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myON is here to help ensure your students can keep reading and learning even if schools close. To support you and your students, please see the learning and implementation resources available on our Renaissance at Home hub.

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myON is here to help ensure your students can keep reading and learning even if schools close. To support you and your students, please see the learning and implementation resources available on our Renaissance at Home hub.

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The Story of Martin Luther King Jr. by Kid President

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Six-year-old Ruby Bridges walked up the steps to her new school on November 14, 1960. It was her first day at William Frantz Elementary School in New Orleans, Louisiana. Ruby's mother had walked with her, but they weren't alone

Four U.S. federal marshals were with Ruby, too. They were there to protect her from the angry crowd of people at the school who didn't want Ruby there. Why? She was the first African American student to attend an all-white elementary school in the South.

At the time, many schools-especially in Southern states-were segregated, meaning that Black children attended different schools from white kids. Even though this had been against the law since 1954, it was still happening at William Frantz Elementary when she integrated, or attended school with children of different races.

People had been fighting against school segregation for many years, ever since the first laws to separate Black and white students were passed after the Civil War. It would take many brave people-including children like Ruby-to make people see that the laws did not provide equal education for all children and needed to change.

A long road ahead

Before the Civil War (1861-1865), enslaved children were not allowed to attend school. Soon after the war ended, the U.S. government required former slaveholding states that had fought against the Union to educate both white and Black children. Then, in 1868, Congress passed the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which guaranteed every citizen equal rights and protection under the law-including equal access to education.

Not everyone agreed with these decisions. Southern leaders did not want Black people to have the same rights as white people. So most Southern states adopted a group of laws in the late 1870s, called Jim Crow laws, to segregate Black and white people. Throughout the South, nearly all public places-restaurants, parks, movie theaters, trains, swimming pools, schools, and even drinking fountains-were separated by race. It was because of these new laws that Black children could not attend the same schools as white children in the South.

Separate but not equal

Despite the 14th Amendment, Southern states were able to legally segregate Black and white children because of a U.S. Supreme Court decision from 1896 called Plessy vs. Ferguson. After Homer Plessy, a Black man, tried to sit in a whites-only train car, the court ruled that as long as Black and white people were treated equally, they could be separated by race. This became known as "separate but equal."

But "separate but equal" wasn't truly equal-conditions in places meant for Black people were usually much worse than those for white people. For instance, Black schools often had leaking roofs, sagging floors, and windows without glass. They were also overcrowded, with too many students per teacher and not enough desks or books. If books were available, they were old, outdated ones from white schools.

Black families knew that if they wanted their children to have an equal education that these laws needed to change. And the only way to do that was through the U.S. Supreme Court.

Hope for equality

In 1951, eight-year-old Linda Brown was not allowed to attend an all-white elementary school in Topeka, Kansas. Her father, Oliver Brown, did not think this was fair and filed a lawsuit against the Topeka Board of Education.

Around the same time, four other lawsuits challenging school segregation had been filed, so in 1952, the Supreme Court combined all of them into one. The justices would decide once and for all if schools could separate students based on the color of their skin.

Thurgood Marshall-who would later become the first African American Supreme Court justice-represented the five children and their families in a case called Brown vs. Board of Education. He argued that segregation was not equal and was actually harmful to children. The court agreed. On May 17, 1954, every single justice decided that racial segregation of children in public schools was unconstitutional, which meant that separating children in public schools by race went against what had been outlined in the U.S. Constitution.

School segregation was now against the law. States were ordered to begin desegregating their public schools. But changes were slow to come.

The Little Rock Nine

Some school districts defied the 1954 order by not integrating immediately or simply doing nothing. Other school boards purposefully delayed integration by years by integrating only one grade each year. Other white parents refused to send their children to integrated schools or held angry protests that were sometimes violent to prevent Black children from registering.

To help move integration along, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) decided to recruit a group of nine Black students to integrate Little Rock Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. The teenagers gathered on September 4, 1957, to enter the school. But the governor had called in the Arkansas National Guard, which blocked them from entering the building.

The story made headlines across America, and many people were outraged that Southern states were still defying the Supreme Court ruling. A few weeks later, on September 25, President Dwight D. Eisenhower ordered federal troops to escort the students-now known as the Little Rock Nine-into the school. This time the students' integration efforts were successful.

The fight continues

After the Little Rock Nine, more and more Black families courageously started sending their children to all-white schools. It wasn't an easy decision for parents to make, since kids often faced bullying and loneliness. For instance, Ruby Bridges often sat in class with only her teacher because white parents didn't want their children in school with a Black student. Even Vice President Kamala Harris was part of a program in 1970 to bus children far from their neighborhoods to integrate schools in Berkeley, California.

Racial inequalities in the nation's school system still exist today, more than 65 years after the Brown decision. Schools in wealthier, mostly white neighborhoods sometimes have better technology, higher-quality books, and smaller class sizes; schools in disadvantaged neighborhoods with more people of color sometimes have older or broken computers, overcrowded classes, and buildings in need of repair.

But people continue to speak out against these inequalities and fight for equal education for all students. As former President Barack Obama said, "In the years to come, we must continue striving toward equal opportunities for all our children. ... Because when children learn and play together, they grow, build, and thrive together."

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For years, many public schools separated children based on their race. Here's how that changed so that kids of all races could go to school together.

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A Journey for JusticeFifty years ago, the Freedom Riders hit the road to fight for equality

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A Journey for JusticeFifty years ago, the Freedom Riders hit the road to fight for equality

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John Lewis ( right) was born in Alabama in 1940. As a young man, he was inspired by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s message of using peaceful ways to work for equality.

In 1963, Lewis got to work with Dr. King by helping organize the March on Washington, where Dr. King gave his famous "I Have a Dream" speech.

Today, Lewis still works for causes he believes in. Since 1987, he has represented Georgia in the U.S. House of Representatives.

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In 1961, Freedom Riders hit the road to fight for equality.

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Write Around Center-Civil Rights quotes and images.docx (dragged) 3

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The Civil Rights Movement and the Civil Rights Act of 1964

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In 1960, Ruby Bridges (September 8, 1954-present) walked through the doors of William Frantz Elementary School, in New Orleans, Louisiana. By doing so, she became the first African-American student to attend an all-white elementary school in the Southern United States.

On November 14, 1960, Ruby Bridges became a symbol of the U.S. civil rights movement. She was just 6 years old. Her simple act of going to an all-white school marked the beginning of integration for U.S. public schools.

Bridges was born in Tylertown, Mississippi, on September 8, 1954. A few months before her birth, the Supreme Court-the nation's highest court -had issued a ruling on five combined cases that would impact not only Bridges's life, but also change the course of American history.

In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, the prosecution wanted to end the idea of "separate but equal schools." In many places in the U.S., black students and white students could not attend the same school. On May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that segregation in U.S. public schools was against the constitution. In his opinion, Chief Justice Earl Warren stated that "in the field of public education the of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are unequal . . ."

Although it was illegal to have segregated schools, some states-especially in the South-did not follow the ruling. The Supreme Court was aware of the resistance and took action. A year after the ruling, the court declared that the desegregation of public schools should advance with "all deliberate speed." Five years later, little Ruby would become the first student to a Southern elementary school.

A Promising Student

When Bridges was 4, the family moved from Mississippi to New Orleans, Louisiana. Her parents hoped a new city would offer better job opportunities. Her father, Abon, found a job working as a gas station attendant and her mother, Lucille, worked nights to help support their growing family.

Bridges attended kindergarten in a segregated school in New Orleans. But in 1960, a federal court ordered that Louisiana all of its public schools. Bridges was a good student. She was chosen to be part of a small group of black students who would take an exam given by the school district. The exam determined which students would attend the all-white schools. Bridges was one of six black children who passed the exam. She enrolled in William Frantz Elementary School. It was just blocks from her home.

At first, Bridges's father refused to enroll his daughter in the all-white school. He feared some would seek revenge on the family. However, her mother convinced him that it was the right decision. She believed their daughter would get a better education at an all-white school. Bridges's parents were unable to read or write. On November 14, federal marshals escorted Bridges and her mother to her new school.

School of One

In a 1997 interview with PBS NewsHour, Bridges recalled preparing to leave for her new school. She remembered looking out the window of a car driven by a U.S. marshal. "Driving up, I could see the crowd," she said, "but living in New Orleans, I actually thought it was Mardi Gras."

The angry crowd chanted, "Two, four, six, eight, we don't want to integrate." They tried to block the entrance to the school. While Bridges and her mother sat in the principal's office, hundreds of parents entered the school and removed their children from their classrooms. "They didn't see a child," Bridges later said in the PBS special series The African Americans. "They saw change and what they thought was being taken from them."

The next day, Bridges was led past the screaming crowd and into the school by four marshals. When she arrived at her classroom, she found a teacher but no students. Her teacher, Barbara Henry, was a Boston, Massachusetts, native who had moved to the South hoping to help schools integrate. She was the only teacher willing to teach Bridges. "She would greet me, take me to my classroom, and it was just her and I," said Bridges. Although Bridges and Henry remained in the classroom alone, neither missed a single day of school that year.

A Lasting Legacy

The following school year, Bridges attended second grade at William Frantz. This time, the crowds had disappeared, and her classroom was full of students. In 1963, she was immortalized in a now-iconic painting called The Problem We All Live With, by artist Norman Rockwell.

In 1999, Bridges established the Ruby Bridges Foundation to teach tolerance to students. The following year, she was made an honorary deputy federal marshal in Washington, D.C. "I am so proud to have received such an honor," she said. "Deputy U.S. marshals are peacemakers and advocates of justice."

In 2014-54 years after she attended her first day of school at William Frantz-a bronze statue of 6-year-old Ruby Bridges was unveiled in the school's courtyard. "We need to honor the power of children," she said at the ceremony. "We need to encourage them that they can do extraordinary things."

Today, Bridges is an author, activist, and public speaker. She continues her work helping people learn to be more accepting of others.

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In 1960, Ruby Bridges (September 8, 1954-present) walked through the doors of William Frantz Elementary School, in New Orleans, Louisiana. By doing so, she became the first African-American student to attend an all-white elementary school in the Southern United States....

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BrainPOP - Animated Educational Site for Kids - Science, Social Studies, English, Math, Arts & Music, Health, and Technology

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Kid-friendly podcast on being a kid activist

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Podcast

Welcome to Activist, You! where YOU can be an activist TOO! Activist, You! is a brand new Kids & Family podcast focusing on social justice. Every episode our host Lindz Amer interviews different kid and youth activists, learning about their dedicated social justice topic, and how and why they became activists! Follow us on Twitter and Instagram @activistyoupod. If you like what you hear leave us a review on iTunes and support us on Patreon www.patreon.com/activistyoupod

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children kids podcast ios apps education science discovery sharing

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Welcome to Activist, You! where YOU can be an activist TOO! Activist, You! is a brand new Kids & Family podcast focusing on social justice. Every episode our host Lindz Amer interviews different kid and youth activists, learning about their dedicated social justice topic, and how and why they became activists!

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Civil Rights Act of 1964 | Montgomery Bus Boycott for Kids | Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King

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SL.1.2 Discuss a video; RI.1.1 Key details; RI.1.5 Nonfiction text features; RI.1.10 Read and discuss first-grade texts; W.1.1 State an opinion

Social Studies Focus:

American heroes; Citizenship

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Students learn about Ruby Bridges integrating a school and read a short article about Ruby Bridges as an adult.

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Civil Rights: A Kid-Friendly Explainer | BrainPOP

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A movement’s soul: The music of the civil rights movement

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A movement’s soul: The music of the civil rights movement

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Newsela | Instructional Content Platform

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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‎But Why: A Podcast for Curious Kids: But Why Live: A Discussion About Race And Racism on Apple Podcasts

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In this special live episode But Why held a discussion about race and racism with the authors of ABCs of Diversity, Y. Joy Harris-Smith and Carolyn Helsel. You can listen to But Why Live at vpr.org and call-in every Friday at 1 p.m. Eastern Daylight Time through June 26, 2020. This program is in collaboration with the Vermont Agency of Education to bring interactive educational opportunities to students while schools are closed.

TRANSCRIPT | EDUCATION RESOURCES

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but why live: a discussion about race and racism

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‎But Why: A Podcast for Curious Kids: But Why Live: A Discussion About Race And Racism on Apple Podcasts

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‎In this special live episode But Why held a discussion about race and racism with the authors of ABCs of Diversity, Y. Joy Harris-Smith and Carolyn Helsel. You can listen to But Why Live at vpr.org and call-in every Friday at 1 p.m. Eastern Daylight Time through June 26, 2020.

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BrainPOP Jr. - Animated Educational Site for Kids - Science, Social Studies, English, Math, Arts & Music, Health, and Technology

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Write Around Center-Civil Rights quotes and images.docx

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Civil Rights: A Kid-Friendly Explainer | BrainPOP

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MLK's Letter from a Birmingham Jail (NEWSELA)

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MLK's Letter from a Birmingham Jail (NEWSELA)

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Kids learn about the history of the March on Washington including Martin Luther King's I Have a Dream speech, the Big Six planners, and the results such as Civil Rights Act in 1964.

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Reflections on the Greensboro Lunch Counter

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Reflections on the Greensboro Lunch Counter

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Reflections on the Greensboro Lunch Counter

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Mighty Times: The Children's March tells the story of how the young people of Birmingham braved arrest, fire hoses, and police dogs in 1963 and brought segregation to its knees. In the spring of 1963, Birmingham, Alabama, was the "do-or-die" battleground for the Civil Rights Movement. Heavy intimidation by Birmingham authorities left the Movement floundering. Using word-of-mouth under a veil of secrecy, more than 4,000 African American schoolchildren organized to desert classrooms at exactly 11 a.m. on "D-Day," May 2, 1963, touching off a week of mass demonstrations and rioting that shocked the nation. Police tried to stop them. Yet, the children prevailed.

Mighty Times: The Children's March offers a rare glimpse into the 1963 Birmingham children's march from the ground up. More than 100 eyewitnesses contributed to the storytelling, with appearances by notable participants and organizers James Orange, Gwendolyn Webb, James Bevel, Harry Belafonte, Dick Gregory, and Andrew Young. [Producer's description.]

"The Children's March" is not available to stream. Check your library for a DVD version.

Trailer

Produced by Learning for Justice in association with HBO.

Background on the Birmingham Children's March

As is explained on the Stanford University's Martin Luther King Jr. Papers Project, the King Research and Education Institute website:

Aware that support for protests in Birmingham was waning during April 1963, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the SCLC looked for ways to jumpstart the campaign. When the arrest and jailing of King did little to attract more protestors, SCLC staff member James Bevel proposed recruiting local students, arguing that while many adults may be reluctant to participate in demonstrations for fear of losing their jobs, their children had less to lose. King initially had reservations, but after deliberation he agreed, hoping for the action to "subpoena the conscience of the nation to the judgment seat of morality." SCLC and the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights (ACMHR) members immediately canvassed colleges and high schools for volunteers and began training them on the tactics of nonviolent direct action.

As is described on the Civil Rights Movement Archive:

A passion for freedom sweeps through Parker High and the other Black schools of Birmingham and Bessemer, an emotional firestorm ignited by SCLC's young field workers, led by class presidents and prom queens, cheerleaders and football players like big James Orange. A fire stoked and spread by "Tall Paul" White and other DJs at the Black radio stations.

Thursday, May 2nd, is "D-Day" as students "ditch" class to march for justice. In disciplined groups of 50, children singing freedom songs march out of 16th Street Baptist church two-by-two. When each group is arrested, another takes its place. There are not enough cops to contain them, and police reinforcements are hurriedly summoned. By the end of the day almost 1,000 kids have been jailed.

The next day, Friday May 3rd, a thousand more students cut class to assemble at 16th Street church. With the jails already filled to capacity, and the number of marchers growing, Eugene "Bull" Connor (Commissioner of Public Safety in charge of the police and fire departments) tries to suppress the movement with violence. Instead of arresting the first group of marchers he orders his fire department to disperse them with firehoses. But the students hold their ground, singing " Freedom" to the tune of the ancient hymn " Amen." Connor orders the water pressure increased to knock them off their feet and wash them away. Still singing, the young protesters sit down on the pavement and hunch their backs against the torrent. Continue reading.

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Mighty Times: The Children's March - Zinn Education Project

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Film. By Hudson and Houston. Learning for Justice. 2005. 40 minutes. This Academy Award-winning documentary film tells the heroic story of the young people in Birmingham, Alabama, who brought segregation to its knees.

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One Possible Timeline: from The Civil Rights Movement: Then and Now by Dan Elish

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One Possible Timeline: from The Civil Rights Movement: Then and Now by Dan Elish

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On the first day of the sit-in, Ayanna and the other kids sat at the lunch counter until the restaurant closed for the night. No one ever took their order.

So the kids went back the next day. That's when the situation grew tense. Some White customers yelled at the kids, and others threw ketchup on them. Through it all, the kids remained peaceful and polite.

During the third day of their sit-in, the kids got good news. The owners of the store agreed to start serving Black customers at the lunch counter.

"It was a big deal," Ayanna remembers. "It was a slam dunk to be able to sit there and have a hamburger and Coke."

Ayanna and her friends weren't done, though. For six years, they took part in sit-ins at other restaurants in Oklahoma. One by one, many of the restaurants became integrated. Their last sit-in took place in 1964. That same year, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act. The law made segregation illegal throughout the U.S. Ayanna and the other kids were proud to do their part to bring about change in their hometown-and their nation.

"Even though I was little, my voice was just as important as everyone else's voice," Ayanna says.

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On the first day of the sit-in, Ayanna and the other kids sat at the lunch counter until the restaurant closed for the night. No one ever took their order. So the kids went back the next day. That's when the situation grew tense.

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myON is here to help ensure your students can keep reading and learning even if schools close. To support you and your students, please see the learning and implementation resources available on our Renaissance at Home hub.

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myON is here to help ensure your students can keep reading and learning even if schools close. To support you and your students, please see the learning and implementation resources available on our Renaissance at Home hub.

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Martin Luther King, Jr.: Leader of the 20th Century Civil Rights Movement | Biography

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Can Kids Change the World? | The Civil Rights Movement

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myON is here to help ensure your students can keep reading and learning even if schools close. To support you and your students, please see the learning and implementation resources available on our Renaissance at Home hub.

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myON is here to help ensure your students can keep reading and learning even if schools close. To support you and your students, please see the learning and implementation resources available on our Renaissance at Home hub.

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1849 The Massachusetts Supreme Court rules that segregated schools are permissible under the state's constitution. (Roberts v. City of Boston) The U.S. Supreme Court will later use this case to support the "separate but equal" doctrine.

1857 With the Dred Scott decision, the Supreme Court upholds the denial of citizenship to African Americans and rules that descendants of slaves are "so far inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect."

1861 Southern states secede from the Union. The Civil War begins.

1863 President Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing slaves in Southern states. Because the Civil War is ongoing, the Proclamation has little practical effect.

1865 The Civil War ends; the Thirteenth Amendment is enacted to abolish slavery.

1868 The Fourteenth Amendment is ratified, guaranteeing "equal protection under the law"; citizenship is extended to African Americans.

1875 Congress passes the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which bans racial discrimination in public accommodations.

1883 The Supreme Court strikes down the Civil Rights Act of 1875 finding that discrimination by individuals or private businesses is constitutional.

1890 Louisiana passes the first Jim Crow law requiring separate accommodations for Whites and Blacks.

1896 The Supreme Court authorizes segregation in Plessy v. Ferguson, finding Louisiana's "separate but equal" law constitutional. The ruling, built on notions of white supremacy and black inferiority, provides legal justification for Jim Crow laws in southern states.

1899 The Supreme Court allows a state to levy taxes on black and white citizens alike while providing a public school for white children only. (Cumming v. Richmond (Ga.) County Board of Education)

1908 The Supreme Court upholds a state's authority to require a private college to operate on a segregated basis despite the wishes of the school. (Berea College v. Kentucky)

1927 The Supreme Court finds that states possess the right to define a Chinese student as non-white for the purpose of segregating public schools. (Gong Lum v. Rice)

1936 The Maryland Supreme Court orders the state's white law school to enroll a black student because there is no state-supported law school for Blacks in Maryland. (University of Maryland v. Murray)

1938 The Supreme Court rules the practice of sending black students out of state for legal training when the state provides a law school for whites within its borders does not fulfill the state's "separate but equal" obligation. The Court orders Missouri's all-white law school to grant admission to an African American student. (Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada)

1940 30% of Americans - 40% of Northerners and 2% of Southerners - believe that Whites and Blacks should attend the same schools.

A federal court requires equal salaries for African American and white teachers. (Alston v. School Board of City of Norfolk)

1947 In a precursor to the Brown case, a federal appeals court strikes down segregated schooling for Mexican American and white students. (Westminster School Dist. v. Mendez) The verdict prompts California Governor Earl Warren to repeal a state law calling for segregation of Native American and Asian American students.

1948 Arkansas desegregates its state university.

The Supreme Court orders the admission of a black student to the University of Oklahoma School of Law, a white school, because there is no law school for Blacks. (Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma)

1950 The Supreme Court rejects Texas' plan to create a new law school for black students rather than admit an African American to the state's whites-only law school. (Sweatt v. Painter)

The Supreme Court rules that learning in law school "cannot be effective in isolation from the individuals and institutions with which the law interacts." The decision stops short of overturning Plessy.

The Supreme Court holds that the policy of isolating a black student from his peers within a white law school is unconstitutional. (McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents for Higher Education)

Barbara Johns, a 16-year-old junior at Robert R. Moton High School in Farmville, Va., organizes and leads 450 students in an anti-school segregation strike.

1952 The Supreme Court hears oral arguments in Brown v. Board of Education. Thurgood Marshall, who will later become the first African American justice on the Supreme Court, is the lead counsel for the black school children.

1953 Earl Warren is appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.

The Supreme Court hears the second round of arguments in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.

1954 In a unanimous opinion, the Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education overturns Plessy and declares that separate schools are "inherently unequal." The Court delays deciding on how to implement the decision and asks for another round of arguments.

The Court rules that the federal government is under the same duty as the states and must desegregate the Washington, D.C., schools. (Bolling v. Sharpe)

1955 In Brown II, the Supreme Court orders the lower federal courts to require desegregation "with all deliberate speed."

1955 Between 1955 and 1960, federal judges will hold more than 200 school desegregation hearings.

1956 49% of Americans - 61% of Northerners and 15% of Southerners - believe that Whites and Blacks should attend the same schools.

Tennessee Governor Frank Clement calls in the National Guard after white mobs attempt to block the desegregation of a high school.

Under court order, the University of Alabama admits Autherine Lucy, its first African American student. White students and residents riot. Lucy is suspended and later expelled for criticizing the university.

The Virginia legislature calls for "massive resistance" to school desegregation and pledges to close schools under desegregation orders.

1957 More than 1,000 paratroopers from the 101st Airborne Division and a federalized Arkansas National Guard protect nine black students integrating Central High School in Little Rock, Ark.

1958 The Supreme Court rules that fear of social unrest or violence, whether real or constructed by those wishing to oppose integration, does not excuse state governments from complying with Brown. (Cooper v. Aaron)

10,000 young people march in Washington, D.C., in support of integration.

1959 25,000 young people march in Washington, D.C., in support of integration.

Prince Edward County, Va., officials close their public schools rather than integrate them. White students attend private academies; black students do not head back to class until 1963, when the Ford Foundation funds private black schools. The Supreme Court orders the county to reopen its schools on a desegregated basis in 1964.

1960 In New Orleans, federal marshals shielded Ruby Bridges, Gail St. Etienne, Leona Tate and Tessie Prevost from angry crowds as they enrolled in school.

1961 A federal district court orders the University of Georgia to admit African American students Hamilton Holmes and Charlayne Hunter. After a riot on campus, the two are suspended. A court later reinstates them.

1962 A federal appeals court orders the University of Mississippi to admit James Meredith, an African American student. Upon his arival, a mob of more than 2,000 white people riots.

1963 62% of Americans - 73% of Northerners and 31% of Southerners - believe Blacks and Whites should attend the same schools.

Two African American students, Vivian Malone and James A. Hood, successfully register at the University of Alabama despite George Wallace's "stand in the schoolhouse door" - but only after President Kennedy federalizes the Alabama National Guard.

For the first time, a small number of black students in Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Mississippi attend public elementary and secondary schools with white students.

1964 The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is adopted. Title IV of the Act authorizes the federal government to file school desegregation cases. Title VI of the Act prohibits discrimination in programs and activities, including schools, receiving federal financial assistance.

The Rev. Bruce Klunder is killed protesting the construction of a new segregated school in Cleveland, Ohio.

1968 The Supreme Court orders states to dismantle segregated school systems "root and branch." The Court identifies five factors - facilities, staff, faculty, extracurricular activities and transportation - to be used to gauge a school system's compliance with the mandate of Brown. (Green v. County School Board of New Kent County)

In a private note to Justice Brennan, Justice Warren writes: "When this opinion is handed down, the traffic light will have changed from Brown to Green. Amen!"

1969 The Supreme Court declares the "all deliberate speed" standard is no longer constitutionally permissible and orders the immediate desegregation of Mississippi schools. (Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education)

1971 The Court approves busing, magnet schools, compensatory education and other tools as appropriate remedies to overcome the role of residential segregation in perpetuating racially segregated schools. (Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenberg Board of Education)

1972 The Supreme Court refuses to allow public school systems to avoid desegregation by creating new, mostly or all-white "splinter districts." (Wright v. Council of the City of Emporia; United States v. Scotland Neck City Board of Education)

Brown's legacy extends to gender. Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972 is passed prohibiting sex discrimination in any educational program that receives federal financial assistance.

1973 Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act is passed prohibiting schools from discriminating against students with mental or physical impairments.

The Supreme Court rules that states cannot provide textbooks to racially segregated private schools to avoid integration mandates. (Norwood v. Harrison)

The Supreme Court finds that the Denver school board intentionally segregated Mexican American and black students from white students. (Keyes v. Denver School District No. 1) The Court distinguishes between state-mandated segregation (de jure) and segregation that is the result of private choices (de facto). The latter form of segregation, the Court rules, is not unconstitutional

The Supreme Court rules that education is not a "fundamental right" and that the Constitution does not require equal education expenditures within a state. (San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez) The ruling has the effect of locking minority and poor children who live in low-income areas into inferior schools.

1974 The Supreme Court blocks metropolitan-wide desegregation plans as a means to desegregate urban schools with high minority populations. (Milliken v. Bradley) As a result, Brown will not have a substantial impact on many racially isolated urban districts.

Non-English-speaking Chinese students file suit against the San Francisco Unified School District for failing to provide instruction to those with limited English proficiency. The Supreme Court rules that the failure to do so violates Title VI's prohibition of national origin, race or color discrimination in school districts receiving federal funds. (Lau v. Nichols)

1978 A fractured Supreme Court declares the affirmative action admissions program for the University of California Davis Medical School unconstitutional because it set aside a specific number of seats for black and Latino students. The Court rules that race can be a factor in university admissions, but it cannot be the deciding factor. (Regents of the University of California v. Bakke)

1982 The Supreme Court rejects tax exemptions for private religious schools that discriminate. (Bob Jones University v. U.S.; Goldboro Christian Schools v. U.S.)

1986 For the first time, a federal court finds that once a school district meets the Green factors, it can be released from its desegregation plan and returned to local control. (Riddick v. School Board of the City of Norfolk, Virginia)

1988 School integration reaches its all-time high; almost 45% of black students in the United States are attending majority-white schools.

1991 Emphasizing that court orders are not intended "to operate in perpetuity," the Supreme Court makes it easier for formerly segregated school systems to fulfill their obligations under desegregation decrees. (Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell) After being released from a court order, the Oklahoma City school system abandons its desegregation efforts and returns to neighborhood schools.

1992 The Supreme Court further speeds the end of desegregation cases, ruling that school systems can fulfill their obligations in an incremental fashion. (Freeman v. Pitts)

The Supreme Court rules that the adoption of race-neutral measures does not, by itself, fulfill the Constitutional obligation to desegregate colleges and universities that were segregated by law. (United States v. Fordice)

1995 The Supreme Court sets a new goal for desegregation plans: the return of schools to local control. It emphasizes again that judicial remedies were intended to be "limited in time and extent." (Missouri v. Jenkins)

1996 A federal appeals court prohibits the use of race in college and university admissions, ending affirmative action in Louisiana, Texas and Mississippi. (Hopwood v. Texas)

2001 White parents in Charlotte, N.C., schools successfully seek an end to the desegregation process and a bar to the use of race in making student assignments.

2002 A report from Harvard's Civil Rights Project concludes that America's schools are resegregating.

2003 The Supreme Court upholds diversity as a rationale for affirmative action programs in higher education admissions, but concludes that point systems are not appropriate. (Grutter v. Bollinger; Gratz v. Bollinger)

A federal district court case affirms the value of racial diversity and race-conscious student assignment plans in K-12 education. (Lynn v. Comfort)

A study by Harvard's Civil Rights Project finds that schools were more segregated in 2000 than in 1970 when busing for desegregation began.

2004 The nation marks the 50th anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education.

2007 In Parents Involved, the Supreme Court finds voluntary school integration plans unconstitutional, paving the way for contemporary school segregation to escalate.

The nation marks the 50th anniversary of the Little Rock Nine.
Photograph by Francis Miller/Time-Life Pictures

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BROWN V. BOARD: Timeline of School Integration in the U.S.

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1849 The Massachusetts Supreme Court rules that segregated schools are permissible under the state's constitution. (Roberts v. City of Boston) The U.S. Supreme Court will later use this case to support the "separate but equal" doctrine.

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Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka - BrainPOP

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Separate does not mean equal. Press “play” to learn all about segregation and the civil rights warriors who put an end to the racist policy.

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Martin Luther King Jr. Leadership (NEWSELA)

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Martin Luther King Jr. Leadership (NEWSELA)

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Segregation means keeping people apart. In many cases it is a form of discrimination because one group of people is treated unfairly. African American Segregation In the…

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BrainPOP - Animated Educational Site for Kids - Science, Social Studies, English, Math, Arts & Music, Health, and Technology

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Educational Videos for Students (Cartoons on Bullying, Leadership & More)

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Rosa Parks Story (Educational Videos for Students) Rosa Parks for Kids (Watch Cartoons Online) CN

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"This is What Courage Looks Like": DRAMA

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"This is What Courage Looks Like": DRAMA

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Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. once said, "Freedom is never voluntarily given by the oppressor; it must be demanded by the oppressed." What did he mean? How does this idea apply to Claudette Colvin?

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This Is What Courage Looks Like - Reading Fluency | Scholastic Scope Magazine

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Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. once said, "Freedom is never voluntarily given by the oppressor; it must be demanded by the oppressed." What did he mean? How does this idea apply to Claudette Colvin?

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Thank you, sister Rosa! Ms. Parks, that is! This movie is all about the civil rights movement, from segregation trials to freedom marches. Plus a few words from Dr. Martin Luther King!

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Civil Rights Heroes for Kids | Leaders Who Changed America

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On June 19, 1865, enslaved people in Texas learned they were free. Juneteenth commemorates the painful history of slavery and celebrates the triumph of freedom.

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What Were Jim Crow Laws | Facts for Kids

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Educational Videos for Students (Cartoons on Bullying, Leadership & More)

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Civil Rights Movement Cartoon: Watch this Civil Rights Movement for Children Cartoon (Black History)

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Sheyann Web - Smallest Freedom Fighter Video

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Sheyann Web - Smallest Freedom Fighter Video

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Sheyann Webb - Smallest Freedom Fighter | American Freedom Stories | Biography

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Civil Rights Heroes for Kids | Leaders Who Changed America

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Black Codes and Jim Crow

The first steps toward official segregation came in the form of " Black Codes." These were laws passed throughout the South starting around 1865, that dictated most aspects of Black peoples' lives, including where they could work and live. The codes also ensured Black people's availability for cheap labor after slavery was abolished.

Segregation soon became official policy enforced by a series of Southern laws. Through so-called Jim Crow laws (named after a derogatory term for Blacks), legislators segregated everything from schools to residential areas to public parks to theaters to pools to cemeteries, asylums, jails and residential homes. There were separate waiting rooms for whites people and Black people in professional offices and, in 1915, Oklahoma became the first state to even segregate public phone booths.

Colleges were segregated and separate Black institutions like Howard University in Washington, D.C. and Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee were created to compensate. Virginia's Hampton Institute was established in 1869 as a school for Black youth, but with white instructors teaching skills to relegate Black people in service positions to whites.

The Supreme Court and Segregation

In 1875 the outgoing Republican-controlled House and Senate passed a civil rights bill outlawing discrimination in schools, churches and public transportation. But the bill was barely enforced and was overturned by the Supreme Court in 1883.

In 1896, the Supreme Court ruled in Plessy v. Ferguson that segregation was constitutional. The ruling established the idea of "separate but equal." The case involved a mixed-race man who was forced to sit in the Black-designated train car under Louisiana's Separate Car Act.

Housing Segregation

As part of the segregation movement, some cities instituted zoning laws that prohibited Black families from moving into white-dominant blocks. In 1917, as part of Buchanan v. Warley, the Supreme Court found such zoning to be unconstitutional because it interfered with property rights of owners.

Using loopholes in that ruling in the 1920s, Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover created a federal zoning committee to persuade local boards to pass rules preventing lower-income families from moving into middle-income neighborhoods, an effort that targeted Black families. Richmond, Virginia, decreed that people were barred from residency on any block where they could not legally marry the majority of residents. This invoked Virginia's anti-mixed race marriage law and was not technically in violation with the Supreme Court decision.

Segregation During the Great Migration

During the Great Migration, a period between 1916 and 1970, six million African Americans left the South. Huge numbers moved northeast and reported discrimination and segregation similar to what they had experienced in the South.

As late as the 1940s, it was still possible to find "Whites Only" signs on businesses in the North. Segregated schools and neighborhoods existed, and even after World War II, Black activists reported hostile reactions when Black people attempted to move into white neighborhoods.

Segregation and the Public Works Administration

The Public Works Administration's efforts to build housing for people displaced during the Great Depression focused on homes for white families in white communities. Only a small portion of houses was built for Black families, and those were limited to segregated Black communities.

In some cities, previously integrated communities were torn down by the PWA and replaced by segregated projects. The reason given for the policy was that Black families would bring down property values.

Red-Lining

Starting in the 1930s, the Federal Home Loan Bank Board and the Home Owners' Loan Corporation conspired to create maps with marked areas considered bad risks for mortgages in a practice known as "red-lining." The areas marked in red as "hazardous" typically outlined Black neighborhoods. This kind of mapping concentrated poverty as (mostly Black) residents in red-lined neighborhoods had no access or only very expensive access to loans.

The practice did not begin to end until the 1970s. Then, in 2008, a system of "reverse red-lining," which extended credit on unfair terms with subprime loans, created a higher rate of foreclosure in Black neighborhoods during the housing crisis.

Housing Segregation

In 1948, the Supreme Court ruled that a Black family had the right to move into their newly-purchased home in a quiet neighborhood in St. Louis, despite a covenant dating back to 1911 that precluded the use of the property in the area by "any person not of the Caucasian race." In Shelley v. Kramer, attorneys from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), led by Thurgood Marshall, argued that allowing such white-only real estate covenants were not only morally wrong, but strategically misguided in a time when the country was trying to promote a unified, anti-Soviet agenda under President Harry Truman. Civil rights activists saw the landmark case as an example of how to start to undo trappings of segregation at the federal level.

But while the Supreme Court ruled that white-only covenants were not enforceable, the real estate playing field was hardly leveled. The Housing Act of 1949 was proposed by Truman to solve a housing shortage caused by soldiers returned from World War II. The act subsidized housing for whites only, even stipulating that Black families could not purchase the houses even on resale. The program effectively resulted in the government funding white flight from cities.

One of the most notorious of the white-only communities created by the Housing Act was Levittown, New York, built in 1949 and followed by other Levittowns in different locations.

Segregation in Schools

Segregation of children in public schools was struck down by the Supreme Court as unconstitutional in 1954 with Brown v. Board of Education. The case was originally filed in Topeka, Kansas after seven-year-old Linda Brown was rejected from the all-white schools there.

A follow-up opinion handed decision-making to local courts, which allowed some districts to defy school desegregation. This led to a showdown in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1957, when President Dwight D. Eisenhower deployed federal troops to ensure nine Black students entered high school after Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus had called in the National Guard to block them.

When Rosa Parks was arrested in 1955 after refusing to give up her bus seat to a white man in Montgomery, Alabama, the civil rights movement began in earnest. Through the efforts of organizers like Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the resulting protests, the Civil Rights Act was signed in 1964, outlawing discrimination, though desegregation was a slow process, especially in schools.

Boston Busing Crisis

One of the worst incidents of anti-integration happened in 1974. Violence broke out in Boston when, in order to solve the city's school segregation problems, courts mandated a busing system that carried Black students from predominantly Roxbury to South Boston schools, and vice versa.

The state had passed the Elimination of Racial Balance law in 1965, but it had been held up in court by Irish Catholic opposition. Police protected the Black students as several days of violence broke out between police and Southie residents. White crowds greeted the buses with insults, and further violence erupted between Southie residents and retaliating Roxbury crowds. State troopers were called in until the violence subsided after a few weeks.

Segregation in the 21st Century

Segregation persists in the 21st Century. Studies show that while the public overwhelmingly supports integrated schools, only a third of Americans want federal government intervention to enforce it.

The term "apartheid schools" describes still-existing, largely segregated schools, where white students make up 0 to 10 percent of the student body. The phenomenon reflects residential segregation in cities and communities across the country, which is not created by overtly racial laws, but by local ordinances that target minorities disproportionately.

Sources

Stamped From the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America by Ibram X. Kendi, published by Bodley Head.
The Case for Reparations by Ta-Nehisi Coates, The .
Dismantling Desegregation by Gary Orfield and Susan E. Eaton by the New Press.

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

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Segregation in the United States - Meaning, Facts. & Legacy

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After the United States abolished slavery, Black Americans continued to be marginalized through Jim Crow laws and diminished access to facilities, housing, education-and opportunities.

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Children who marched for equal rights inspire a new generation

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Children who marched for equal rights inspire a new generation

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Children who marched for equal rights inspire a new generation

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National Museum of African American History and Culture

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On May 2, 1963, more than one thousand students skipped classes and gathered at Sixth Street Baptist Church to march to downtown Birmingham, Alabama. As they approached police lines, hundreds were arrested and carried off to jail in paddy wagons and school buses. When hundreds more young people gathered the following day for another march, white commissioner, Bull Connor, directed the local police and fire departments to use force to halt the demonstration. Images of children being blasted by high-pressure fire hoses, being clubbed by police officers, and being attacked by police dogs appeared on television and in newspapers, and triggered outrage throughout the world.

Despite the violence, children continued to march and protest in an organizing action now known as the Children's Crusade.

The crusade ended after intervention from the U.S. Department of Justice. The event moved President John F. Kennedy's to express support for federal civil rights legislation and the eventual passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

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On May 2, 1963, more than one thousand students skipped classes and gathered at Sixth Street Baptist Church to march to downtown Birmingham and protest in an organizing action now known as the Children's Crusade.

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myON is here to help ensure your students can keep reading and learning even if schools close. To support you and your students, please see the learning and implementation resources available on our Renaissance at Home hub.

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Children's Crusade of 1963 | American Freedom Stories | Biography

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Nonviolence: Gandhi's Influence on Martin Luther King Jr. (NEWSELA)

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Nonviolence: Gandhi's Influence on Martin Luther King Jr. (NEWSELA)

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The Birmingham Children's Crusade was a nonviolent protest in Birmingham, Alabama from May 2-5, 1963. This moment in history resulted in the desegregation of public facilities in Birmingham and became a launching point for March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in August 1963

However, this was not a spontaneous, quickly put together march to demand desegregation of the most city in America. The building tension of lunch counter sit-ins, boycotts, and protests nationwide called Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. to return to Birmingham in April 1963 to begin the launch of "Project C." C represented confrontation, but as always, nonviolent confrontation; ordering food at segregated lunch counters, praying in parks and steps of city halls, boycotting segregated stores, etc. Knowing that scores of the protesters would be arrested, King hoped to overwhelm Birmingham's jails, thus forcing Eugene "Bull" Connor, Birmingham's Police Commissioner to desegregate the city.

James L. Bevel: King's right hand man

King's head advisor for the Children's Crusade was Reverend James L. Bevel. Bevel, a Navy veteran who became a minister from Itta Bena, Mississippi, found deep roots in Old Testament prophets and often wore a Jewish skullcap. After attending a seminar led by James Lawson, a fierce pacifist who firmly believed in training students in "the struggle of racial injustice," Bevel saw the distinction between white oppression and blacks "accepting the status quo." Interestingly, Diane Nash and Gloria Johnson also attended this workshop. As cited in David Oshinsky's article, Lawson taught, "The time had come for young people to move beyond the passivity of their elders. Segregation would end when devoted Christians, doing God's work on earth, led a nonviolent crusade to destroy it. The struggle required physical courage, unshakable conviction and a willingness to forgive those who would beat and even murder them out of ignorance and fear... they were going to love segregation to death".

Approaching the Birmingham Children's Crusade with this background, Bevel spoke to the young students at Saturday nonviolent training sessions, "You are responsible for segregation, you and your parents because you have not stood up... no one has the power to oppress you if you don't cooperate. So, if you say you are oppressed, then you are... in league with the oppressor; now, it's your responsibility to break the league with him". The power of introducing youth into the Civil Rights Movement became a turning point and showed the vast expanse of racism and systemic segregation that had become entrenched in the culture.

Involving children

Among the black community, involving children in the front lines of the national Civil Rights Movement raised a controversial topic. As most parents intend to do, African American parents, particularly in the South, were very protective of their children and had to educate them on the realities of racism from an early age. Thus, allowing their children to be in the front lines of the Birmingham Children's Crusade was certainly a barrier for young people to overcome. Despite this familial challenge, thousands turned out over the next week in protest.

Day 1: "Double D-Day"

Day 1 of the march was May 2, 1963. Bevel dubbed it " D-Day," a direct reference to the Normandy Invasion that led to the Allied victory in World War II. The morning of the movement, some children went directly to the 16th Street Baptist Church located in downtown Birmingham, but many went to school and later in the morning walked out of class; thus making more of a point in their protest. Eventually almost a thousand school children, ages six to eighteen, congregated in Kelly Ingram Park, 16th Street Baptist Church, and Metropolitan AME Zion Church to begin their march to city hall. The youth were organized into groups and as each group was confronted with barricades and policemen, and subsequently arrested, another "platoon" would emerge from the church. This phenomenon of the seemingly countless droves of students exiting the church puzzled an officer who asked how many more children were in the church and upon hearing, "at least a thousand," uttered, "God A'mighty." By the end of the first day, over 900 students had been arrested, and parents were discouraged from paying bail. As stated in OAH Magazine of History, "King was criticized for using children in the demonstrations. One of the most vocal criticisms came from Malcolm X who stated, 'Real men don't put their children on the firing line.' King responded by saying that the demonstrations allowed children to develop "a sense of their own stake in freedom and justice". Also, not coincidentally, the 16th Street Baptist Church was the church that was bombed on September 15, 1963, just four months later.

Day 2: "Double D-Day"

Day 2: "Double D-Day." Bull Connor authorized the use of high power fire hoses and attack dogs on the children as they again flooded the streets of downtown Birmingham. The fire hoses tore through the ranks of peaceful protesters, and the attack dogs dispersed the organized groups into a frenzied crowd. At one point during the afternoon, Connor locked the remaining 500-1000 marchers inside the 16th Street Baptist Church, mostly due to the fact that he was running out of space in the jail; precisely the goal of King and Bevel. Eventually, organizers ordered everyone to go home, and an additional 500-800 students were jailed.

"Double D-Day" is said to be the event that no other effort could do, and that unites black Birmingham to raise their voice in protest of the systemic and oppressive segregation enforced upon them by the white supremacy. King's words to worried parents summed up the overall attitude of the protesters and the seriousness in which they took their task. "Your daughters and sons are in jail... don't worry about them. They are suffering for what they believe, and they are suffering to make this nation a better nation".

On May 10, 1963, the protesters and the Birmingham city officials reached a settlement that desegregated all public facilities in Birmingham. This march of thousands of elementary, middle, and high school students was one of the largest nationwide, ultimately leading to the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in August in 1963 .

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Birmingham Children's Crusade Facts for Kids

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Learn Birmingham Children's Crusade facts for kids

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Mighty Times: The Children's March tells the story of how the young people of Birmingham braved arrest, fire hoses, and police dogs in 1963 and brought segregation to its knees. In the spring of 1963, Birmingham, Alabama, was the "do-or-die" battleground for the Civil Rights Movement. Heavy intimidation by Birmingham authorities left the Movement floundering. Using word-of-mouth under a veil of secrecy, more than 4,000 African American schoolchildren organized to desert classrooms at exactly 11 a.m. on "D-Day," May 2, 1963, touching off a week of mass demonstrations and rioting that shocked the nation. Police tried to stop them. Yet, the children prevailed.

Mighty Times: The Children's March offers a rare glimpse into the 1963 Birmingham children's march from the ground up. More than 100 eyewitnesses contributed to the storytelling, with appearances by notable participants and organizers James Orange, Gwendolyn Webb, James Bevel, Harry Belafonte, Dick Gregory, and Andrew Young. [Producer's description.]

"The Children's March" is not available to stream. Check your library for a DVD version.

Trailer

Produced by Learning for Justice in association with HBO.

Background on the Birmingham Children's March

As is explained on the Stanford University's Martin Luther King Jr. Papers Project, the King Research and Education Institute website:

Aware that support for protests in Birmingham was waning during April 1963, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the SCLC looked for ways to jumpstart the campaign. When the arrest and jailing of King did little to attract more protestors, SCLC staff member James Bevel proposed recruiting local students, arguing that while many adults may be reluctant to participate in demonstrations for fear of losing their jobs, their children had less to lose. King initially had reservations, but after deliberation he agreed, hoping for the action to "subpoena the conscience of the nation to the judgment seat of morality." SCLC and the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights (ACMHR) members immediately canvassed colleges and high schools for volunteers and began training them on the tactics of nonviolent direct action.

As is described on the Civil Rights Movement Archive:

A passion for freedom sweeps through Parker High and the other Black schools of Birmingham and Bessemer, an emotional firestorm ignited by SCLC's young field workers, led by class presidents and prom queens, cheerleaders and football players like big James Orange. A fire stoked and spread by "Tall Paul" White and other DJs at the Black radio stations.

Thursday, May 2nd, is "D-Day" as students "ditch" class to march for justice. In disciplined groups of 50, children singing freedom songs march out of 16th Street Baptist church two-by-two. When each group is arrested, another takes its place. There are not enough cops to contain them, and police reinforcements are hurriedly summoned. By the end of the day almost 1,000 kids have been jailed.

The next day, Friday May 3rd, a thousand more students cut class to assemble at 16th Street church. With the jails already filled to capacity, and the number of marchers growing, Eugene "Bull" Connor (Commissioner of Public Safety in charge of the police and fire departments) tries to suppress the movement with violence. Instead of arresting the first group of marchers he orders his fire department to disperse them with firehoses. But the students hold their ground, singing " Freedom" to the tune of the ancient hymn " Amen." Connor orders the water pressure increased to knock them off their feet and wash them away. Still singing, the young protesters sit down on the pavement and hunch their backs against the torrent. Continue reading.

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Mighty Times: The Children's March - Zinn Education Project

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Film. By Hudson and Houston. Learning for Justice. 2005. 40 minutes. This Academy Award-winning documentary film tells the heroic story of the young people in Birmingham, Alabama, who brought segregation to its knees.

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Kids learn about the history of the Little Rock Nine, African-American students who fought to end segregation by attending an all-white high school.

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Write Around Center-Civil Rights quotes and images.docx (dragged) 2

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Fannie Lou Hamer (October 6, 1917-March 14, 1977) was a civil rights activist. She fought to expand voting rights for African Americans and raise awareness of the terrible impact of segregation.

As an African American born in the South during the era of segregation, Fannie Lou Hamer faced discrimination and poverty throughout her life. Her parents worked long hours on a cotton farm. Hamer began picking cotton when she was only 6 years old. By 12, she had dropped out of school to work full-time.

Hamer's life changed when she attended a civil rights meeting in 1962. She was 45 years old. "They talked [during the meeting] about how it was our rights as human beings to register and vote," she told the New York Times. "I never knew we could vote before. Nobody ever told us."

The 15th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution-ratified in 1870-granted voting rights to all citizens regardless of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." But many Southern states made it difficult for African Americans to vote. They set up poll taxes, which poor people could not afford. In addition, African Americans were often asked to take literacy tests before registering to vote. The tests required potential voters to interpret complex government documents. Many African Americans who attempted to register faced intimidation and violence.

Braving Threats

Despite these threats, Hamer decided to brave the voter-registration process. She and 17 other activists took a bus to the Sunflower County Courthouse, in Mississippi. Officials kept most of the group from registering. Hamer and one other activist were the only ones allowed to complete the paperwork. But both were told they had failed the literacy test.

Hamer's right to vote was also challenged by her boss at the cotton plantation. He gave her a choice: She could either withdraw her voter-registration application or lose her job. Hamer walked off the plantation. She dedicated herself to the civil rights movement.

Within a few months, Hamer began working as a field organizer for the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). The civil rights group advocated against segregation and voter suppression. Hamer traveled around the South educating African Americans about voting rights. She was often met with racist slurs and threats. She was even physically assaulted.

ASSOCIATED PRESS

Fight for Freedom

In 1963, Hamer was arrested in Charleston, South Carolina, on false charges. While she was in jail, she was severely beaten. It took more than a month for her to recover from her injuries. But she didn't let the violence stop her from fighting against racial injustice. "I'm never sure anymore when I leave home whether I'll get back or not. Sometimes, it seems like to tell the truth today is to run the risk of being killed. But if I fall, I'll fall five feet four inches forward in the fight for freedom. I'm not backing off," she later wrote in an essay.

In 1964, Hamer organized Freedom Summer. It was a massive effort to help African Americans register to vote in Mississippi. That same year, she helped launch the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP). The MFDP challenged Mississippi's all-white, pro-segregation delegation at the 1964 Democratic National Convention.

In a nationally televised speech, Hamer explained why the MFDP deserved seats at the convention. "We want to register to become first-class citizens, and if the Freedom Democratic Party is not seated now, I question America," she said. "Is this America, the land of the free and the home of the brave, where we have to sleep with our telephones off the hooks because our lives be threatened daily because we want to live as decent human beings-in America?"

Hamer's speech captivated audiences. It helped Americans understand the terrible impact of segregation. Four years later, Hamer achieved her goal. She joined an integrated delegation from Mississippi at the 1968 Democratic National Convention.

Hamer died from cancer in 1977. She was 59 years old. Andrew Young Jr. gave the eulogy at Hamer's funeral. He was a civil rights leader and the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations. According to the New York Times, Young said that the civil rights movement was indebted to the "sweat and blood" of activists like Hamer. "None of us would be where we are today," he said, "had she not been here then."

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As an African American born in the South during the era of segregation, Fannie Lou Hamer faced discrimination and poverty throughout her life. Her parents worked long hours on a cotton farm. Hamer began picking cotton when she was only 6 years old. By 12, she had dropped out of school to work full-time.

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online access fun thousands children great kids ebooks books

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children of civil rights Book Collection on Epic

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Built on a collection of 40,000+ popular, high-quality books from 250+ of the world's best publishers, Epic safely fuels curiosity and reading confidence for kids 12 and under. Get Started

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Write Around Center-Civil Rights quotes and images.docx (dragged) 4