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The invention of the printing press and subsequent widespread use was one of the most influential events in the second millennium. The invention led to a sharp increase in literacy which worked to close the gap between upper and middle class people.

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printing press, machine by which text and images are transferred from movable type to paper or other media by means of ink. Movable type and paper were invented in China, and the oldest known extant book printed from movable type was created in Korea in the 14th century. Printing first became mechanized in Europe during the 15th century.

The earliest mention of a mechanized printing press in Europe appears in a lawsuit in Strasbourg in 1439; it reveals construction of a press for Johannes Gutenberg and his associates. Gutenberg's press and others of its era in Europe owed much to the medieval paper press, which was in turn modeled after the ancient wine-and-olive press of the Mediterranean area. A long handle was used to turn a heavy wooden screw, exerting downward pressure against the paper, which was laid over the type mounted on a wooden platen. Gutenberg used his press to print an edition of the Bible in 1455; this Bible is the first complete extant book in the West, and it is one of the earliest books printed from movable type. ( Jikji, a book of the teachings of Buddhist priests, was printed by hand from movable type in Korea in 1377.) In its essentials, the wooden press used by Gutenberg reigned supreme for more than 300 years, with a hardly varying rate of 250 sheets per hour printed on one side.

Metal presses began to appear late in the 18th century, at about which time the advantages of the cylinder were first perceived and the application of steam power was considered. By the mid-19th century Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected a power-driven cylinder press in which a large central cylinder carrying the type successively printed on the paper of four impression cylinders, producing 8,000 sheets an hour in 2,000 revolutions. The rotary press came to dominate the high-speed newspaper field, but the flatbed press, having a flat bed to hold the type and either a reciprocating platen or a cylinder to hold the paper, continued to be used for job printing.

A significant innovation of the late 19th century was the offset press, in which the printing (blanket) cylinder runs continuously in one direction while paper is impressed against it by an impression cylinder. Offset printing is especially valuable for colour printing, because an offset press can print multiple colours in one run. Offset lithography -used for books, newspapers, magazines, business forms, and direct mail-continued to be the most widely used printing method at the start of the 21st century, though it was challenged by ink-jet, laser, and other printing methods.

Apart from the introduction of electric power, advances in press design between 1900 and the 1950s consisted of a great number of relatively minor mechanical modifications designed to improve the speed of the operation. Among these changes were better paper feed, improvements in plates and paper, automatic paper reels, and photoelectric control of colour register. The introduction of computers in the 1950s revolutionized printing composition, with more and more steps in the print process being replaced by digital data. At the end of the 20th century a new electronic printing method, print-on-demand, began to compete with offset printing, though it-and printing generally-came under increasing pressure in developed countries as publishers, newspapers, and others turned to online means of distributing what they had previously printed on paper.

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Printing press | Invention, Definition, History, Gutenberg, & Facts

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A printing press is a machine by which text and images are transferred from movable type to paper or other media by means of ink. Movable type and paper were first developed in China, and printing first became mechanized in Europe during the 15th century.

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The Child's Conception of the World is published by psychologist Jean Piaget.  His theory of cognitive development becomes an important influence in American developmental psychology and education.

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Every experience and interaction has an impact on development in early childhood. Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget recognized this when he studied and researched his own theories of cognitive development.

Some of his research led to the belief that every interaction establishes cognitive structure in children. This is especially important in the classroom environment.

Jean Piaget's theories impact learning in many different ways, but keeping in mind the curriculum you are teaching, as well as how you are teaching it, directly applies to the essentials of child development. For the stages of child development and the primary influential factors, visit this Funderstanding article.

Observation and Education

Jean Piaget developed his methods of understanding children by directly observing them while they were working. Many of his thoughts have led to increased educational theory.

He also analyzed behavior.

"His particular insight was the role of maturation (simply growing up) in children's increasing capacity to understand their world: they cannot undertake certain tasks until they are psychologically mature enough to do so," according to Learning and Teaching Information.

Jean Piaget made note of certain stages of development that allowed children to learn better.

"He saw these transitions as taking place at about 18 months, 7 years and 11 or 12 years. This has been taken to mean that before these ages children are not capable (no matter how bright) of understanding things in certain ways," Learning and Teaching Information said.

Structured Development

Jean Piaget's theories of development centered on structure. The concept of structure introduced four stages of development, according to Teacher Education:

1. Sensorimotor stage - 0-2 years: imitation, memory and thought begin to be utilized

2. Preoperational stage- 2-7 years: language development and recognizing symbolic form

3. Concrete operational stage- 7-11 years: able to solve hands-on problems logically

4. Formal operational stage- 11-15 years : able to solve abstract problems in a logical fashion

Applying Jean Piaget in the Classroom

To apply Jean Piaget's theories in the classroom, the University of Arkansas suggests these six steps to structure preoperational development:

1. Use concrete props and visual aids whenever possible.

2. Make instructions relatively short, using actions as well as words.

3. Do not expect the students to consistently see the world from someone else's point of view.

4. Be sensitive to the possibility that students may have different meanings for the same word or different words for the same meaning. Students may also expect everyone to understand words they have invented.

5. Give children a great deal of hands-on practice with the skills that serve as building blocks for more complex skills like reading comprehension.

6. Provide a wide range of experiences in order to build a foundation for concept learning and language.

More on Jean Piaget

Check this if you want to learn how teachers and parents can apply Piaget's principles. To learn more about Jean Piaget's work, check out this Funderstanding page.

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Jean Piaget: Cognitive Development in the Classroom

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Every experience and interaction has an impact on development in early childhood. Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget recognized this when he studied and researched his own theories of cognitive development. Some of his research led to the belief that every interaction establishes cognitive structure in children.

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Foundations of Reading Instruction is published by Emmett Betts and emphasized the importance of giving students direction when learning to read. His directed reading activity included the use of guided reading as a basic principle for this approach.

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Ken Goodman’s theory of written and oral language development as being parallel is the basis for the whole-language movement. This movement was influential in promoting independent reading known as SSR (silent sustained reading) or DEAR (drop everything and read) in schools.

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Goodman on Whole Language | Chapter 5: Authentic Literacy Pedagogy | Literacies | New Learning

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A knowledge community, international conference, scholarly journal, and book series.

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This book, written by Herbert R. Kohl, promotes "open education".  Kohl's approach focuses on student-centered classrooms and active, holistic learning.

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THE OPEN CLASSROOM : HERBERT KOHL : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive

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Michael Hart, who is the founder of Project Gutenberg, invents the first e-book. Project Gutenberg is still in use today and offers over 57,000 e-books for free.

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Project Gutenberg is a library of over 70,000 free eBooks

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Project Gutenberg is a library of free eBooks.

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The Reading Recovery program, developed by Marie Clay, is adopted in the United States. It is an early intervention program aimed at targeting at-risk students in reading and writing.  A major focus of the program is on teacher training. Marie Clay dedicated a lifetime to promoting literacy in children.

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Reading Recovery Council of North America

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Basic Facts - Reading Recovery Council of North America

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The few students who are still having difficulty after a complete intervention are recommended for further evaluation. Recommendations may be made for future support (e.g., classroom support, Title I, LD referral). This category represents a positive, supportive action on behalf of the child and the school.

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I remember watching Sesame Street as a young child at home with my mother every day. I loved the bright, colorful characters and the songs they would sing.

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I remember the excitement that surrounded Scholastic Book Fair week at school. I remember begging my parents for money to spend there and my mom volunteering as a helper at school during this time. I loved having the opportunity to pick out a brand new book and to this day, still look forward to this week at school with my daughter.

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My grandparents owned a very large farm in which I would go to visit for extended periods of time during the summer months. During this time, there were no electronics besides a radio, and a TV that only had a few local channels. The day would be spent outside doing chores and farm work and in the evening, my grandma would read me picture books. As I got older, I would pack my own books to take along with me and would spend much of the evening before bed reading. There was no other form of entertainment so it was lucky for me that I enjoyed reading as much as I did.

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My mom had given us access to a library card from a very young age.  She would take my sister and me to the library frequently when we were younger, especially during the summer months.  My favorite books to check out were comic books such as the Peanuts series and Garfield and I also loved the Laura Ingalls Wilder Little House on the Prairie series.

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Welcome! Scottdale Public Library | 106 Spring St., Scottdale, PA 15683 | (724) 887-6140

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Reading Rainbow was one of my absolute favorite shows. I really loved how the books came alive on the screen and how the show allowed you to dig deeper and learn more about the featured book topic. I remember watching this show at home but also a few times when we were permitted to watch it in school on special occasions. Although it is no longer on the air, the host LeVar Burton still works to promote literacy through his website which hosts an interactive digital library and other resources for use in the classroom.

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LeVar Burton Kids - Now featuring the best reading apps for kids.

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In elementary school, the librarian started a new program in the format of a book club. She selected a few fifth grade students to participate, me included. She would choose a book for us to read and we would gather once a week during lunch in a special room in the library to discuss the book. I really enjoyed being a part of this club and looked forward to it every week.

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The National Reading Panel concluded its report on the most effective way to teach reading to children.  The report stated that effective teaching of reading needed to include "explicit instruction in phonemic awareness, systematic phonics instruction, methods to improve fluency, and ways to enhance comprehension."

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Note: The National Reading Panel was convened by Congress in 1999 and has not been reconvened. The information on this page is provided for historical purposes only. The page is not being updated.

Overview

In 1997, Congress asked NICHD, through its Child Development and Behavior Branch, to work with the U.S. Department of Education in establishing a National Reading Panel that would evaluate existing research and evidence to find the best ways of teaching children to read.

The 14-member panel included members from different backgrounds, including school administrators, working teachers, and scientists involved in reading research.

On April 13, 2000, the National Reading Panel concluded its work and submitted its final reports. The panel has not been reconvened since that time and does not continue to work on this issue.

Topic Areas

Specifically, Congress asked the panel to:

Review all the research available (more than 100,000 reading studies) on how children learn to read.

Determine the most effective evidence-based methods for teaching children to read.

Describe which methods of reading instruction are ready for use in the classroom and recommend ways of getting this information into schools.

Suggest a plan for additional research in reading development and instruction.

In addition, the National Reading Panel held public hearings where people could give their opinions on what topics the panel should study.

The panel considered roughly 100,000 reading studies published since 1966 and another 10,000 published before that time. From this pool, the panel selected several hundred studies for its review and analysis.

The National Reading Panel's analysis made it clear that the best approach to reading instruction is one that incorporates:

Explicit instruction in phonemic awareness

Systematic phonics instruction

Methods to improve fluency

Ways to enhance comprehension

The panel found that a combination of techniques is effective for teaching children to read:

Phonemic awareness-the knowledge that spoken words can be broken apart into smaller segments of sound known as phonemes. Children who are read to at home-especially material that rhymes-often develop the basis of phonemic awareness. Children who are not read to will probably need to be taught that words can be broken apart into smaller sounds.

Phonics-the knowledge that letters of the alphabet represent phonemes and that these sounds are blended together to form written words. Readers who are skilled in phonics can sound out words they haven't seen before, without first having to memorize them.

Fluency-the ability to recognize words easily, read with greater speed, accuracy, and expression, and better understand what is read. Children gain fluency by practicing reading until the process becomes automatic; guided oral repeated reading is one approach to helping children become fluent readers.

Guided oral reading-reading out loud while getting guidance and feedback from skilled readers. The combination of practice and feedback promotes reading fluency.

Teaching vocabulary words-teaching new words, either as they appear in text or by introducing new words separately. This type of instruction also aids reading ability.

Reading comprehension strategies-techniques for helping individuals to understand what they read. Such techniques involve having students summarize what they've read to gain a better understanding of the material.

More Information

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National Reading Panel (Historical/For Reference Only)

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Note: The National Reading Panel was convened by Congress in 1999 and has not been reconvened. The information on this page is provided for historical purposes only. The page is not being updated.

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During one of our trips to the public library, I discovered the book Gone With the Wind by Margaret Mitchell.  I remember reading it and being so proud that I had finished all 1000 pages of it.  It instantly became my favorite book and remains so until this day.  Since then, I have also had a love of historical fiction and tend to be drawn to the genre when I am choosing a new book to read.

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Gone With the Wind is a story about civil war, starvation, rape, murder, heartbreak and slavery. It is not necessarily a book one would associate with hope. And yet, at the novel's heart lies Scarlett O'Hara, one of the most ruthlessly optimistic characters in literature.

No moment illustrates Scarlett better than her return to Tara - the family home - after the collapse of Atlanta. She allows herself one night of lamenting all that has been lost; the next morning, she marches blindly into the future. "Scarlett was never to look back," as Margaret Mitchell puts it.

Scarlett maintains this headstrong hopefulness as society collapses around her. She has a one-track mind, to the point of selfishness - she barely manages to fake interest in "the Cause", the southern US states' doomed stand against the Yankees. Everything beyond her circle is essentially irrelevant.

Reading this novel in 2016, it is notable which characters survive and prosper in the new world. It is not the "good" characters who renew themselves from the disintegration of a civilisation; as Rhett Butler, Scarlett's eternal sparring partner, points out: "The nicest people in town are starving."

Instead, it is the carpetbaggers and the speculators who thrive in the collapse of the south; the people who seize their moment, abandoning the past for the possibilities of the future. "There's good money in empire building," Rhett notes. "But there's more in empire wrecking." This is hope, but not hope for all.

Mitchell carefully analyses the nature of human resilience, and holds up hopefulness as the critical tool for getting through the worst times. At one of the lowest points, Scarlett's neighbour, the elderly Grandma Fontaine, insists that Scarlett continues to hope. "We bow to the inevitable," she tells Scarlett. "We're not wheat. We're buckwheat. When a storm comes along it flattens ripe wheat because it's dry and can't bend with the wind. But ripe buckwheat's got sap and it bends. And when the wind has passed, it springs up, almost as straight and strong as before."

But never - never - can Scarlett pause in this battle for survival. "Don't think you can lay down the load, ever," says Grandma. "Because you can't. I know."

Paradoxically, hope is also Scarlett's Achilles heel. She clings on to the dream of her great unfulfilled love, Ashley, for years - wilfully ignoring any other course to happiness. Her focus on tomorrow constantly pushes good deeds into an indeterminate future. One day, she'll get around to teaching her son "his ABCs". One day, she fully intends to be a "great lady", mimicking the poise of her sainted mama. But she never quite gets round to it. Instead, Scarlett ensures that those close to her are dragged along in her wake. Even if the once-pampered beauty doesn't like most of her family, they will not be permitted to fall through the cracks.

In my family, Gone With the Wind is handed down from mother to daughter in the way other families pass down heirlooms. It is our survival guide. My mother tackles most problems with a "what would Scarlett do?" mindset - and even if the answer is "rip down the curtains, knock together a dress and get the hell on with it", that'll be what she does. Scarlett wouldn't bat an eyelash at anything from bad hair to bullying bosses - she would just calculate the best possible next move and go for it.

But most of all, in the bleak days of 2016, it is Scarlett's belief that tomorrow will be better that feels endlessly and gleefully hopeful. After all, as she knows so well: " Tomorrow is another day."
Topics

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Books to give you hope: Gone With the Wind by Margaret Mitchell

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Gone With the Wind is a story about civil war, starvation, rape, murder, heartbreak and slavery. It is not necessarily a book one would associate with hope. And yet, at the novel's heart lies Scarlett O'Hara, one of the most ruthlessly optimistic characters in literature.

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The controversial No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) is approved by Congress and signed into law by President George W. Bush. The law mandates high-stakes student testing, holds schools accountable for student achievement levels, and provides penalties for schools that do not make adequate yearly progress toward meeting the goals of NCLB.

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Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)

For the latest news and resources on the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) visit our updated ESSA page.

Information on No Child Left Behind, including the Act and policy, and the Obama Administration's blueprint for reauthorizing the Elementary and Secondary Education Act.

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For the latest news and resources on the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) visit our updated ESSA page . Information on No Child Left Behind, including the Act and policy, and the Obama Administration's blueprint for reauthorizing the Elementary and Secondary Education Act.

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When I was younger, we had a computer in the family room. However, it was the early days of having in-home internet and the connection was not always present. So, we relied on CD-ROM games to keep us entertained. One game that my sister and I played consistently was called JumpStart. It was an educational game featuring a rabbit as the main character and you would be asked to solve different problems in both reading and math.

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Through our products, the growth of our users is our most fundamental goal and something we value highly. Through years of expertise, tracking and product adjustments, the experience we provide our users, not only improves their school education but also how they learn.

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Adaptive Curriculum Games for Kids - Activities & Worksheets - JumpStart

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Through our products, the growth of our users is our most fundamental goal and something we value highly. Through years of expertise, tracking and product adjustments, the experience we provide our users, not only improves their school education but also how they learn.

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In 2012, my husband and I learned we were pregnant with our first child. The very first baby items that I purchased were books so that she could have a library of her own. The first book to be added to her library was called On the Night You Were Born by Nancy Tillman. We also loved the Sandra Boynton books because of their adorable characters and catchy songs that accompanied the books.

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The U.S. Senate votes 85-12 to approve the Every Student Succeeds Act, and President Obama signs it into law on December 10. This latest version of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) replaces No Child Left Behind and allows more state control in judging school quality.  It also places significance on "providing increasing access to high quality preschools."

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Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) | U.S. Department of Education

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Because of my love of reading, I have worked to instill the same literacy foundations in my daughter. We often visit the public library to check out books and take part in classes that are offered there.  We make it a priority to read every single day.  We have read the entire Junie B. Jones series and also classics like Matilda by Ronald Dahl. Over the last few months, she has learned to read quite fluently and now enjoys reading picture books to me before bed. Reading together is time that I really cherish with my daughter and hope to continue for as long as she will allow it.