the piegon such as simply turning in the right direction, then making the correct turn and so on it was given a small grain of food until it completed the figure eight.
Thus Shaping may be used as a successful technique for making individuals learn difficult and complex behvaiours.

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Skinner found that when and how often behaviors were reinforced played a role in the speed and strength of acquisition. In other words, the timing and frequency of reinforcement influenced how new behaviors were learned and how old behaviors were modified.

1. Continuous reinforcement involves delivering a reinforcement every time a response occurs. Learning tends to occur relatively quickly, yet the response rate is quite low. Extinction also occurs very quickly once reinforcement is halted.
2. Fixed-ratio schedules are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are reinforced only after a specific number of responses have occurred. This typically leads to a fairly steady response rate.
3. Fixed-interval schedules are another form of partial reinforcement. Reinforcement occurs only after a certain interval of time has elapsed. Response rates remain fairly steady and start to increase as the reinforcement time draws near, but slow immediately after the reinforcement has been delivered.
4. Variable-ratio schedules are also a type of partial reinforcement that involve reinforcing behavior after a varied number of responses. This leads to both a high response rate and slow extinction rates.
5. Variable-interval schedules are the final form of partial reinforcement Skinner described. This schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a variable amount of time has elapsed. This also tends to lead to a fast response rate and slow extinction rate.

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Skinner defined 2 types of responses.
1- RESPONDENT BEHAVIOUR - are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as pulling your hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee. You don't have to learn these behaviors. They simply occur automatically and involuntarily. They are elicited by a known stimuli. In this the stimulus preceding the response is responsible for causing the behaviour.
2- OPERANT BEHAVIOUR - are those under our conscious control. Some may occur spontaneously and others purposely, but it is the consequences of these actions that then influence whether or not they occur again in the future. This is emitted by an unknown stimuli. In this the stimulus causing the behaviour is not important rather the consequences of behaviour are more important and the operant behaviour is controlled by the strength of the consequences.

REINFORCERS AND REINFORCEMENT - It is a kind of reward. A reinforcer is the stimulus whose presentation or removal increases the probability of a response re-occurring. There are 2 types :
1- Positive reinforcer- It is any stimulus the presentation of which increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour.

2- Negavtive reinforcer - It is any stimulus the removal of which increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.

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Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior.

For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on, they receive a food pellet as a reward. When they press the lever when a red light is on, they receive a mild electric shock. As a result, they learn to press the lever when the green light is on and avoid the red light.

But operant conditioning is not just something that takes place in experimental settings while training lab animals. It also plays a powerful role in everyday learning. Reinforcement and punishment take place in natural settings all the time, as well as in more structured settings such as classrooms or therapy sessions.

The History of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning was first described by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that it was not really necessary to look at internal thoughts and motivations in order to explain behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior.

Through the first part of the 20th century, behaviorism became a major force within psychology. The ideas of John B. Watson dominated this school of thought early on. Watson focused on the principles of classical conditioning, once famously suggesting that he could take any person regardless of their background and train them to be anything he chose.

Early behaviorists focused their interests on associative learning. Skinner was more interested in how the consequences of people's actions influenced their behavior.

Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences." Skinner's theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit every day.

His theory was heavily influenced by the work of psychologist Edward Thorndike, who had proposed what he called the law of effect.﻿﻿ According to this principle, actions that are followed by desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated while those followed by undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

Operant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise: Actions that are followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. If you tell a funny story in class and everybody laughs, you will probably be more likely to tell that story again in the future.

If you raise your hand to ask a question and your teacher praises your polite behavior, you will be more likely to raise your hand the next time you have a question or comment. Because the behavior was followed by reinforcement, or a desirable outcome, the preceding action is strengthened.

Conversely, actions that result in punishment or undesirable consequences will be weakened and less likely to occur again in the future. If you tell the same story again in another class but nobody laughs this time, you will be less likely to repeat the story again in the future. If you shout out an answer in class and your teacher scolds you, then you might be less likely to interrupt the class again.

Types of Behaviors

Skinner distinguished between two different types of behaviors

Respondent behaviors are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as pulling your hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee. You don't have to learn these behaviors. They simply occur automatically and involuntarily.

Operant behaviors, on the other hand, are those under our conscious control. Some may occur spontaneously and others purposely, but it is the consequences of these actions that then influence whether or not they occur again in the future. Our actions on the environment and the consequences of that action make up an important part of the learning process.

While classical conditioning could account for respondent behaviors, Skinner realized that it could not account for a great deal of learning. Instead, Skinner suggested that operant conditioning held far greater importance.

Skinner invented different devices during his boyhood and he put these skills to work during his studies on operant conditioning. He created a device known as an operant conditioning chamber, often referred to today as a Skinner box. The chamber could hold a small animal, such as a rat or pigeon. The box also contained a bar or key that the animal could press in order to receive a reward.

In order to track responses, Skinner also developed a device known as a cumulative recorder. The device recorded responses as an upward movement of a line so that response rates could be read by looking at the slope of the line.

Components of Operant Conditioning

There are several key concepts in operant conditioning. The type of reinforcement or punishment that is used can have an effect on how the individual responds and the effect of conditioning. There are four types of operant conditioning that can be utilized to change behavior: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment.

Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In positive reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of praise or a direct reward. If you do a good job at work and your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus is a positive reinforcer.

2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle of a restaurant, but stops once you hand them a treat, your action led to the removal of the unpleasant condition, negatively reinforcing your behavior (not your child's).

Punishment in Operant Conditioning

Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both of these cases, the behavior decreases.

1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for misbehavior is an example of punishment by application.

2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video game following misbehavior is an example of negative punishment.

Recap

The five principles of operant conditioning are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment, and extinction. Extinction occurs when a response is no longer reinforced or punished, which can lead to the fading and disappearance of the behavior.

Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Schedules

Reinforcement is not necessarily a straightforward process, and there are a number of factors that can influence how quickly and how well new things are learned. Skinner found that when and how often behaviors were reinforced played a role in the speed and strength of acquisition. In other words, the timing and frequency of reinforcement influenced how new behaviors were learned and how old behaviors were modified.

Skinner identified several different schedules of reinforcement that impact the operant conditioning process:

1. Continuous reinforcement involves delivering a reinforcement every time a response occurs. Learning tends to occur relatively quickly, yet the response rate is quite low. Extinction also occurs very quickly once reinforcement is halted.

2. Fixed-ratio schedules are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are reinforced only after a specific number of responses have occurred. This typically leads to a fairly steady response rate.

3. Fixed-interval schedules are another form of partial reinforcement. Reinforcement occurs only after a certain interval of time has elapsed. Response rates remain fairly steady and start to increase as the reinforcement time draws near, but slow immediately after the reinforcement has been delivered.

4. Variable-ratio schedules are also a type of partial reinforcement that involve reinforcing behavior after a varied number of responses. This leads to both a high response rate and slow extinction rates.

5. Variable-interval schedules are the final form of partial reinforcement Skinner described. This schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a variable amount of time has elapsed. This also tends to lead to a fast response rate and slow extinction rate.

Examples of Operant Conditioning

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions. More examples of operant conditioning in action include:

After performing in a community theater play, you receive applause from the audience. This acts as a positive reinforcer, inspiring you to try out for more performance roles.

You train your dog to fetch by offering him praise and a pat on the head whenever he performs the behavior correctly. This is another positive reinforcer.

A professor tells students that if they have perfect attendance all semester, then they do not have to take the final comprehensive exam. By removing an unpleasant stimulus (the final test), students are negatively reinforced to attend class regularly.

If you fail to hand in a project on time, your boss becomes angry and berates your performance in front of your co-workers. This acts as a positive punisher, making it less likely that you will finish projects late in the future.

A teen girl does not clean up her room as she was asked, so her parents take away her phone for the rest of the day. This is an example of a negative punishment in which a positive stimulus is taken away.

In some of these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior. Operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior via the removal of a desirable outcome or the application of a negative outcome.

For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.

A Word From Verywell

While behaviorism may have lost much of the dominance it held during the early part of the 20th century, operant conditioning remains an important and often used tool in the learning and behavior modification process. Sometimes natural consequences lead to changes in our behavior. In other instances, rewards and punishments may be consciously doled out in order to create a change.

Operant conditioning is something you may immediately recognize in your own life, whether it is in your approach to teaching your children good behavior or in training the family dog. Remember that any type of learning takes time. Consider the type of reinforcement or punishment that may work best for your unique situation and assess which type of reinforcement schedule might lead to the best results.

Additional Reading

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Operant conditioning is one of the most fundamental concepts in behavioral psychology. Learn more about the effects of rewards and punishments on behavior.

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OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY - B.F.SKINNER

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OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY - B.F.SKINNER

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Skinner argued against the 'no stimulus', 'no response, mechanism. Acc. to him individuals often manipulate things in the environment with his own initiative. He came up with concept of Operant conditioning. It is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence. It is also known as Instrumental Conditioning.
He state that behaviour is shaped and maintained by it's consequences. It is operated by the organism and maintained by its results.

EXPERIMENT ON OPERANT CONDITIONING - RAT EXPERIMENT:
Skinner made various apparatus to do his experiments that was known as 'Skinner Box''. Skinner used one hungry rat and placed it in the box. In the experiment pressing the bar in a particular fashion by the rat could result in the production of a click sound and presence of a food pallet. The click sound acted as a cue for the rat that if it goes to the food box and responds in correct fashion it will be rewarded. The lever press response having been rewarded was repeated several times. Each time the rat was rewarded for the correct response and hence it ultimately the rat learned the art of pressing the lever as desired by the experimenter.

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1- Development of Attitudes:
Conditioning may help the child in breaking negative and promoting attitudes. In short, good and bad habits may be developed in the child through this method of conditioning.
2- Helpful in Adjustment:
The conditioning method helps the child in adjusting in various types of environments.
3- Helpful in Habit formation - The conditioning method can be used to develop healthy habits and removal of unhealthy habits.
4- Useful in Mental Hospitals - The mental cases and emotionally unstable children can best be treated with this process of conditioning.

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1- ACQUISITION - is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened. During the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
2- EXTINCTION - The process related with gradual disappearance of the CR on disconnecting the S-R assoiciation. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
3- SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY - is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or period of lessened response. A learned response can suddenly reemerge even after a period of extinction.
4- STIMULUS GENERALIZATION - is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. It is the generalized way of responding to a stimulus which is similar in nature.
5- STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION - is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. The subject learns to react differently in different situations.

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Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a type of unconscious or automatic learning. This learning process creates a conditioned response through associations between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus. In simple terms, classical conditioning involves placing a neutral stimulus before a naturally occurring reflex.

One of the best-known examples of classical conditioning is Pavlov's classic experiments with dogs. In these experiments, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus (sound) with the unconditioned stimulus (food), the sound of the tone alone could produce a salivation response.

Although classical conditioning was not discovered by a psychologist, it has had a tremendous influence over the school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism. Behaviorism assumes that all learning occurs through interactions with the environment and that environment shapes behavior.

Classical Conditioning Definitions

Classical conditioning-also sometimes referred to as Pavlovian conditioning-uses a few different terms to help explain the learning process. Knowing these basics will help you understand classical conditioning.

Unconditioned Stimulus

An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus or trigger that leads to an automatic response. If a cold breeze makes you shiver, for instance, the cold breeze is an unconditioned stimulus; it produces an involuntary response (the shivering).

Neutral Stimulus

A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that doesn't initially trigger a response on its own. If you hear the sound of a fan but don't feel the breeze, for example, it wouldn't necessarily trigger a response. That would make it a neutral stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus

A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that was once neutral (didn't trigger a response) but now leads to a response. If you previously didn't pay attention to dogs, but then got bit by one, and now you feel fear every time you see a dog, the dog has become a conditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Response

An unconditioned response is an automatic response or a response that occurs without thought when an unconditioned stimulus is present. If you smell your favorite food and your mouth starts watering, the watering is an unconditioned response.

Conditioned Response

A conditioned response is a learned response or a response that is created where no response existed before. Going back to the example of being bit by a dog, the fear you experience after the bite is a conditioned response.

How Classical Conditioning Works

Classical conditioning involves forming an association between two stimuli, resulting in a learned response. There are three basic phases of this process.

Phase 1: Before Conditioning

The first part of the classical conditioning process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that will automatically elicit a response. Salivating in response to the smell of food is a good example of a naturally occurring stimulus.

During this phase of the process, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) results in an unconditioned response (UCR). Presenting food (the UCS) naturally and automatically triggers a salivation response (the UCR).

At this point, there is also a neutral stimulus that produces no effect-yet. It isn't until the neutral stimulus is paired with the UCS that it will come to evoke a response.

Let's take a closer look at the two critical components of this phase of classical conditioning:

The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus.

The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.

Phase 2: During Conditioning

During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this pairing, an association between the previously neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed.

At this point, the once neutral stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). The subject has now been conditioned to respond to this stimulus. The conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.

In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the whistle sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.

Phase 3: After Conditioning

Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS, presenting the conditioned stimulus alone will come to evoke a response-even without the unconditioned stimulus. The resulting response is known as the conditioned response (CR).

The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle.

Key Principles of Classical Conditioning in Psychology

Behaviorists have described a number of different phenomena associated with classical conditioning. Some of these elements involve the initial establishment of the response while others describe the disappearance of a response. Here is a closer look at five key principles of classical conditioning.

Acquisition

Acquisition is the initial stage of learning, when a response is first established and gradually strengthened. During the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

As you may recall, an unconditioned stimulus is something that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning. After an association is made, the subject will begin to emit a behavior in response to the previously neutral stimulus, which is now known as a conditioned stimulus. It is at this point that we can say that the response has been acquired.

Once the response has been established, you can gradually reinforce the response to make sure the behavior is well learned.

Extinction

Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

For example, if the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a whistle (the conditioned stimulus), the sound of the whistle would eventually come to evoke the conditioned response of hunger.

However, if the smell of food were no longer paired with the whistle, eventually the conditioned response (hunger) would disappear.

Spontaneous Recovery

Sometimes a learned response can suddenly reemerge, even after a period of extinction. This is called spontaneous recovery.

For example, imagine that after training a dog to salivate to the sound of a bell, you stop reinforcing the behavior and the response becomes extinct. After a rest period during which the conditioned stimulus is not presented, you ring the bell and the animal spontaneously recovers the previously learned response.

If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will return very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery.

Generalization

Stimulus generalization is the tendency for a conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a dog has been conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, the animal may also exhibit the same response to a sound that's similar to the bell.

In John B. Watson's famous Little Albert Experiment, for example, a small child was conditioned to fear a white rat. The child demonstrated stimulus generalization by also exhibiting fear in response to other fuzzy white objects, including stuffed toys and Watson's own hair.

Discrimination

Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.﻿﻿

For example, if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds. Because the subject is able to distinguish between these stimuli, they will only respond when the conditioned stimulus is presented.

What Are Examples of Classical Conditioning?

It can be helpful to look at a few examples of how the classical conditioning process operates both in experimental and real-world settings.

Fear Response

John B. Watson's experiment with Little Albert is an example of the fear response. The child initially showed no fear of a white rat, but after the rat was paired repeatedly with loud, scary sounds, the child began to cry when the rat was present.

Prior to the conditioning, the white rat was a neutral stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus was the loud, clanging sounds, and the unconditioned response was the fear response created by the noise.

By repeatedly pairing the rat with the unconditioned stimulus, the white rat (now the conditioned stimulus) came to evoke the fear response (now the conditioned response).

This experiment illustrates how phobias can form through classical conditioning. In many cases, a single pairing of a neutral stimulus (a dog, for example) and a frightening experience (being bitten by the dog) can lead to a lasting phobia (being afraid of dogs).

Taste Aversions

Another example of classical conditioning is the development of conditioned taste aversions. Researchers John Garcia and Bob Koelling first noticed this phenomenon when they observed how rats that had been exposed to nausea-causing radiation developed an aversion to flavored water after the radiation and water were presented together.

In this example, the radiation represents the unconditioned stimulus and nausea represents the unconditioned response. After the pairing of the two, the flavored water is the conditioned stimulus, while nausea that formed when exposed to the water alone is the conditioned response.

Later research demonstrated that such classically conditioned aversions could be produced through a single pairing of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.

Why do such associations develop so quickly? Forming such associations can have survival benefits. If an animal eats something that makes it ill, it needs to avoid eating the same food in the future to avoid sickness or even death.

This is an example of biological preparedness. Some associations form more readily because they aid in survival.

Organizational Behavior

Classical conditioning can also have applications in business and marketing. For example, it can be used to help people form favorable attitudes toward products, businesses, or brands.

While there may not be a direct link between the item and the consumer response, creating this association may help motivate people to purchase certain products because they have developed a favorable opinion of them due to classical conditioning.

What Is the Difference Between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning?

Criticisms of Classical Conditioning

Some psychologists maintain that classical conditioning represents a reductive, mechanical explanation for some behaviors. Some other criticisms of classical conditioning center on the fact that:

Classical conditioning does not take human individuality and free will into account

It generally does not predict human behavior; people can form associations but still not act upon them

Many different factors can impact the associations and outcomes

People can choose to not act on the associations they have made through classical conditioning

However, the approach still holds great fascination for researchers and relevance in modern psychology.

In reality, people do not respond exactly like Pavlov's dogs. There are, however, numerous real-world applications for classical conditioning. For example, many dog trainers use classical conditioning techniques to help people train their pets.

These techniques are also useful for helping people cope with phobias or anxiety problems. Therapists might, for example, repeatedly pair something that provokes anxiety with relaxation techniques in order to create an association.

Teachers can apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxiety-provoking situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings helps the student learn new associations. Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these situations, the child will learn to stay relaxed and calm.

Frequently Asked Questions

Who discovered classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning. Pavlov was passionate about physiology, even earning gold medals for his work in this field. It was in his position as director of a physiological laboratory that he began to connect physiological research with reflex response and regulation.

Why is classical conditioning considered a form of implicit memory?

Implicit memory is a memory that you can recall effortlessly or without thought. Classical conditioning uses this automatic memory to create associations with a neutral stimulus. The association is learned without conscious awareness.

Which therapies are based on the principles of classical conditioning?

Behavioral therapies use the principles of classical conditioning to help people change negative behaviors. The thought behind these therapies is that we learn from our environment. Cognitive behavioral therapy and exposure therapy are two types of behavioral therapy.

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How Classical Conditioning Works, With Examples

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Classical conditioning is a type of learning where an unconditional stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, leading to a conditioned response. Learn more.

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1- The first element is the natural stimulus, known as unconditioned stimulus (US) i.e food.
2- The next element is the natural response, known as UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UR) i.e. salvation.
3- The third element is the artificial stimulus, known as conditioned stimulus (CS) i.e. ringing of the bell.
4- The last element is the chain of conditioning process that produces the desired response i.e salvation with the bell ringing and without the presentation of food.

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY - IVAN PAVLOV

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY - IVAN PAVLOV

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According to Pavlov learning through association which he termed as 'CONDITIONING'. two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. The theory proposed that the process of classical conditioning was able to explain all aspects of human psychology. Everything from speech to emotional responses was simply patterns of stimulus and response.

EXPERIMENT ON CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
DOG EXPERIMENT : Pavlov kept one dog hungry for a few days and then tied him into the experimental table which was fitted with certain mechanically controlled devices. Whenever the food was presented to the dog it was accompanied by the ringing of a bell. It was seen that whenever the food along with the bell was presented to the dog, there was automatic secretion of saliva. After several trials it was noticed that even when only the bell was rung without presentation of food the amount saliva secreted by the dog was same as when the food was presented.

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1- If one wants to learn a thing, they must be quite willing to learn.
2- Whatever we want to learn , we must try to identify the things we need that are to be remembered or  forgotten.
3- Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main feature of trial and error method. Practice helps in reducing the errors committed by the child in learning any concept.
4- Habits are formed as a result of repetition. With the help of this theory the wrong habits of the children can be modified and the good habits strengthened.
5- In this theory more emphasis has been laid on motivation.

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1- THE LAW OF READINESS- This law is indicative of learner's state to participate in the learning process. Readiness is preparation for action.
2- LAW OF EFFECT -  This law states that the learning will take place properly when it results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure from it. If the learner does not get any satisfaction or meets with failure learning is blocked. It emphasizes the role of rewards and punishment in the process of learning.
3- LAW OF EXCERCISE - This law states that drill, or practice helps in increasing efficiency and durability of learning. It has 2 sub-parts as :
Law of use - With practice the modifiable connection between situation and response is strengthened.
Law of disuse - If the modifiable connection is not made between a situation and response during a length of time that connection strength is weakened.
https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning-theory/thorndikes-trial-and-error-theory-learning-psychology/13469

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TRIAL & ERROR THEORY - EDWARD L.  THORNDIKE

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TRIAL & ERROR THEORY - EDWARD L.  THORNDIKE

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According to Thorndike learning takes place by trial and error. Some people call it, “Learning by selection of the successful variant,” accordingly when no ready-made solution of a problem is available to the learner, he adopts the method of trial and error.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhNxeYYyCSQ

Experiment on Trial and Error Theory:
(i) Cat Experiment by Thorndike:
Thorndike put a cat is a puzzle-box with iron bars on the sides, and a door which could be opened by catching and pulling a loop which was bending above in the centre of the box. The cat, hungry for 24 hours, had the motivation of eating fish outside the box. But how to open the door? The cat made several unsuccessful attempts of biting the irons, striking head against these, and finally it was successful in pulling the loop.
Thus the experiment sums up the following stages :
1- DRIVE
2- GOAL
3- BLOCK
4- RANDOM MOVEMENTS
5- CHANCE SUCCESS
6- SELECTION
7- FIXATION
https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning-theory/trial-and-error-theory-experiments-and-limitations-learning/2499

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1- BEHAVIOURISTIC THEORIES - They interpret learning in terms of association between stimulus and response.

TRIAL & ERROR THEORY - Edward L. Thorndike

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - Ivan Pavlov

OPERANT CONDITIONING - B.F.Skinner

2- COGNITIVE THEORIES - They belong tothe
school of Gestalt and cognitive psychology. The interpreted learning as driven by the individuals need for purpose, insight, understanding .

INSIGHTFUL LEARNING - Wolfgang Kohler

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1-VERBAL LEARNING
2-MOTOR LEARNING
3- CONCEPT LEARNING
4- PROBLEM SOLVING
5- SERIAL LEARNING
6- PAIR-ASSOCIATE LEARNING

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Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice or experience.
FACTS :
1- It is a process and not a product.
2- It involves all those experiences and trainings of an individual (right from birth).
3- It leades to change in behaviour for better or worse.
4- It prepares an individual for the necessary adjustments and adaptations.
5- It is universal and continuous. Every living creature learns.