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Mark Dickson - High Expectations Teaching - one pager

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Mark Dickson - High Expectations Teaching - one pager

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How to have high expectations in your classroom

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How to have high expectations in your classroom

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https://www.sec-ed.co.uk/best-practice/high-expectations-classroom-students-teaching-pedagogy/

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Doesn't it feel great when you are complimented on your achievements? You are reminded of your love for what you do and you feel inspired to go on and achieve even more.

Perhaps this is the key to unlock the potential of our underperforming students. Realistically though, on its own, it is probably not enough. Kindness without rigour actually does students a disservice and allows them to drop below what they might otherwise have achieved. So, rather than prematurely raising a glass to toast the success of our students, we might instead raise our expectations.

The idea of raising expectations to improve outcomes is not a new one. In 1968, a study showed that when teachers expected an enhanced performance from their students, their students' performance was indeed enhanced

The students were not, in fact, aware that they had begun to aspire to something greater. However, they did go on to achieve a much greater degree of success. The positive change in students' expectations of themselves, caused by a positive change in their teachers' expectations of them was significant. This has become known as the Pygmalion Effect (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968; see also SecEd, 2014).

The reverse has also been found to be true and is known as the Golem Effect (Rosenthal & Babad, 1985). This was where students given lower aspirations went on to achieve less than they otherwise would have done. As the research notes: "When we expect certain behaviours of others, we are likely to act in ways that make the expected behaviour more likely to occur."

The trouble is, you cannot just raise expectations without there being a downside. Students who are given targets that they see as unobtainable can be hard to engage. Tasks that students perceive as too challenging will often be left incomplete, or at best completed to a poor standard. Students need to see their aspirations as achievable and this is a tricky balancing act to perform, even for experienced teachers.

Additionally, unreasonably high expectations of students can create problems for teachers too. Most of us, at some point, have been taken aback after noticing a particular student's "aspirational" target grade.

Up and down the country, staffroom conversations end with comments like, "he's never going to get a Grade 8 in a million years!" (and it is usually a "he", have you noticed?). Teachers old and new nod sagely, as if they know something that the data does not show.

They might be right, of course. But every time? I doubt it. We should be mindful of the all-too-easy cynicism when it comes to setting our expectations of certain students. So, here are some practical strategies you could consider when trying to raise expectations.

High challenge

Set a high level of challenge while telling students you expect them to achieve "full marks". This can have a jarring effect on some students, as they are not used to hearing it. But if you can explain to them how to get full marks on one small task, they will be able to see that it is possible. Follow this up by giving them the experience of scoring highly and often - aim for an 80 per cent success rate (this is according to Rosenshine's Principles of Instruction).

That might mean that you do not set a very high level of challenge early on. Hold your nerve here - it is okay in the short-term. In order to raise expectations, you also need to raise students' self-confidence and this only occurs when students are used to frequent success. Dial-up the challenge once the students can handle it academically (and emotionally).

Independent learning

Have a strategy for independent learning, or else it will not happen. Many students flounder when it comes to directing their own education. For this reason, it is often helpful for students to have their independence supported a little (at least at first).

This sounds like an oxymoron, I know. But when it comes to independent learning, students often do not know what they are looking for, where to find it, or what to do if they ever get hold of the right material.

Having a wider reading list can be a great place to start. Homework menus can also be useful, although care should be taken so that homework is meaningful and not just a selection of token activities that do not make a difference ( for more on effective homework, see SecEd, 2019).

Another way to support independent learning can be via a shared resource folder, using Dropbox or Google Classroom, where students can share their independent resources with each other. This collaboration can really pay dividends when it comes to students supporting each other.

Crucially though, students need to see independent learning as central to their studies, rather than as an add-on. There should be no opt-out. Scheduling a weekly or fortnightly session (even just for 10 minutes) to explore what students have researched is an effective way to make this part of students' routines. They will come to expect it and the extra depth and breadth of their subject knowledge will help boost their confidence further, making them more resilient so that they can push themselves when under greater levels of challenge.

Collaborate

Students are much less likely to challenge your high expectations of them if they see students in other classes also being held to high expectations.

A department, faculty, or whole-school approach is, therefore, a better way to ensure that students buy-in to the challenge you set for them. On your own, you run the risk of just being seen as "the strict one", or worse, "the one who has no clue".

Setting

Ditch "ability" sets and use mixed ability/mixed attainment classes. Why? Nothing lowers a student's expectations like being excluded from the top set. The problem is, however, that not all students can, by definition, be in the top set. This should set off extremely loud alarm bells.

The risk of demotivating students before they have even entered the classroom is very real. Placing students instead into mixed classes removes the stigma. It enables students to think that they can be the best, without the constant reminder that there exists an elite group to which they do not belong.

Bring parents on board

For many students, their expectations of themselves come from home, not school. Conversations around school work can often lead to anecdotes about parents' own experiences, which can sometimes influence a student's own expectations of themselves.

This can be positive, especially when they want to live up to their parents' own successes, but the reverse is also true. With the best intentions, parents can give their children permission to fail by highlighting their own past failures.

While, at first glance, this can be comforting, the end result can actually be damaging. Students might end up thinking that they no longer have to try when the chips are down: "Dad said that he was rubbish at physics too and he ended up all right."

By reminding parents of the influence they can have on their children's self-perception, or simply by encouraging parents to celebrate hard work and success, we might avoid the cause of much underachievement.

Broaden students' experiences

We have all been there, looking for ways to "engage" our students by reaching for resources that crowbar football-related tasks into an unrelated curriculum, for example. While we might be doing it for the right reasons, it may actually compound the problem. Students often struggle due to a lack of worldly experience. They cannot draw the analogies that other, more culturally aware students can.

So, instead of directing them back to their limited and restricting past experiences, the solution is to broaden their horizons by exposing them to completely new information. In doing so, we are trusting students with a genuine challenge; one that might just give students that confidence to keep persevering, as they begin to make more connections between ideas.

This network of connections is where new ideas stick. The more pieces of information you can add to the network, the easier it is to add further pieces. But ultimately it begins with the teacher trusting students with brand new ideas, as often as possible.

Conclusion

There are so many other factors which impact on our expectations of students. While we might feel uncomfortable admitting it, teachers can often unconsciously stereotype by gender, socio-economic status, accent and dialect, or physical appearance.

The lesson here is not to ignore those things, but to be mindful of our attitudes to them when we set our expectations for students. The evidence is clear: when we do better at setting high expectations for students, they succeed on a much greater scale.

Further information & resources

Rosenshine: Principles of Instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know, American Educator, Spring 2012: http://bit.ly/2ZpbIqW

Rosenthal & Babad: Pygmalion in the Gymnasium, Educational Leadership, 1985: http://bit.ly/2p2HYmZ

Rosenthal & Jacobsen: Pygmalion in the classroom: Teacher expectation and pupils' intellectual development, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968.

SecEd: Research analysis: Getting the most out of homework, September 2019: http://bit.ly/2n4cv3c

SecEd: What do high expectations actually look like? November 2014: http://bit.ly/1yYy6V6

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How to have high expectations in your classroom

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Doesn't it feel great when you are complimented on your achievements? You are reminded of your love for what you do and you feel inspired to go on and achieve even more. Perhaps this is the key to unlock the potential of our underperforming students. Realistically though, on its own, it is probably not enough.

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https://theeducationhub.org.nz/high-expectations-teaching-animation/

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High expectations teaching animation - THE EDUCATION HUB

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The key features of high expectation teaching at a glance

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https://theeducationhub.org.nz/high-expectations-teaching/

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High Expectation Teaching infographic - THE EDUCATION HUB

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The key features of high expectations teaching at a glance.

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High expectations and challenge for all: Selected reading

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High expectations and challenge for all: Selected reading

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https://my.chartered.college/research-hub/high-expectations-and-challenge-for-all-selected-reading/

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We know that it's important to have high expectations of all pupils and plan challenging work to help them learn and develop. This page includes links to a range of useful articles, blogs, research reports and resources from different sources (all freely available or available through Chartered College membership) that explore ideas relating to this theme. High expectations and challenge can be built in a range of ways, including through curriculum decisions and pedagogical approaches in a supportive and developmental classroom culture. As such this collection covers a range of different and related areas. These resources may be a potential starting point to help you reflect on this area, assess what you are already doing well and what you could consider doing differently.

The resources collated here will not provide a recipe for what you should do. Some of the articles will also present opposing viewpoints, and ones which may contradict your own viewpoint or experience. They should provoke thought, debate and discussion. Evidence-informed practice requires teachers and school leaders to make expert decisions based on their local context, professional experience and available research evidence. The views within do not necessarily represent those of the Chartered College.

Motivation, engagement, challenge and achievement

A blog by Paul Kirschner and Mirjam Neelen exploring the research around the relationship between motivation, engagement and achievement. This Impact article by Adam Boxer explores similar themes.

An article by Daniel Willingham for AfT about why working on problems that are challenging but 'solvable' contributes to pupils' enjoyment of learning and how we can achieve this.

A meta-analysis by Rory Lazowski and colleagues looking at student motivation interventions.

A blog by Alex Quigley about thinking hard and its relationship with motivation.

An older journal article by Richard Ryan and Edward Deci introducing self-determination theory.

A journal article by Andrew Martin looking at pupils' motivation and academic resilience.

A blog by Zoe Enser about the importance of resilience in responding to challenge, and how this might be developed in the classroom.

A The theory, popularised by Carol Dweck, that students' bel... blog by David Didau looking at ideas around mindset and resilience, including Growth Mindset More . This blog from Innerdrive also provides a look at some misconceptions around Growth Mindset.

A journal article by David Yeager and Gregory Walton looking at social-psychological interventions in education.

A research article by Merce Prat-Sala and Paul Redford, looking at the relationship between university students' motivation, self-efficacy and study habits.

An article by Dennis Relojo-Howell for the American Psychological Association, looking at developing pupils' self-efficacy.

A journal article by Jung-Sook Lee based on her research into the relationship between teacher-student relationships and high academic expectations on pupil engagement and attainment. This Impact article by Simon Bayliss responds to the findings from a teacher perspective.

A book chapter by Robert Pianta and colleagues looking at the relationship between teacher-student relationships and engagement.

A The social, emotional, intellectual and physical environment... paper by Jason Barr looking at some possible approaches to creating a positive classroom climate More .

High challenge for all

A SchoolsWeek article by Heather Fearn, discussing some of the issues with defining 'high challenge'.

A Pedagoo blog arguing that developing 'challenge' in the classroom really means making sure pupils are thinking hard.

A blog by Tom Sherrington looking at some strategies for high challenge and teaching to the top. His post on differentiation is also relevant here.

A blog by Aidan Severs that outlines some ideas for setting high challenge for high prior attaining students, then concludes with the idea that these should apply to all pupils.

A blog from Adam Boxer looking at what makes some questions more challenging than others, including a critique of Bloom's Taxonomy.

Recommendation 4 of the EEF's guidance report on metacognition and self-regulation looks at the importance of an appropriate level of challenge in developing pupils' skills in these areas.

Setting high expectations

The first chapter of Doug Lemov's original Teach Like a Champion is available as a free excerpt from the publishers and looks at the importance of high academic expectations and how they can be communicated. Geoff Petty's outline of and commentary on some of the techniques Lemov suggests is also useful.

A blog from Durrington Research School that argues that high expectations are one of the key principles of challenge in the classroom.

A review by Julie Smith on MyCollege, looking at research around teacher expectations and how to build a culture of high expectations.

A blog by Nick Rose looking at the danger that the notion of 'differentiation' may result in lower expectations for some pupils and have a negative impact.

David Didau's blog post looking at the idea of differentiation, challenges with the notion and strategies that maintain high expectations - his blog has a number of other posts on the topic, too.

A long blog by Ben Newmark challenging the use of target grades and discussing the impact these can have on expectations.

An Also known as ability grouping, the practice of grouping stu... Impact article by Becky Francis and Becky Taylor, looking at attainment grouping More ; some of the issues identified include lower expectations of lower sets, as well as more limited curricula.

Teacher expectations

A journal article by Christine Rubie-Davies and colleagues reporting into their research on the relationship between teacher expectations and academic achievement.

A research study by Tammy Campbell, using data from the Millennium Cohort Study, looking at whether and how teachers unconsciously stereotype pupils.

A blog by Tom Sherrington looking at the impact of teacher expectations on pupils.

A psychology lecturer's short overview of Rosenthal and Jacobson's oft-quoted study of the effect of teachers' expectations; the original (contentious) research paper can be found here.

A journal article by Lee Jussim and Kent Harber exploring some of the critiques and possible issues with the studies around teacher expectations and the 'Pygmalion Effect'.

A narrative review and meta-analysis by Hester de Boer and colleagues, looking specifically at whether interventions designed to change teacher expectations are effective and can raise pupil attainment.

Examples of approaches to high expectations, stretch and challenge

A blog by Mark Enser explaining how he sought to build challenge into all parts of his lessons.

A blog from Durrington Research School outlining one teacher's approaches to setting and communicating high expectations and challenge.

A blog by Dan Williams looking at some potentially effective approaches to stretching and challenge pupils (as well as some ineffective ones).

A blog by Dawn Cox explaining what 'high expectations' look like in her classroom.

A blog by Ben Newmark outlining the importance of teachers' subject knowledge in setting meaningfully challenging tasks.

A blog by Tim Taylor reflecting on Mary Myatt's book High Challenge, Low Threat and arguing that our language choices are important in creating an environment where pupils feel challenged but safe.

A SecEd article by deputy headteacher Debbie Light, outlining some approaches to creating stretch and challenge for all students, drawing on research.

Curriculum, pedagogy and high expectations
A very brief selection of articles that explore some (varying!) perspectives on approaches to pedagogy, curriculum and assessment that may signal and build high expectations for all.
An article based on a speech by Michael Young for Cambridge Assessment, arguing for the entitlement for 'powerful knowledge' for all.

An ASCL and PTE publication with examples of how schools have introduced 'knowledge curricula'; this links to arguments that knowledge-rich curricula signal high expectations for all.

An Impact article by Martin Robinson that suggests that the curriculum needs to introduce pupils to 'what the best might be'. In his blog, Pritesh Raichura explores some ideas about that 'the best that has been thought and said' might be in a science context.

A journal article by James Mannion and Neil Mercer reporting on the outcomes of an intervention based around developing pupils' learning skills.

A journal article by Slava Kalyuga and colleagues introducing the 'expertise reversal effect' and its implications for instructional approaches.

The Education Endowment Foundation's toolkit strand around 'Developing Effective Learners' also includes the findings from a number of projects specifically aimed at developing pupils' ability to learn effectively.

A TeachWire article by Alex Quigley looking at how we might develop independent learners.

A book chapter by Robert and Elizabeth Bjork introducing the idea of 'desirable difficulties'.

A long blog by David Didau about the importance of 'desirable difficulties' for learning.

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High expectations and challenge for all: Selected reading

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We know that it's important to have high expectations of all pupils and plan challenging work to help them learn and develop. This page includes links to a range of useful articles, blogs, research reports and resources from different sources (all freely available or available through Chartered College membership) that explore ideas relating to this [...]

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https://blog.innerdrive.co.uk/studies/9-the-one-about-high-expectations

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In Greek mythology, Pygmalion was a renowned sculptor. One day, Pygmalion carved a female statue out of ivory. Upon seeing his work, he fell completely in love with it. He loved his statue so much that Aphrodite, the goddess of love, turned it into a real life being. The Pygmalion effect, therefore, is the term given to the phenomenon of people achieving and living up to someone else's high standards.

During the late 1960s, researchers Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson wanted to examine how much impact the Pygmalion effect has in our classrooms. Do teacher expectations have much impact on student motivation and performance? To test this, they falsely told teachers that some of their students had been identified as potential high achievers and that they would bloom over the course of the year. These students were in fact chosen at random. They then went back at the end of the school year to find out how these students had got on.

the main findings

#1 Students who had been chosen at random were more likely to make larger gains in their academic performance over the course of the year. The researchers attributed this to their teachers having high expectations of them, and subsequently altering their behaviours.

#2 This expectancy advantage was most pronounced in the younger students, with students aged 7-8 years old gaining an average of 10 verbal IQ points compared to their peers in the control group.

#3 Students' previous performance and ability did not impact on how much benefit they got from high expectations. Both low and high ability students benefited accordingly.

#4 The most significant benefit for male students came with an increase in verbal IQ, with girls mainly benefiting from an increase in reasoning IQ.

related research

The Pygmalion Effect has been found to be most pronounced if you start the school year with high expectations. It is also good to have high expectations at the beginning of new tasks/topics, so that students start with no preconceived negative notions of how they will fare. On their own, high teacher expectations will help some, but not all students. Research suggests that also helping the students to have high expectations of themselves, as well as high parental expectations, will work well.

The opposite of the Pygmalion Effect is the 'Golem Effect'. This describes how having low expectations can lead to either self-handicapping behaviours or a self-fulfilling prophecy - where students fail because they and/or their teachers do not believe that they will succeed.

It is also important to distinguish between aspirations and expectations. Aspirations are about wanting to be better, whereas expectations convey a belief about the likelihood of succeeding. Raising expectations has been proven to help, whereas the same can't be said for aspirations. This is likely due to students already having high expectations. Research suggests that students who have high aspirations but low expectations are twice as likely to get fewer than 5 GCSEs at A*-C. The disconnect occurs in the gap between having these high ambitions and the daily behaviours and habits required to achieve them.

classroom implications

No-one rises to low expectations. Having high expectations of each and every student and then providing the necessary support needed to achieve said expectations seem key to all students achieving. As the authors of this study noted, " when teachers expected that certain children would show greater intellectual development, those children did show greater intellectual development ".

How can a teacher tangibly demonstrate their high expectations for their students? Not lowering standards, expecting all students to contribute, and making sure differentiation means varying support whilst not lowering expectation of what they can achieve -these are good starting points. Furthermore, taking time to verbalise your high expectations for students, and explaining that you believe in them and that you will work hard with them to help them achieve these goals will help drive an increase in standards and self-belief.

This study is from our latest book, "The Science of Learning: 99 studies that every teacher needs to know".
Reference: Rosenthal and Jacobson, 1966, The urban review

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In Greek mythology, Pygmalion was a renowned sculptor. One day, Pygmalion carved a female statue out of ivory. Upon seeing his work, he fell completely in love with it. He loved his statue so much that Aphrodite, the goddess of love, turned it into a real life being.

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tfel framework guide 2.4 challenge students to achieve

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tfel framework guide 2.4 challenge students to achieve

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tfel framework guide 2.4 challenge students to achieve

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Jenni Donohoo: Fostering Collective Teacher Efficacy Webinar

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Jenni Donohoo: Fostering Collective Teacher Efficacy Webinar

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zle59M96pPA

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Jenni Donohoo: Fostering Collective Teacher Efficacy Webinar

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https://headtopics.com/ng/the-pygmalion-effect-17926244

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The Pygmalion Effect

In the 1960s a Harvard professor, Robert Rosenthal, wanted to know if teacher expectations influence student performance. Expecting "positive expectations to in

So he gave two sets of rats to two sets of coaches. The coaches were to train the rats to navigate a maze. However, they were giving different information about their rats. One group was told that their rats were smart and skilled. The other group of coaches was told that their rats were dumb.

Major sex scandals that rocked NigeriaRemember that these rats had the same abilities. They were randomly assigned to groups. But after a while, the performances of the two groups of rats were measured. The group whose trainers were told that their rats were smart and skilled outperformed the other group of rats.

The only difference was the information passed out to the trainers before they coached the rats. In other words, the only difference was caused by the expectations of the coaches. The group that performed better, expected its rats to perform better because they had the cognitive ability to do better. headtopics.com

Unilever swings back to profitability amid 35% boom in full-year sales

Professor Robert Rosenthal in partnership with Lanore Jacobson then moved the experiment to a school setting. At the beginning of a school year, elementary school teachers were told that an IQ test revealed that a certain 20% of students in their class were smart and had great potential. "What Rosenthal and Jacobson hoped to determine by this experiment was the degree (if any) to which changes in teacher expectation produce changes in student achievement," the authors wrote in their 1968 paper.

At the end of the academic year, the researchers wanted to know if there was any improvement in the students' academic achievements. In other words, would the information given to their teachers cause the teachers to behave differently towards them in such a way that would improve the students' performance?

It did. Their performance in schoolwork improved. This is called the Pygmalion Effect or the Rosenthal Experiment - named after Robert Rosenthal himself.It got Pygmalion name from "Ovid's Metamorphoses who was a sculptor and who fell in love with an ivory statue of his own making. Enamored by the beauty of his own making, Pygmalion begs the gods to give him a wife in the likeness of the statue. The gods grant the request, and the statue comes to life."

FG Commences Inspection For Grant And Renewal Of Expatriate Quota Facilities, Others

What insight can we take from these studies?It appears that the expectations we hold about others cause us to act towards them in such a way that leads to confirming our expectations. And when our expectations are confirmed. We consolidate our beliefs in their abilities which feeds our expectations further which causes us to act toward them in accordance with our beliefs which then nudges them to meet those expectations again and the cycle continues. headtopics.com

Robert Rosenthal himself said: "When we expect certain behaviors of others, we are likely to act in ways that make the expected behavior more likely to occur."I recall my time as a special teacher. My colleagues brought their weak students to me. To some of the teachers, these students were not only weak but also suffer from cognitive dysfunctions or learning disabilities. But after a while or even within a few days, I return these "abnormal" students to their classes and they often do as well or even better than their "normal" classmates. Why was this?

The students reacted to me differently because I knew that they were smart. They knew that I knew that they were smart and therefore confirmed my expectations. They rewarded me for my beliefs in their abilities.This confirms the insight of the Rosenthal Experiment. A more lay description of this phenomenon is the self-fulfilling prophecy.

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Another way of explaining this is that it feeds into our confirmation bias. We will like to see what we already believe even though the reality is a bit different in the real world.We can take advantage of this insight and build high performances that are very much in need in our workplaces, schools, and homes.

One slightly different way I implement this in organizations that I consult for is to randomly tell staff that his or her boss told me that she was doing great. This makes them feel appreciated and encourages them to do better; because if the boss is already telling people of their good performance, they better not disappoint them. headtopics.com

In our homes, we can start behaving toward our children as if they were exceptionally good and they would confirm and reward our confidence in them. As a teacher, if your students are moving to the next class, tell their new teachers that your students are brilliant and have potential; this will ensure that the students are treated accordingly with positive expectations and respect.

Read more: Daily Trust "

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The Pygmalion Effect In the 1960s a Harvard professor, Robert Rosenthal, wanted to know if teacher expectations influence student performance. Expecting "positive expectations to in So he gave two sets of rats to two sets of coaches. The coaches were to train the rats to navigate a maze.

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Self-Efficacy: Helping Students Believe in Themselves

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Self-Efficacy: Helping Students Believe in Themselves

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https://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/affective/efficacy.html

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This summary was written and compiled by Karin Kirk, SERC, and contains an overview of motivation research and pertinent references.

Self efficacy is commonly defined as the belief in one's capabilities to achieve a goal or an outcome. Students with a strong sense of efficacy are more likely to challenge themselves with difficult tasks and be intrinsically motivated. These students will put forth a high degree of effort in order to meet their commitments, and attribute failure to things which are in their control, rather than blaming external factors. Self-efficacious students also recover quickly from setbacks, and ultimately are likely to achieve their personal goals. Students with low self-efficacy, on the other hand, believe they cannot be successful and thus are less likely to make a concerted, extended effort and may consider challenging tasks as threats that are to be avoided. Thus, students with poor self-efficacy have low aspirations which may result in disappointing academic performances becoming part of a self-fulfilling feedback cycle. ( Bandura ) [Margolis and McCabe, 2006]

How can students gain self-efficacy?

There are four sources of self-efficacy. Teachers can use strategies to build self-efficacy in various ways.

Mastery experiences - Students' successful experiences boost self-efficacy, while failures erode it. This is the most robust source of self-efficacy.
Vicarious experience - Observing a peer succeed at a task can strengthen beliefs in one's own abilities.
Verbal persuasion - Teachers can boost self-efficacy with credible communication and feedback to guide the student through the task or motivate them to make their best effort.
Emotional state -A positive mood can boost one's beliefs in self-efficacy, while anxiety can undermine it. A certain level of emotional stimulation can create an energizing feeling that can contribute to strong performances. Teachers can help by reducing stressful situations and lowering anxiety surrounding events like exams or presentations.
[Margolis and McCabe, 2006] and ( Bandura )

Pedagogic strategies that foster self-efficacy

It is particularly exciting to note that teaching strategies used in the classroom can and do make a difference to students' self-efficacy. (Fencl and Scheel, 2005)

Research shows that the type of learning environment and teaching method can improve self efficacy in the classroom ( Bandura ). A similar result was reported by Fencl and Scheel . They describe a required, nonmajors' physics course where the effects of different teaching methods on the classroom climate and self-efficacy were measured. The students' response indicated that a question and answer format, inquiry-based lab activities and conceptual (rather than quantitative) problems had a significant effect on creating a positive climate in the classroom. In addition to those pedagogies, collaborative learning and the use of electronic applications showed a positive correlation with increased self-efficacy in their student sample. Fencl and Scheel point out that the teaching methods that showed a measurable positive effect share the common feature of engaging students in a comfortable or creative manner. Moreover, pedagogies such as collaborative learning and inquiry-based activities have also been shown to have a strong correlation with how well students learn physics [Fencl and Scheel, 2005] .

Bandura also concludes that cooperative learning strategies have the dual outcome of improving both self-efficacy and academic achievement. "Cooperative learning structures, in which students work together and help one another also tend to promote more positive self-evaluations of capability and higher academic attainments than do individualistic or competitive ones." ( Bandura )
Other pedagogies for improving self-efficacy include:

Establish specific, short-term goals that will challenge the students, yet are still viewed as attainable. [Schunk and Pajares, 2002]

Help students lay out a specific learning strategy and have them verbalize their plan. As students proceed through the task, ask students to note their progress and verbalize the next steps. [Schunk and Pajares, 2002]

Compare student performance to the goals set for that student, rather than comparing one student against another or comparing one student to the rest of the class(Bandura ).

Teaching Practices to Avoid

In his 1994 textbook chapter, Albert Bandura notes that certain well-worn pedagogical practices may have the unintended effect of diminishing the self-efficacy of students who do not reside at the top of the class academically. These include:

Generalized, "lock-step" instruction that is inflexible and does not allow for student input. A formulaic type of instructional setting makes it harder for students to ask questions or become involved in the process. The result may be that if a student becomes confused or discouraged, they are likely to remain so.

Statements or teaching practices that compare students' performance against each other. This may raise the self-efficacy of the top students, but is likely to lower the self-efficacy of the rest of the class. (Bandura )

Tips to improve self-efficacy for struggling students

(from Margolis and McCabe, 2006 )

Use moderately- difficult tasks
If the task is too easy will be boring or embarrassing and may communicate the feeling that the teacher doubts their abilities; a too-difficult task will re-enforce low self-efficacy. The target for difficulty is slightly above the students' current ability level.

Use peer models
Students can learn by watching a peer succeed at a task. Peers may be drawn from groups as defined by gender, ethnicity, social circles, interests, achievement level, clothing, or age.

Teach specific learning strategies
Give students a concrete plan of attack for working on an assignment, rather than simply turning them loose. This may apply to overall study skills, such as preparing for an exam, or to a specific assignment or project.

Capitalize on students' interests
Tie the course material or concepts to student interests such as sports, pop culture, movies or technology.

Allow students to make their own choices
Set up some areas of the course that allow students to make their own decisions, such as with flexible grading, assignment options or self-determined due dates.

Encourage students to try
Give them consistent, credible and specific encouragement, such as, "You can do this. We've set up an outline for how to write a lab report and a schedule for what to do each week - now follow the plan and you will be successful."

Give frequent, focused feedback
Giving praise and encouragement is very important, however it must be credible. Use praise when earned and avoid hyperbole. When giving feedback on student performance, compare to past performances by the same student, don't make comparisons between students.

Encourage accurate attributions
Help students understand that they don't fail because they're dumb, they fail because they didn't follow instructions, they didn't spend enough time on the task, or they didn't follow through on the learning strategy.

Teachers need high self-efficacy too

Teachers with a high sense of efficacy about their teaching capabilities may have an easier time motivating their students and enhancing their cognitive development. These teachers may also be able to rebound from setbacks and more willing to experiment with new ideas or techniques. Low efficacious teachers may rely more on a controlling teaching style and may be more critical of students. [Woolfolk Hoy, 2003] and ( Bandura )

"Schools in which staff members collectively judge themselves capable of promoting academic success imbue their schools with a positive atmosphere for development that promotes academic attainments regardless of whether they serve predominantly advantaged or disadvantaged students."( Bandura )

Further reading

Web sites

by Albert Bandura, Stanford University

This is a comprehensive summary of the topic written by one of its pioneers. The site provides a definition of self-efficacy, characteristics of efficacious people, and a description of how self-efficacy can be developed or undermined. The author describes self-efficacy in social, family and school settings and in various stages of life.

by Frank Pajares, Emory University

This site contains an extensive historical overview about self-efficacy and its place in education. Topics include the origins of the theory, current research and educational applications. One of the author's conclusions is that the educational system would benefit from additional focus on self-efficacy in students.

Information on Self-Efficacy: A Community of Scholars
This is a clearinghouse of information about self-efficacy, hosted by the Division of Educational Studies at Emory University.

Journal Articles

Improving Self-Efficacy and Motivation: What to Do, What to Say
by Howard Margolis and Patrick P McCabe
citation and bibliographic information
This article suggests practical solutions to improve the motivation of struggling learners. Specifically, the authors present strategies such as using peers as role models, teaching specific learning strategies, presenting the students with options and choices, communicating recent success, and more. These tactics can strengthen struggling learners' beliefs in their academic abilities and increase their willingness to engage in academic tasks.

Engaging Students: An Examination of the Effects of Teaching Strategies on Self-Efficacy and Course Climate in a Nonmajors Physics Course
by Heidi Fencl and Karen Scheel
citation and bibliographic information
Self-efficacy is a key predictor of achievement and retention in most academic areas, including the sciences. In this study, the effects of teaching strategies on self-efficacy and course climate were examined. The teaching methods that made significant contributions to self efficacy were question and answer, collaborative learning, conceptual problems, electronic applications and inquiry lab activities.

The Development of Academic Self-Efficacy
by Dale Schunk and Pajares, Frank Pajares
This textbook chapter provides a synthesis of educational psychology research as it relates to students' beliefs in their own abilities. The authors describe self-efficacy and its relation to other motivation constructs and explain the role of various sources of and influences on self-efficacy. The effects of various pedagogical practices are discussed, including a description of specific methods that improve self-efficacy. The role of gender and ethnicity on self-efficacy are also discussed.

Self-Efficacy in College Teaching
by Anita Woolfolk Hoy, The Ohio State University
This essay examines the topic of self-efficacy in the context of teachers' self-efficacy and how that translates into their performance. The author asserts that highly efficacious teachers tend to be more open to new ideas, more willing to experiment with new methods to better meet the needs of their students, and more committed to teaching. They persist when things do not go smoothly and are more resilient in the face of setbacks. And they tend to be less critical of students who make errors and to work longer with a student who is struggling.

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teach the earth enhancing your teaching affective domain

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Self efficacy is commonly defined as the belief in one's capabilities to achieve a goal or an outcome. Students with a strong sense of efficacy are more likely to challenge themselves with difficult tasks and ...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6KdZFwvmuMs

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=krD9PNBeXAs

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Stretch and Challenge Webinar with Special Guest Torsten Payne

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Does Active Learning Work? A Review of the Research

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Does Active Learning Work? A Review of the Research

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https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.2168-9830.2004.tb00809.x

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Michael Prince ,

Corresponding Author

Michael Prince

Department of Chemical Engineering Bucknell University

Dr. Michael Prince is a professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at Bucknell University, where he has been since receiving his Ph.D. from the University of California at Berkeley in 1989. He is the author of several education-related papers for engineering faculty and gives faculty development workshops on active learning. He is currently participating in Project Catalyst, an NSF-funded initiative to help faculty re-envision their role in the learning process.

Department of Chemical Engineering, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA 17837; telephone: 570-577-1781; e-mail: prince@bucknell.edu Search for more papers by this author

First published:

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Does Active Learning Work? A Review of the Research

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Michael Prince , Corresponding Author Michael Prince Department of Chemical Engineering Bucknell University Dr. Michael Prince is a professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at Bucknell University, where he has been since receiving his Ph.D. from the University of California at Berkeley in 1989.

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Prof Christine Rubie Davies on High Expectation Teaching

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Prof Christine Rubie Davies on High Expectation Teaching

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8-CHJ-ZQgIM

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Seminar: Prof Christine Rubie Davies on High Expectation Teaching

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Strategies to Challenge Students to Aim High

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Strategies to Challenge Students to Aim High

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8pas40OD0lc

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Mark Dickson   Strategies to Challenge Students to Aim High - Pre Learning

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https://www.weareteachers.com/ways-to-scaffold-learning/

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Providing students with better instructional scaffolding is often a schoolwide objective, but how can school leaders and teachers put this big idea into practice? Imagine someone plopping a giant box of odds and ends in front of you and telling you to figure out what to do with them with no further instructions. Without being told the purpose of the activity, specific expectations, or background information, it would be overwhelming and discouraging to say the least. Almost all students, particularly those with unique learning needs, have felt exactly this way in the classroom at one time or another. Luckily there are many strategies educators can use to help students, and among the most important is scaffolding.

Below you'll learn more about scaffolding in education, including 18 effective ways to scaffold learning. If you're a teacher, integrate these as best practices, and observe their impact. If you're an administrator, share these practices with your teachers, and look for them during classroom walk-throughs.

What is scaffolding in education?

Scaffolding is a way to provide support for students by breaking down learning into manageable chunks as they progress toward stronger understanding and ultimately greater independence. In other words, it's a way for teachers to provide support while students master new concepts and skills.

The strategy is based on the work of Russian psychologist Len Vygotsky, whose theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in cognitive development. He theorized that children learn best when they interact with other people, particularly more knowledgeable people, who provide guidance and encouragement to master new skills.

Using the much-lauded concept the Zone of Proximal Development, teachers can guide, support, and encourage students as they help them develop problem-solving strategies that can be generalized to other situations.

Scaffolding Strategies

1. Teach mini-lessons

Break down new concepts into bite-sized pieces that build on one another. Teaching a series of mini-lessons provides students with a safety net that moves them progressively toward deeper understanding.

Learn more: Essentials of a Mini-Lesson

2. Use explicit instruction

One of the best practices in supporting learners is the use of systematic, explicit instruction. That is, instruction that includes clear modeling, think-alouds, and multiple examples, which are described in greater detail below. In addition, immediate corrective feedback is critical. Catching students' errors while they're still practicing will prevent them from learning the skill incorrectly and then continuing to practice it incorrectly for homework and on other assignments.

Learn more: Explicit Instruction: Best Practices for Teaching Math to Unique Learners

3. Use think-alouds to model or demonstrate

One of the best ways to scaffold learning is to show your students an example of what they will be learning. For example, demonstrate a science experiment so they can see how it's done before they do it themselves. Or gather them on the rug and let them watch you solve a math problem in a new way. Verbalize your thought process as you demonstrate. Use a think-aloud strategy to give your students a model for an inner dialogue they can copy.

Learn more: Improve Reading Comprehension With Think-Alouds

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4. Describe concepts in multiple ways

Support different learning styles by approaching new concepts from multiple angles. Show them, tell them, and let them try it for themselves. The more ways you approach learning, the more sense it will make for students.

Learn more: Different Learning Styles: What Teachers Need To Know

5. Break large tasks into smaller steps

Sometimes it's hard for students to remember all the steps they have to follow for an assignment. Scaffold learning by breaking down directions into chunks that students can complete one step at a time. Give them a checklist that they can follow. By breaking it down, you're providing scaffolds that students need.

Learn more: Chunking Information for Instructional Design

6. Slow down

Here is some great advice from elementary teacher Tammy DeShaw. "We move so fast as teachers because we fear that we won't get through it all," she says. "But when we slow down and give students more time to process, we are really helping students. It is an effective scaffolding strategy when we pause at various points of instruction and break it up. Think about it. If something is above your head, it's immediately overwhelming. But if you break it into manageable chunks and take your time through it, you're able to process it much better!"

Learn more: Scaffolding Strategies

7. Incorporate visual aids

Show a video, pass out colorful images, or provide a concrete object to start off a new lesson. For example, if you're teaching a lesson on polyhedrons, place models of different types on tables for students to see and touch.

Learn more: Making the Most of Visual Aids

8. Front-load concept-specific vocabulary

Arm students with specific academic language they will need to understand ahead of time so that vocabulary doesn't become a stumbling block to higher-level learning.

Learn more: Pre-Teach Vocabulary

9. Activate prior knowledge

Show students the big picture. Make connections to concepts and skills students have already learned. Connect to experiences they have had, such as field trips or other projects.

Learn more: Teaching Reading Strategies: Activate Prior Knowledge

10. Give students talk time

Be sure to give kids plenty of time to process new information by partnering them up or breaking them into small groups. Have them articulate concepts in their own words to one another. Come back together as a whole group and share any insights that might be helpful to everyone.

Learn more: Cooperative Learning Structures: Fun Alternatives to Think-Pair-Share

11. Give students time to practice

After you model learning for your students, take some time to practice with them. Have a few students come up to the board and try a math problem. Or write a paragraph together on chart paper. Think of this guided practice as a series of rehearsals before the final performance.

Learn more: The I Do, WE Do, YOU Do Model Explained

12. During lessons, check for understanding

Check in often to make sure students are with you. A simple thumbs-up, a sticky note check-in, or a desktop flip chart are a few of the ways you can check for understanding. See who's good to go, who's almost there, and who needs some one-on-one.

Learn more: Creative Ways To Check for Understanding

13. Use graphic organizers

A graphic organizer is a powerful visual learning tool that teachers can use to help students organize their thinking before, during, or after a lesson. They are a great way for students to classify and communicate their ideas more effectively. A simple Google search will connect you to all kinds of printable graphic organizers that you can customize to the material you are teaching.

Learn more: Graphic Organizers 101

14. Try sentence starters

Sometimes a head start helps students gather their thoughts. Provide students with the first part of a statement and ask them to fill in the blanks. Sentence starters can be an especially great support for English-language learners.

Learn more: Using Sentence Stems in the Classroom

15. Coach students to help each other

When learning a new concept or reading a difficult passage together, call on a strong student to answer a question. Then, call on another student to repeat, in his or her own words, what was just said. By listening and repeating, you reinforce your students' understanding.

Learn more: Fun Ways To Help Your Students Collaborate in the Classroom

16. Set clear expectations

Students (like most of us) perform better when they fully understand what is expected of them. Describe the purpose of the assignment, and give them concrete examples of the learning goals they are expected to achieve. Give them clear directions and show them exemplars of high-quality work. Finally, provide them with a rubric so they know exactly what to do to successfully master the concept.

Learn more: Developing Clear Expectations for Learning

17. Ask open-ended questions

Another important tool we have is questioning. Asking questions allows students to organize their thoughts and elaborate on their processes. The key is making sure you ask meaningful questions. Make sure they can't be answered with a simple yes or no. In addition, the questions you ask should require reflection. And finally, questions should direct students to important, pivotal aspects of the task they are working on.

Learn more: Instructional Scaffolding Strategies

18. Use technology

Technology can help simplify the scaffolding process. Make playlists of lecture videos for students to watch before the lesson. This will allow them to preview the material and be ready to engage with the content in class. Another tip is to provide links to websites that have different ways to engage with the content, such as videos, games, articles, or demonstrations.

Many online curriculum programs are adaptive, meaning they can assess what a student knows and what information they need next. This allows students to follow a personalized learning path toward meeting learning objectives.

Learn more: Using Technology to Scaffold Student Learning

Does scaffolding learning really work?

Overall, scaffolding is an extremely effective instructional strategy when both administrators and teachers embrace and implement it consistently. But like any teaching strategy, scaffolding has its benefits and challenges.

Benefits of scaffolding:

Promotes a positive learning environment because students feel supported and are able to ask questions, encourage their classmates, and offer their opinions.

Builds students' confidence as they progress to more difficult tasks.

Leads to higher engagement, which motivates students to learn more on their own.

Improves comprehension and problem-solving.

Allows teachers to move to a facilitator role, guiding students to take ownership of their own learning.

Challenges of scaffolding:

Takes more planning and is more time-consuming as teachers need to evaluate lessons and figure out where scaffolding is needed.

Finding appropriate scaffolds that match the diverse learning and communication styles of students.

Correctly identifying students' zone of proximal development.

Knowing when to taper off and allow students to work independently.

Releasing more responsibility to students.

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18 Ways To Scaffold Learning for Your Students

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Breaking learning into manageable chunks, modeling, and guided practice are some of the ways to scaffold learning for your students.

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High expectations self assessment checklist

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High expectations self assessment checklist

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https://theeducationhub.org.nz/high-expectations-self-assessment-checklist/

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High expectations self assessment checklist - THE EDUCATION HUB

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A checklist for teachers to use when evaluating their high expectations practice.

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https://www.edutopia.org/article/5-ways-build-resilience-students

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Social & Emotional Learning (SEL)

Students need the tools to deal with adversity. Here's how teachers can help.

Michael Austin / theispot.com

For many children, the past year brought disruption on a grand scale, with the pandemic affecting virtually every aspect of their daily lives. And while "caregivers can't always alter children's circumstances or shield them from discomfort, they can offer a more enduring gift: tools to manage adversity," writes therapist and school counselor Phyllis L. Fagell for The Washington Post.

But it's clear that educators also play an essential role in helping children develop the determination and ability to persevere through difficult circumstances in school and life-this year, and anytime.

When educators help students "cultivate an approach to life that views obstacles as a critical part of success, we help them develop resilience," writes Marilyn Price-Mitchell, a developmental psychologist and author. "Resilience is not a genetic trait. It is derived from the ways that children learn to think and act when faced with obstacles large and small." When the adults in children's lives-caregivers, teachers, coaches-help young people develop resilience, it helps them "emerge from challenging experiences with a positive sense of themselves and their futures," says Price-Mitchell.

It's a skill that takes practice. "Resilience works like a muscle we can build through effort and repetition, and we want to keep our muscles strong and flexible so we can think of many ways to solve a problem," Mary Alvord, a psychologist and author, tells Fagell. "At the core, resilience is the belief that while you can't control everything in your life, there are many aspects you can control, including your attitude."

Here are five strategies, some recommended by Fagell and a few sourced from our Edutopia content, for helping students build the vital capacity for resilience.

Set Brave Goals

A big part of developing resilience involves being able to identify personal goals, and then being able to "tolerate the discomfort that's creating resistance toward that goal," psychologist Ryan C.T. DeLapp tells Fagell. This year, a brave goal might involve asking students to contemplate the camera-on/camera-off dilemma, exploring how it impacts their personal and academic growth. "Is not being on camera interfering with your academics, or likely to make it harder for you to be visual socially when the pandemic ends?" asks DeLapp. "That represents an opportunity for a brave goal."

Many educators use a SMART framework to help students set personal goals that are: specific; measurable; attainable; relevant; and timely. "It's not easy to write SMART goals," writes Maurice J. Elias, a professor in the psychology department at Rutgers University. "This skill takes time to develop, and it's especially important to have in place for students at the secondary level."

A vague goal, Elias writes, might look like this: "I will do better on my next report card." But a more productive goal-one that's a good mix of ambitious yet achievable-might look like this: "In the next marking period, I will take careful notes and review them at least two days before tests and quizzes so that I can ask the teacher questions about what I don't understand. I will do my math homework before I do things with friends, and when I hand it in, I will ask the teacher about anything I am not sure about. When I get anything wrong, I will make sure to ask the teacher, or one of my classmates how they got the right answer."

Once a child meets a goal, it's especially important to celebrate the achievement, notes DeLapp. "Make time to reflect on progress toward their brave goal, and express gratitude and excitement when they meet them," Fagell advises.

Model Learning from Mistakes

Learning from failure "is paramount to becoming a resilient young person," writes Price-Mitchell. Teachers can help by creating a classroom where "failure, setbacks, and disappointment are an expected and honored part of learning," where students are "praised for their hard work, perseverance, and grit, not just for grades and easy successes," and where they are held accountable for producing work about which they feel "ownership and internal reward."

Consider creating a classroom bulletin board where, in addition to showcasing students' achievements, "students can brag about their biggest mistakes and what they learned from them," wrote educational consultant and author, Richard Curwin. "Be sure to tell the class about your own mistakes, especially if they are funny, and what you learned from them," wrote Curwin, who died in 2018. Give students opportunities to correct mistakes and resubmit work and be sure to recognize when their work improves because "nothing shows learning from mistakes more than improvement," Curwin noted.

Or you can explicitly label some activities "rough-draft thinking" suggest math professor Amanda Jansen and her co-authors in a 2017 study, giving students "permission to ask questions, make mistakes, and then revise without the stifling prospect of failure."

Encourage Responsible Risks

High school special education teacher Daniel Vollrath likens resilience to a stress ball. "A stress ball is resilient because it springs back to its original shape after being squeezed," Vollrath writes. "Likewise, when students experience stress or frustration, we can think of that as pressure on them that they need to spring back from. The hope in presenting them with strategies to build resilience is that those strategies will ease the frustration and help them get back into optimal and productive focus for learning."

One way to foster resilience is to recognize and compliment students when they take responsible risks and challenge themselves-even and maybe especially when they don't achieve the desired results. For example, speaking up to answer a question during a Zoom class, even if the answer is incorrect, or "stumbling on words while reading out loud," writes Vollrath. "These are opportunities to build confidence, and risk-taking, and most importantly, to keep a resilient momentum going forward while in a safe space."

Label Difficult Emotions

Recognizing and naming emotions, from elementary school through high school, can help students "become self-aware and begin to manage their own emotional states effectively-psychologists call this labeling," writes Jorge Valenzuela, an education coach and adjunct professor at Old Dominion University. Once students learn to notice, name, and interpret their emotions, they are better prepared to make rational decisions and manage disorienting or disruptive emotions in their lives-critical elements of resilience.

A good place to start in the classroom is with quick daily emotional check-ins. Valenzuela lays the groundwork for these at the beginning of the year, using Plutchik's Wheel of Emotions to teach students the words they can use to describe the emotions they're feeling-with varying degrees of complexity based on grade level. "I find that [the emotion wheel] helps them categorize their emotions and their responses to those emotions," Valenzuela writes. "Additionally, students can recognize that other emotions are an amalgamation of the eight basic emotions or are derived from one or more of them. This is a very powerful realization for them-it serves to help them identify emotional triggers and begin planning to respond with good self-management strategies."

Write and Talk About Setbacks and Human Resilience

In middle and high school, writing assignments that focus on "sources of personal strength" can help kids explore different ways to build resilience, writes Price-Mitchell, who provides a few prompts to get started: "Write about a person who supported you during a particularly stressful or traumatic time. How did they help you overcome this challenge? What did you learn about yourself?" Another idea: "Write about a time in your life when you had to cope with a difficult situation. What helped and hindered you as you overcame this challenge? What learning did you take away that will help you in the future?"

But the topic of resilience isn't bound to one class-ELA, for example-it's relevant across the curriculum. "Opportunities abound to connect resilience with personal success, achievement, and positive social change," Price-Mitchell notes. "Expand discussions about political leaders, scientists, literary figures, innovators, and inventors beyond what they accomplished to the personal strengths they possess, and the hardships they endured and overcame to reach their goals. Help students learn to see themselves and their own strengths through these success stories."

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Students need the tools to deal with adversity. Here's how teachers can help.

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https://www.ambition.org.uk/blog/5-tips-aspiration-projects/

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Steve Baker Executive Headteacher at Kilgarth School

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Executive headteacher Steve Baker shares his learnings from his school’s award-winning aspire project, created to raise the aspirations of students in deprived areas.