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Pets could be subjected to gene editing under a new government act, the RSPCA has warned.

The animal charity has said that the Genetic Technology (Precision Breeding) Act applies to all vertebrate animals, not only farmed animals, and that it could lead to cats and dogs being gene-edited to include extreme features.

The law allows the creation and marketing of "precision-bred" or genome-edited plants and vertebrate animals in England. The government said it would allow farmers to grow crops that are drought- and disease-resistant, reduce the use of fertilisers and pesticides, and help breed animals that are protected from catching harmful diseases.

The UK environment secretary, Thérèse Coffey, described the act, which received royal assent on Thursday, as a "Brexit freedom", but the RSPCA said it could have dire consequences for animal welfare.

David Bowles, the head of campaigns and public affairs at the RSPCA, criticised what he described as an "ill-judged policy". He said the charity had tried to get the government to include an exemption for pets, but was "sadly ignored".

He added: "Gene editing could be a huge step backwards for animals. We do not believe this act should include animals, whether they are farm, pet or wildlife. Invasive procedures are needed to create each line of gene-edited mammals, there is no history of use for this powerful technology, and it can cause unintended changes to the genome, with unpredictable effects. The RSPCA has serious animal welfare and ethical concerns about this."

Genome editing is a group of techniques that enable changes to an organism's DNA, and the animal charity warned that editing an animal's genome involved procedures that could cause "pain, suffering, distress and lasting harm". Gene editing was previously subject to the strict rules and regulations that control genetically modified organisms (GMOs), but under this new law gene-edited animals and food will not be classed in England as GMOs and will not need to be labelled as such.

There are concerns that a demand for cats and dogs with extreme appearances could cause breeders to use gene editing to create pets with these characteristics.

"We feel there is no justification whatsoever for non-farm animals to be covered by the [legislation]," Bowles said. "Ongoing demands for dogs and cats with harmful physical characteristics and exaggerated conformational features, and relentless pressure on sporting animals, are already of deep concern, and there has been no public consultation on gene editing non-farm animals."

The government has said it would take a "step-by-step" approach when releasing the regulatory framework that goes with the act. It said in a press release: "While there is great potential for increasing innovation, the government recognises that there is a need to safeguard animal welfare in the new regulatory framework. That is why we are taking a step-by-step approach, enabling use of precision breeding technologies with plants first followed by animals later."

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But the RSPCA does not think vertebrate animals should be in the act at all, let alone non-farmed creatures such as pets.

Bowles continued: "By allowing the inclusion of all vertebrate animals within this [legislation], the UK government is opening a Pandora's box of what could be allowed in the future."

A Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) spokesperson said: "We are clear that we will not compromise on animal welfare and we have no plans to introduce secondary legislation to cover precision-bred companion animals."

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Pets could be gene-edited under new English law, says RSPCA

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Act opens door to technology being used to create cats and dogs with extreme features, says charity

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Tamilore's Story - a Jeans for Genes Day film

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Ryan's Story - a Jeans for Genes Day film

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Tiana & Star's story - a Jeans for Genes Day film

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The Jeans for Genes campaign raises awareness of the daily challenges faced by those living with a genetic condition and raises money to fund projects that make a tangible difference to the lives of those affected.
Most importantly, the campaign:

brings together the genetic condition community in order to make a loud noise about the issues that matter to them,

shines a light on the organisations that work tirelessly to improve the lives of affected individuals; and

celebrates the achievements of those living with a genetic condition.

Please take a look at our Funding in Action to learn more about the lasting impact your Jeans for Genes donations make.

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Jeans for Genes Campaign - who we are. We supports individuals and families affected by a genetic disorder. Sign up and take part!

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How stress affects your body - Sharon Horesh Bergquist

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Michael C. Bush: This is what makes employees happy at work

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There are three billion working people on this planet, and only 40 percent of them report being happy at work. Michael C. Bush shares his insights into what makes workers unhappy -- and how companies can benefit their bottom lines by fostering satisfaction.

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How does your body process medicine? - Céline Valéry

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What is Public Health? Crash Course Public Health #01

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Witness History - Robot Surgeon - BBC Sounds

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In 1985 the first robot-assisted medical surgery took place in Vancouver, Canada

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People Fixing The World - How to fight fake health news - BBC Sounds

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Catch up on your favourite BBC radio show from your favourite DJ right here, whenever you like. Listen without limits with BBC Sounds.

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Explaining 'transhumanism' and its attempts to create real-life superhumans

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Explaining 'transhumanism' and its attempts to create real-life superhumans

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Explaining 'transhumanism' and its attempts to create real-life superhumans | Your Morning

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🚨OUR NEW SERIES!🚨| Crash Course Public Health Preview!

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Human Body Systems Functions Overview: The 11 Champions (Older Video 2016)

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Human body organ systems for kids - Compilation

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Source: *U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)

Registered nurses (RNs) are required to complete at least two years of formal education and obtain a state license in order to work in a nursing capacity. Although the health care industry is changing, the Bureau of Labor Statistics predicted a growth of 16% in this profession for the 2014-2024 decade. The average annual wage for registered nurses was $71,000 as of 2015.

Registered nurses often work in hospitals or outpatient facilities, where they provide hands-on care to patients by administering medications, managing intravenous lines, observing and monitoring patients' conditions, maintaining records and communicating with doctors. They are also relied upon to give direction and supervision to nurse aides and home health aides.

Beyond the physical support and care they provide, registered nurses may provide emotional support to patients and patients' family members. They may educate patients and the general public on disease management, special diet plans and medical conditions, provide information on home care after their treatment and teach individuals how to self-administer medication or complete other self-care tasks.

Nurses employed by physician offices and other types of facilities may have different duties depending on the level and type of care being offered.

An aspiring nurse's first responsibility is to look ahead in this broad profession and decide on the right educational track. An associate degree takes two years to complete, whereas a bachelor's degree takes four years and includes additional clinical training experience in non-hospital settings. Nurses who wish to enter into administration, research, consulting or teaching positions may wish to pursue accelerated master's degrees in nursing, which can be combined with the pursuit of the Bachelor of Science Nursing credential.

Once they are have earned the desired degree, individuals must pass the NCLEX-RN, a national licensing exam. From there, RNs can proactively manage their path through this profession by pursuing specialties based on a certain type of patient, a certain category of illnesses, or a specific type of facility, such as an imaging facility, an emergency room or a cancer treatment center. While all nurses are responsible in some form for the care, comfort and well-being of patients, their overall responsibilities will differ widely depending on the direction they choose.

According to the 2014 reports of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), nurses may work in hospitals, home health care clinics, private physician offices, nursing care facilities and government. Hospital or urgent care nurses may be required to work evening, weekend and holiday shifts, since most facilities of that type are open 24 hours a day, every day of the year. In some cases, nurses are on call and must be ready to work on short notice. A nurse in a physician's office, however, may have a more standard schedule.

Registered nurses sometimes run clinics or conduct educational seminars or blood drives. A nurse in a physician's office, however, may have a more standard schedule.

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Nursing Duties, Responsibilities and Career Options

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Source: *U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Registered nurses (RNs) are required to complete at least two years of formal education and obtain a state license in order to work in a nursing capacity. Although the health care industry is changing, the Bureau of Labor Statistics predicted a growth of 16% in this profession for the 2014-2024 decade.

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Working in adult social care, you will make a real difference to people's lives every day. We've gathered everything you need to introduce you to the sector. Explore the different types of care work, what is required for the different roles, and information on how to Find a job in your local area.

If you provide social care services to adults, you can download the latest national recruitment materials from our Resource centre.

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Work in Adult Social Care: Explore roles and find a job in your local area

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Working in adult social care, you will make a real difference to people's lives every day. We've gathered everything you need to introduce you to the sector. Explore the different types of care work, what is required for the different roles, and information on how to Find a job in your local area.

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Accuracy: A measure of agreement between a test result and an accepted reference value. Example: If you have a standardized reference material at a known value (such as 180 mg/dl of cholesterol), accuracy measures how close the result of the test you are using will get to the known value. You may have a test that is very precise yet very inaccurate, which would be the case if your device measures 180 mg/dl of cholesterol reproducibly as 240 mg/dl.

Analyte: The part of the sample that the test is designed to find or measure. Example: A home pregnancy test measures human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in urine. The analyte is hCG.

Approved Test: A test that has been approved by FDA, based on the manufacturer's data showing that it is safe and effective for its intended use.
For a new type of test, or for a test that presents higher risk to the patient, the manufacturer performs studies to show that the test does what it claims to do and does not present any unreasonable risk. The manufacturer submits the results in a "premarket approval application" that FDA reviews. If FDA approves the application, the manufacturer can begin selling the test.

Cleared Test: A test that has been cleared by FDA, based on the manufacturer's data showing that it is similar to other tests that are already being sold. For a test that is similar to others already on the market and that is considered to have low risk to the user, manufacturers submit information to show that the test performs similarly to the other tests. The manufacturer submits the results in a "premarket notification" that FDA reviews. If FDA determines that the test is substantially equivalent to another test, the manufacturer can begin selling the test.

Exempt Test: A test that is considered to have such low risk to the patient that FDA does not require manufacturers to submit any premarket approval application or notification.

False Negative: A test result that incorrectly says the analyte, disease, or condition is not present when it actually is present. False negatives can be due to human error, test error, or substances in the sample that interfere with the test.
Example: A woman who is pregnant receives a test result saying that she is not pregnant.

False Positive: A test result that incorrectly says the analyte, disease, or condition is present when it is actually not present. False positives can be due to human error, test error, or substances in the sample that interfere with the test.
Example: A woman who is not pregnant woman receives a test result saying she is pregnant.

Indications For Use: A description of why a patient would use a certain test.

Intended Use: A description of what the manufacturer intended to measure with a certain test.

In Vitro Diagnostic Test: A medical test that analyzes body samples, such as blood, urine, stool, or saliva, for specific components or analytes.

Label: Written material and instructions that accompany the medical test. Labeling includes the writing on the outside of the box as well as instructions packaged with the test.

Over-The-Counter(OTC) Tests: Tests that can be purchased and used by anyone at home. These do not require a doctor's prescription. If manufacturers intend to sell their test kits over the counter, they must demonstrate that untrained lay persons can perform the tests and get good results.

Package Insert: Information about the test and/or instructions that come inside the box or package.

Qualitative Test: A test that gives results in terms of negative or positive.
Example: Pregnancy tests, ovulation tests, and drugs of abuse detection tests indicate whether or not the person has the condition.

Quantitative Test: A tests that gives results in terms of numbers.
Example: Glucose meters indicate how much glucose is present in the sample.

Screening Test: An initial or preliminary test. Screening tests do not tell you if you definitely have a disease or condition. Rather, positive results indicate that you may need additional tests or a doctor's evaluation to see if you have a particular disease or condition.

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Accuracy: A measure of agreement between a test result and an accepted reference value. Example: If you have a standardized reference material at a known value (such as 180 mg/dl of cholesterol), accuracy measures how close the result of the test you are using will get to the known value.

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This tutorial teaches you about medical words. You'll learn how parts of medical words are put together. You'll also find quizzes to check what you've learned.

What's in this for me?

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To use the sharing features on this page, please enable JavaScript. This tutorial teaches you about medical words. You'll learn how parts of medical words are put together. You'll also find quizzes to check what you've learned. What's in this for me?

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AAA screening, see Abdominal aortic aneurysm screening

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The A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia includes over 4,000 articles about diseases, tests, symptoms, injuries, and surgeries. It also contains an extensive library of medical photographs and illustrations. For more information about A.D.A.M., see its content review board.

The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed physician should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. Copyright 1997-2020 A.D.A.M., Inc. Duplication for commercial use must be authorized in writing by ADAM Health Solutions.

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To use the sharing features on this page, please enable JavaScript. The A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia includes over 4,000 articles about diseases, tests, symptoms, injuries, and surgeries. It also contains an extensive library of medical photographs and illustrations. For more information about A.D.A.M., see its content review board.

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Medical Diseases & Conditions - Mayo Clinic

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Explore comprehensive guides on hundreds of common and rare diseases and conditions from the experts at Mayo Clinic.

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Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products. Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission.

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Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic.

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Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products. Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission. Advertising & Sponsorship Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic.

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Learn More About Lab Tests - Testing.com

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Find affordable medical testing. Learn how to get tested at home or nearby for blood tests, STD tests, thyroid tests, and more.

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MedlinePlus links to health information from the National Institutes of Health and other federal government agencies. MedlinePlus also links to health information from non-government Web sites. See our disclaimer about external links and our quality guidelines.

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MedlinePlus links to health information from the National Institutes of Health and other federal government agencies. MedlinePlus also links to health information from non-government Web sites. See our disclaimer about external links and our quality guidelines.

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These animated videos show the anatomy of body parts and organ systems and how diseases and conditions affect them.

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To use the sharing features on this page, please enable JavaScript. These animated videos show the anatomy of body parts and organ systems and how diseases and conditions affect them.

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National Library of Medicine - National Institutes of Health

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The National Library of Medicine (NLM), on the NIH campus in Bethesda, Maryland, is the world's largest biomedical library and the developer of electronic information services that delivers data to millions of scientists, health professionals and members of the public around the globe, every day.

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Awesome innovations that you must see | artificial organs | medical breakthrough

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Awesome innovations that you must see | artificial organs | medical breakthrough

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Search medical terms and abbreviations with the most up-to-date and comprehensive medical dictionary from the reference experts at Merriam-Webster. Master today's medical vocabulary. Authoritative pronunciations.

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Medical therapeutics have grown leaps and bounds from leaches and bloodletting, ingesting mercury, cocaine, heroin, and chloroform, to replacing joints and keeping hearts beating that have lost their rhythm. With these advances, we of course have run into new obstacles to overcome. When a patient is given a new kidney or a new heart, their body recognizes that it is not theirs and will begin to attack the organ, through the work of our immune system which keeps our bodies safe from harm. That is why these patients are often placed on immunosuppressive drugs to keep the organ safe, but then we lose all of the good things our immune system does including fighting off infections and helping heal wounds. Furthermore, the organ waiting list is growing longer and longer, and researchers are now looking at how to restore function to a broken organ without the need for a transplant. This is where the field of bioengineering comes into play. Here, we can use man-made materials to design devices or implants that keep a heart beating, replace battered and worn knees, deliver life-saving insulin to diabetics, or for cosmetic reasons such as tissue fillers and implants. These all come with their own consequences, mainly something we call the foreign body response.

As mentioned previously, our body's immune system defends us against all sorts of dangers, and these include what we call "foreign bodies." If you've ever gotten a splinter or had your ears pierced, you have had your immune system respond against a foreign body - in those cases the splinter or the earring is the foreign body. This response is why you begin to have issues with medical device implants, like the glucose monitors and insulin pumps mentioned in the video. Once our immune system detects this threat, it begins the process of trying to break it down. Special immune cells called macrophages come in and begin to try to break down the implant, and in the case of the glucose monitors, even these early actions of the immune system are enough to begin to throw off readings. After macrophages cannot degrade the implant, then our body tries to wall it off my depositing dense scar tissue around the implant. This tissue is made of collagen - the scar that forms around an implant is very similar to the scar that forms when you get a cut on your skin, both are trying to protect you from the outside world and any invading bacteria!

Check out another TED-Ed lesson on how the immune system works by clicking here.
is an example video of the foreign body response to implantation of a hernia mesh.

Anderson, James M., Analiz Rodriguez, and David T. Chang. "Foreign body reaction to biomaterials." Seminars in immunology. Vol. 20. No. 2. Academic Press, 2008.

Coleman, D. L., R. N. King, and J. D. Andrade. "The foreign body reaction: a chronic inflammatory response." Journal of biomedical materials research 8.5 (1974): 199-211.

Ziats, Nicholas P., Kathleen M. Miller, and James M. Anderson. "In vitro and in vivo interactions of cells with biomaterials." Biomaterials 9.1 (1988): 5-13.

Anderson, James M., et al. "Host reactions to biomaterials and their evaluation." Biomaterials science. Academic press, 1996. 165-214.

Badylak, Stephen F., et al. "Macrophage phenotype as a determinant of biologic scaffold remodeling." Tissue Engineering Part A 14.11 (2008): 1835-1842.

Academic Papers by author of video:
Sadtler, Kaitlyn, et al. "Design, clinical translation and immunological response of biomaterials in regenerative medicine." Nature Reviews Materials 1.7 (2016): 16040.

Sadtler, Kaitlyn, et al. "Divergent immune responses to synthetic and biological scaffolds." Biomaterials 192 (2019): 405-415.

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Your body vs. Implants - Kaitlyn Sadtler

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Insulin pumps improve the lives of millions of people with diabetes around the world by monitoring blood sugar, delivering insulin, and preventing the need for constant finger-pricking. But there's a catch: they're temporary. And it's not only insulin pumps that have this problem, but all bodily implants. Why is that?

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Even though we must use it carefully, we have figured out many ways to use radiation to improve the quality of life for people all around the world. Learn a little more about all the ways radiation is used in this essay: A Day With The Atom...living with zest, from the American Nuclear Society.

This study reviews the risk of radiation from medical imaging.

Ask the expert: radiation exposure in the United States.

Learning the lessons of Fukushima.

Agriculture, art, and medicine all have something in common: radiation. Explore the applications of radiation in more detail from food safety to space travel here.

If you have questions about something you've read, you can even 'ask an expert!' Click here, fill out the form and submit your question!

Talk to your teacher about how to evaluate websites for potential bias. The American Nuclear Society states that they are an organization that "will be the recognized, credible advocate for advancing and promoting nuclear science and technology." Take an objective look at their site and then have a discussion about if you feel that the American Nuclear Society is fair in how they discuss the risks and rewards of nuclear radiation on their website.

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When we hear the word radiation, it's tempting to picture huge explosions and frightening mutations. But that's not the full story - radiation also applies to rainbows and a doctor examining an X-ray. So what is it, really, and how much should we worry about its effects?

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Brain tumors have traditionally been managed with surgical intervention. Advancements in technology and radiation therapy have led to drastic changes in the management of many brain tumors with knife-less procedures. So, how do doctors perform brain surgery without making an incision?

If you take a walk into nearly any major medical center around the world, you will see brain surgery being conducted without typical surgeon's tools. Instead of an operating room, Radiation Oncologists and Neurosurgeons treat patients in heavily shielded rooms with a therapy known as "Stereotactic Radiosurgery," or "SRS." SRS is a technique of delivering incredibly precise, high-intensity radiation to well-circumscribed targets, working to ablate brain tumors without the need for direct access and minimizing injury to surrounding areas.

The overall concept of SRS is to deliver multiple low-dose rays of radiation through different points of entry, to accumulate to one central high-dose area on to a tumor to destroy it . The radiation used in SRS is far more powerful than those used for diagnostic imaging, such as in x-rays used to look for broken bones, and employs the use of highly specialized machines. Typically, "Linacs" are the machines of choice due to their wide availability. These machines output electromagnetically-produced high-energy radiation with the use of a linear accelerator, which accelerates electrons to collide with heavy metals to produce high energy photons that can be directed at a target.

These Linacs also have the ability to rotate 360 degrees around a patient, allowing for multiple angles of radiation dose entry. However, the production of SRS-specific machines have helped to bolster radiosurgery further. Machines such as the Cyberknife, a compact linear accelerator attached to a robotic arm, similar to those automated to build cars, as well as the Gamma Knife , a half-spherical array of 200 Cobalt-60 radiation-emitting sources, have allowed for higher precision and increased range of delivery of radiation.

For patients, the process for SRS treatment begins with 3D mapping and treatment planning. Highly-trained physicists and dosimetrists calculate the doses and angles of entry, simulating customized treatment on a computerized program, to best understand how to maximize tumor dose while minimizing surrounding healthy brain dose.

In order to accurately and safely deliver these high-doses of radiation, patients undergoing SRS are stabilized with the use of tight-fitting customized plastic masks, or metal head frames that are bolted directly to the skull, as the slightest movement can endanger irradiation of a healthy portion of the brain. Once the doctors and physicists determine the best way to target the brain tumor, treatment can begin. Treatments are completely painless and can last anywhere from 30 minutes to several hours, depending on the size and number of tumors to be treated. Sometimes, radiosurgery is fractionated, a process where the total dose is divided into several smaller doses of radiation treated on separate days, up to 5 days. Fractionation is often reserved for tumors that are near other critical healthy portions of the brain, allowing these tissues to better tolerate treatment. Those receiving SRS often see their doctors from home, undergo the procedure, and leave for home the very same day.

Stereotactic radiosurgery has been such an incredible advancement in the treatment of brain tumors that its concepts and techniques are being used throughout the field of radiation oncology, the treatment of cancers with the use of radiation, to other tumors of the body. This type of treatment, often referred to as Stereotactic Ablative Radiotherapy or "SABR " has exhibited profound effects in tumors of the lung, liver, pancreas, and so on, and in many cases, seen to increase tumor control rates and further sparing morbidity.

Learn more about Stereotactic Radiotherapy here.

The future of non-invasive treatments are bright. Progression in technology have allowed for even further advancements, where now, doctors can better visualize tumor movement and account for breathing in real time, even using MRI imaging technology in conjunction with treatment. Newer techniques such as FLASH radiotherapy, with report of the first patient treated in 2019, allows for ultra high rates of radiation, and has shown to vastly reduce toxicity while preserving tumor ablation. Although the pain of a cancer diagnosis can be devastating, advancements in painless, non-invasive procedures are paving a gentle pathway for cure.

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Performing brain surgery without a scalpel - Hyunsoo Joshua No

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Every year, tens of thousands of people have brain surgery without a single incision: there's no scalpel, no operating table, and the patient loses no blood. Instead, this procedure uses a machine that emits invisible beams of light at a precise target inside the brain. So how exactly does this treatment work?

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What happens if you get infected with the coronavirus? Who's most at risk? How can you protect yourself?

Public health expert Dr. David Heymann, who led the global response to the SARS outbreak in 2003, shares the latest findings about COVID-19 and what the future may hold. Here, he answers the 6 most common questions about the coronavirus:

Question 1: What happens if you get infected with the coronavirus?

DH: This looks like a very mild disease, like a common cold, in the majority of people. There are certain people who get infected and have very serious illness; among them are health workers. It's a very serious infection in them, as they get a higher dose than normal people, and at the same time, they have no immunity. So in the general population, it's likely that the dose of virus that you receive when you are infected is much less than the dose that a health worker would receive, health workers having more serious infections. So your infection would be less serious, hopefully. So that leaves the elderly and those with co-morbidities to really be the ones that we have to make sure are taken care of in hospitals.

Question 2: Who are the people who should be most concerned about this?

DH: Well, the most concerned are people who are, first of all, in developing countries and who don't have access to good medical care and may not have access at all to a hospital, should an epidemic occur in their country. Those people would be at great risk, especially the elderly. Elderly in all populations are at risk, but especially those who can't get to oxygen. In industrialized countries, it's the very elderly who have co-morbidities, who have diabetes, who have other diseases, who are at risk. The general population doesn't appear to be at great risk.

Question 3: What pre-existing medical conditions put people at higher risk?

DH: First of all, pulmonary disease existing as a co-morbidity is also important. In general, the elderly are at greater risk, especially those over 70, because their immune systems are not as effective as they might have once been, and they are more susceptible to infections. In addition, in some instances in China, there's been a co-infection with influenza and at the same time, there have been some bacterial super-infections on the pneumonias that are occurring.

Question 4: Where can we find up-to-date information?

DH: The Center for Disease Control in Atlanta keeps track and has updates on a regular basis on its website. Also, the World Health Organization in Geneva, which is coordinating many of the activities going on internationally, also has a website with daily updates. It's our responsibility to get that information as individuals, so we understand and can make sure that we can contribute in our own way to prevention of major spread.

Question 5: What questions about the outbreak remain unanswered?

DH: It's clear we know how it transmits, we don't know how easily it transmits in humans, in communities or in unenclosed areas. We know, for example, that in the enclosed area of a cruise ship, it spread very easily. We need to better understand how it will spread once it gets into more open areas where people are exposed to people who might be sick.

Question 6: Is the worst behind us?

DH: I can't predict with accuracy. So all I can say is that we must all be prepared for the worst-case scenario. And at the same time, learn how we can protect ourselves and protect others should we become a part of that epidemic.
Watch the full Talk:

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What we know (and don't know) about the coronavirus

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Public health expert Dr. David Heymann, who led the global response to the SARS outbreak in 2003, shares the latest findings about COVID-19 and what the future may hold. Here, he answers the 6 most common questions about the coronavirus: Question 1: What happens if you get infected with the coronavirus?

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How the stethoscope was invented | Moments of Vision 7 - Jessica Oreck

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The stethoscope is the single most widely used medical instrument in the world. But where did the idea come from? In the seventh installment of our ‘Moments of Vision’ series, Jessica Oreck shares the modest origins of this incredibly useful item.

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Can AI accelerate a medical breakthrough? | TED Institute

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Even in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, the medical community made advances throughout 2020. Here are 5 of the year's most impactful innovations.

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From breakthroughs in oncology, gene therapies, and heart health, the medical community made many new advances in 2020. Morsa Images/Getty Images

Overall, 2020 has been a tumultuous year. From a health perspective, it's been one turned upside down with a deadly global pandemic reorienting how we live our lives and relate to others.

The COVID-19 pandemic has justifiably dominated headlines and attention from media, policymakers, and health officials alike.

While it's clearly the defining public health, cultural, economic - even political - event of the year, the pandemic shouldn't obscure the fact that 2020 was also a time of great medical innovation.

From breakthroughs in oncology, gene therapies, and heart health, to the development of COVID-19 vaccines that are now being administered domestically and around the world, there's a lot that the medical community can be proud of in 2020.

Healthline touched base with leading experts about some of the most impactful medical advances of the year and how they hint at a more hopeful tomorrow.

Almost every expert Healthline interviewed agreed that gene editing was one of the big stories of the year.

In October, Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A. Doudna were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovering the CRISPR/Cas9 genetic scissors. (Just five other women have won this prize before).

This gene "scissor" tool is what it sounds like - enzymes "snip out pieces of DNA to restore them to their normal function," Dr. William Morris, executive medical director of Cleveland Clinic Innovations, told Healthline.

Charpentier and Doudna showed that these genetic tools could be controlled to cut any kind of DNA molecule at a designated location - not just distinguish DNA from viruses, as these scissors exist in their natural form.

Essentially, it means we can "rewrite the code of life," according to the Nobel Prize's official announcement.

Morris said that this innovation has wide-ranging ramifications for people who have a wide range of genetic conditions.

He cited sickle cell disease, a condition where malformed sickle-shaped red blood cells cause blockages in blood flow, preventing the protein hemoglobin from effectively ferrying needed oxygen through the body.

Morris said these microscopic tools can cut out these genetic errors.

There have only been a handful of drugs to treat these kinds of conditions in the past.

Now, this kind of development allows you to "remove the error and replace the [genetic] code, kind of like in your computer or your iPhone if you downloaded a patch for new software to repair an app that always crashes - that's what this is," Morris explained.

"It's so earth-shatteringly amazing to tell these patients who otherwise faced an entire lifetime of pain and suffering. You can now use the word 'cure,' which is unbelievable to think about," he said.

Olivier Elemento, PhD, director of the Englander Institute for Precision Medicine at Weill Cornell Medicine in New York City, told Healthline that "2020 is the year of the genetic code."

"We're really able to use the genetic code in humans and viruses to help humanity in ways we were not equipped to before, in ways we couldn't do before," Elemento said.

He added that gene therapy in general, along with this CRISPR technology, "is pretty extraordinary."

This more comprehensive understanding of genetics extends beyond the Nobel Prize.

For instance, Elemento said Weill Cornell Medicine, where he currently works, along with New York-Presbyterian Hospital and Illumina Inc. " recently announced an initiative to sequence the genome of thousands of patients."

The more we understand about genetics and gene therapies, the more improved our precision medicine capacity will be - opening up the possibilities of creating targeted therapies for all kinds of conditions.

Recently, the American Heart Association released its own list of innovations in medical treatments.

The spotlight includes a new phase 3 study that could change the way hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (when the heart muscle thickens and can stiffen) is treated.

It also highlights new treatments that might change up the first-line treatment for atrial fibrillation (AFib) - a new minimally invasive surgery to prevent stroke and a new trial that reveals more treatment might not necessarily mean better treatment for coronary heart disease.

American Heart Association President Dr. Mitchell S.V. Elkind, MS, FAAN, FAHA, wrote in an email to Healthline that all of these advances over the past year reflect "connections between seemingly disparate areas of medicine and the fact that we are most successful when we break down the barriers between fields."

In order to tackle an issue as wide ranging as heart disease, for instance, it takes an interdisciplinary, comprehensive approach.

"For example, we learned more this year about the unexpected ways in which medicines designed to treat diabetes, the sodium glucose transporter 2 inhibitors, or SGLT2 inhibitors, help patients with heart failure, even those without diabetes," he added.

Elkind also cited our growing understanding of how connections between infectious diseases like the flu and COVID-19 are tied to greater risk for heart disease and stroke.

"Often, the most important advances occur when experts from different areas work together in creative ways to solve a difficult problem," he wrote.

When asked if there was one particular heart health innovation that stood out the most to him, Elkind said that what resonated with him was something not tied to "fancy medications or groundbreaking research."

"An analysis of people from across the U.S. showed that rates of blood pressure control have begun to decline in the U.S., after almost two decades of better control. High blood pressure is one of the most important and easily treated risk factors for stroke and heart disease, and so this backsliding is especially alarming," he added.

He stressed that also pointed to the impact that having health insurance has on controlling one's blood pressure.

"Those with some form of health insurance had blood pressure control rates of 43-54 percent, while for those without insurance, it was only 24 percent," Elkind explained.

"Improving access to quality care is one of the best ways we have to improve health, and that is where we at the American Heart Association will be placing our efforts in the coming years," he said.

Benjamin Neel, MD, PhD, director of the Perlmutter Cancer Center at NYU Langone Health, said 2020 has been a year that's seen cancer research push forward on multiple fronts.

He said technologies are in development for early detection of cancer by way of blood tests.

"It's been known for quite some time that tumors release DNA into the blood stream, we have technology developing from the standpoint of monitoring tumors, conducting sensitive tests for tumors, for tests for recurrence of cancers and protein-based tests," Neel told Healthline, outlining current research.

He also cited technology that modulates the regulatory DNA sequence patterns - which refers to the part of the DNA molecule that can change the way a gene expresses itself in a living thing - to pinpoint when methylation patterns might point to the development of cancer.

Among other research highlights over the past year, Neel said researchers have been developing new ways of "drugging" genetic mutations.

He mentioned work being done in developing a compound to degrade the androgen receptor for prostate cancer cells - what allows these cancer cells to grow.

One of the biggest changes this year came in the form of how our "new normal" work-from-home lifestyle has impacted medicine.

As more and more people stay away from offices and public spaces, they're turning to telemedicine. The Zoom screen is the new doctor's office.

Morris said that, while this isn't a medical discovery per se, it's a crucial - in some ways life-saving - development for how we relate to healthcare in our lives.

"Out of this whole pandemic, one of the things we've discovered as clinicians is that we need to see patients where they are and not force them to cross state lines," Morris said. "While we had telemedicine, we had some patients over Skype and video visits, there were clear disincentives and policies in place against people easily crossing state lines to seek medical care, of receiving care remotely."

He said the pandemic facilitated a push at the government level and with state and federal regulators to "reduce barriers to these tools that are critical lifelines for patients."

Even when healthcare professionals couldn't always see patients in person this year, the embrace of telemedicine has resulted in "unprecedented increases in the adoption and use of these tools" and seeking care, Morris added.

"This pandemic has challenged us to question old perceptions and policies, so that was a very positive thing," he stressed.

"Innovation doesn't necessarily have to be an 'aha moment' in a lab or something right in front of us," he said. "It's unfortunate we needed a pandemic or a challenge to sometimes see a barrier, and sometimes that barrier is us."

This year, a possible breakthrough in Alzheimer's disease research and treatment came in the form of a blood test that can diagnose this progressive form of dementia.

While the news is huge, the test is still in the trial phase.

If ultimately approved, a simple test for the condition would be a game changer.

There are as many as 5 million people living with Alzheimer's in the United States, a number that will likely triple by 2060, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

While this test has yet to go through all the proper approvals, a company distributed the first publicly available Alzheimer's blood test this fall.

As 2020 comes to a close, experts are looking to a more hopeful new year.

For its part, Cleveland Clinic, which enters its centennial next year, released a list of the predicted top 10 innovations of 2021.

Morris said that while many think of this year as fraught and divisive - full of tragedy and setbacks - looking back at these innovations shows there's always something to be grateful for and look forward to.

Elemento said that he expects "a biotech and pharma boom" in the next few years.

Citing the breakthroughs in gene therapies and genetic manipulation indicate what will be a continual embrace of this kind of medical technology.

"All these technologies, now everyone knows they exist and that they can be used for good, it will be a big boom for these technologies," Elemento added.

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5 Medical Innovations You Probably Didn't Notice Happened in 2020

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Even in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, the medical community made advances throughout 2020. Here are 5 of the year's most impactful innovations. Overall, 2020 has been a tumultuous year. From a health perspective, it's been one turned upside down with a deadly global pandemic reorienting how we live our lives and relate to others.

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Robot Surgeons and 4 Other Medical Advances That Sound Like Sci-Fi

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Medical breakthrough: a spinal cord implant helps paralyzed patients to walk again

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Throughout the history of mankind, humans have been searching for the secret to living a longer life. While people continue to search for the fountain of youth, quicker results in life expectancy have come from advances in the medical field. Many of these medical breakthroughs have occurred in the last century and have been huge leaps for the world of healthcare. In this blog, we take a look at what we think have been the five biggest medical breakthroughs in history.

1. Germ Theory Inventor

The oldest medical breakthrough on our list might be one of the most important and that was the invention of the germ theory. For the majority of time, humans did not understand how sickness and diseases were spread. The concept of germs, viruses, and bacteria was non-existent, and any illness or infection that someone had some other explanation for the root cause.

The germ theory of disease finally gave a scientific explanation to many of these diseases. This theory stated living microorganisms and pathogens were actually the cause of many diseases. According to the Science Encyclopedia website, this idea was initially proposed in the year 1025 and then later again in the mid 1500s and 1700s. However, it wasn't until the work of Louis Pasteur in the 1850s when this theory really gained traction. Finally, a scientist named Robert Koch truly solidified this theory with the use of a microscope. Because of these gentlemen, the medical world can now perform safe surgeries, administer vaccines, and eliminate minor infections that would otherwise be fatal.

2. First Organ Transplant

Ever since the 18th century, scientists have experimented with organ transplants on animals and even humans. However, according to the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, it wasn't until 1954 that the first-ever transplant of a kidney was done successfully. Now with today's modern technology in tissue typing and immunosuppressant drugs; livers, hearts, lungs, kidneys, and several other organs are routinely and safely transplanted to those in need.

3. Antibiotic Invention History

Antibiotics are used every day across the globe to fight off bacterial infections. The most interesting thing about antibiotics was they were created as a result of a scientific accident according to Microbiology Society. A scientist named Alexander Fleming had discovered a fungus growing in a petri dish of Staphylococcus bacteria in 1928. He observed that everywhere the fungus existed, the bacteria could not. This fungus was named Penicillin, a now extremely commonplace antibiotic that treats an array of bacterial infections. Before the invention of antibiotics, common infections caused by bacteria were often fatal, such as strep throat, pneumonia, whooping cough, and more.

4. First MRI Machine Invented

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a technique that is used to generate images of organs inside the body. The MRI was developed in the 1970s and it wasn't until 1977 that the first full-body MRI was developed by Dr. Raymond Damadian, according to GE Healthcare. The reason that its invention was so important is the ability MRIs have to diagnose a patient in a non-invasive manner. MRIs are now widely used in medical facilities and hospitals across the country and are not only used in the diagnosing process but also to see if patients are on a healthy path of recovery.

5. Artificial Intelligence in Medicine

Artificial intelligence (AI) used to sound like something out of a science-fiction movie but now it is closer to reality. AI, also known as machine learning, is when a machine has intelligence that is not natural to that displayed in humans. While the world of medicine hasn't fully tapped into the potential capabilities of AI, the possible applications and uses could drastically change the field as we know it. Daniel Greenfield, an author for Harvard University states, "AI algorithms are great for automating arduous tasks, and sometimes can outperform humans in the tasks they're trained to do." AI would have the ability to look through hundreds of thousands of medical records to find patterns that can help with the diagnosis and treatment of patients.

While there has been an array of different medical breakthroughs over the years that have made outstanding improvements to the healthcare standard, we believe these are extremely important innovations. If you are in the world of healthcare and are looking to find your next job, search through our thousands of openings through the button below!

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Sources:

1. https://microbiologysociety.org/members-outreach-resources/outreach-resources/antibiotics-unearthed/antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance/the-history-of-antibiotics.html

2. https://microbiologysociety.org/members-outreach-resources/outreach-resources/antibiotics-unearthed/antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance/the-history-of-antibiotics.html

3. https://microbiologysociety.org/members-outreach-resources/outreach-resources/antibiotics-unearthed/antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance/the-history-of-antibiotics.html

4. http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2019/artificial-intelligence-in-medicine-applications-implications-and-limitations/

5. http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2019/artificial-intelligence-in-medicine-applications-implications-and-limitations/

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The Top Five Medical Breakthroughs in History - Soliant

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Throughout the history of mankind, humans have been searching for the secret to living a longer life. While people continue to search for the fountain of youth, quicker results in life expectancy have come from advances in the medical field.

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Science is pretty miraculous when you stop and think about it.

As far away as a universal cancer vaccine or a cure for diabetes may seem today, remember that science has made impressive advances in the past half century that would have seemed like fiction to your grandparents. Here is a look at the top developments in medicine by decade.

1960s: Measles Vaccine

Before the measles vaccine was licensed in 1963, an estimated 400 to 500 people died of the disease each year, and another 3 million to 4 million people in the United States got the measles each year, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Now, the disease is considered to be eliminated from the country, with anywhere from 37 people in 2004 to a high of 667 people in 2014 contracting the measles in the United States (largely due to unvaccinated travelers).

1970s: First "Test Tube" Baby

On July 25, 1978, the world's first in vitro baby was born in the United Kingdom. Prior to this, scientists had been able to fertilize an egg with a sperm in the lab but had not been able to achieve implantation in a woman. U.S. researchers replicated this feat in 1981. In 2013, in vitro fertilization (IVF) accounted for more than 1.5% of all babies born in the United States, or a total of 63,286 births, according to the Society for Assisted Reproductive Technology. In addition, undergoing a modified natural cycle IVF helps bring the cost down, allowing more women and couples to afford it.

1980s: First Artificial Heart

Barney Clark received the first artificial heart Dec. 2, 1982, and lived for 112 days after. Over the next 10 years, 236 artificial hearts were implanted. Today, they are primarily used as a way to gain more time while a patient waits for a donor heart.

1990s: Medical Lasers

Today, lasers are used for everything from hair removal to eliminating potentially cancerous tissue. One of their many benefits is that they instantly cauterize tissue so there's minimal bleeding - or sometimes, none. The first excimer laser was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in 1995.

2000s: Genome Mapping

The Human Genome Project was successfully completed April 14, 2003, with much fanfare. The National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) likens it to "having all the pages of a manual needed to make the human body." While researchers are still working on how to understand it all, and new drugs and treatments based off of the project are still a few years away, genome mapping holds much promise for the future of personalized preventative medicine.

2010s: Restoring Sight to the Blind

In 2015, Terry Byland became the first person in the world to have two retinal prostheses - one in each eye. His ability to regain some sight signals hope for people going blind from Retinitis pigmentosa. The reason: the Argus II Retinal Prosthesis system, the first FDA-approved implanted device to re-establish some sight in blind patients, giving them the ability to perceive images and movement. Mark Humayun, MD, PhD, co-inventor of the device, who holds joint appointments at the Keck School of Medicine of USC and the USC Viterbi School of Engineering, received the National Medal of Technology and Innovation from President Barack Obama for his groundbreaking contributions to society. Humayun is an expert in vitreoretinal diseases at the USC Roski Eye Institute.
by Anne Fritz
If you're local to Southern California and are in search of a primary care physician, call (800) USC-CARE (800-872-2273) or visit https://keckmedicine.org/request-an-appointment/ to schedule an appointment.

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The Most Life-Changing Health Advances of the Past 50 Years

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Science is pretty miraculous when you stop and think about it. As far away as a universal cancer vaccine or a cure for diabetes may seem today, remember that science has made impressive advances in the past half century that would have seemed like fiction to your grandparents.

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Driverless cars, artificial intelligence, smartwatches, and more - the future is truly upon us. With science and technology developing so quickly, medical breakthroughs continue to be made every day all around the world.

But what are some of the most profound advancements and how can they change the way we treat medical conditions? Here are 19 of the most mind-blowing medical discoveries of the past nine years.

1. 3D printed body parts

3D printing is widely regarded as being an industry-changing technology for consumer goods and manufacturing. But what's not well-known is that scientists have successfully created human body parts using 3D printers.

In 2013, researchers from Cornell University printed an outer ear that worked like and resembled the real thing. Researchers from the University of Pennsylvania and MIT have also reproduced blood vessels using similar processes.

At Wake Forest University in North Carolina they were able to print skin cells onto wounds for rapid healing. A San Diego company called Organovo has also committed itself to printing human livers, and a 3D-printed partial liver transplant is expected by 2020.

Other exciting new medical applications for 3D printing include the printing of denture material such as crowns, orthodontic appliances and dentures, as well as hearing aids and inexpensive customised prostheses for landmine amputees.

Surgical applications of 3D printing are also evolving rapidly, with 3D printed models being used to plan complex neurosurgical procedures, craniofacial reconstruction and spinal surgery.

Taking 3D printing up another notch is bioprinting. Bioprinting can produce living tissue, bone, blood vessels and human cartilage, which are used in medical procedures, training and testing. For example, a team from Swansea University in the UK has developed a bioprinting process that creates an artificial bone matrix in the shape of the bone required using a biocompatible material for bone transplants.

Scientists can also create artificial organs like synthetic ovaries and even a pancreas, which grow inside the body to replace original faulty ones. This is useful for organ transplants. With bioprinting, patient-specific tissue can be generated in order to develop accurate, targeted and personalised treatments.

2. Gene technology

Gene therapy technology is the modifying of someone's DNA to treat disease, rather than just treating the symptoms like most drugs on the market.

The use of gene therapy technology to treat blood cancers such as leukaemia is one of the most exciting medical developments in recent history. Recent experiments have also revealed the potential for gene therapy to be used in reversing other types of cancers such as breast cancer. There's some promise that gene therapy could one day be used to eliminate the need for traditional treatments such as radiation, chemotherapy or surgery.

2017 was a landmark year for many gene therapy breakthroughs, including it being used to cure a teenage boy with sickle cell disease. Gene therapy has also been used to successfully build new skin for a patient with a connective tissue disorder, restore sight in several patients with retinal diseases, and substantially increase the blood-clotting proteins in patients with haemophilia.

Developments have also occurred in relation to the use of gene therapy to treat symptoms of ageing. If muscle mass and stem cell depletion can be effectively treated with gene therapy, this technology has the potential to significantly slow the human ageing process.

On the other hand, gene editing technology such as Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) has also transformed the way we treat disease. CRISPR is found in bacteria and involved in immune defence, defending against invading viruses. Scientists have used CRISPR to cut infected DNA strands or to enhance a person's genetic code.

In 2017, scientists from Oregon Health & Science University in Portland revealed in the journal Nature that they have successfully removed a heart disease defect in an embryo using CRISPR. This means that by modifying genes, things like cancer and HIV could be overcome in a matter of years.

3. Gut bacteria treatments

As our understanding of gut bacteria and how it impacts the rest of the body develops, scientific breakthroughs in relation to gut flora continue to shape how we treat illness.

Amazingly, scientists have discovered that the mix of bacteria or microbes in our digestive system could affect how our brain functions and the way we think. There's also research demonstrating a potential link between obesity and the mix of gut bacteria in our bodies.

Microbiome therapy (the use of the body's bacteria to treat illness) has been successfully used to treat certain forms of diarrhoea, life-threatening gut infections, and inflammatory bowel disease, and researchers are now focusing on other possible applications including treatments for cancer, metabolic disease, mental illness, autoimmune disease and even sports performance.

But the medical field is only just beginning to understand the degree to which gut bacteria affects human health. Gut bacteria may one day be used as part of possible treatments for diseases such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, as well as common allergies and cancers.

4. Cancer therapies

The field of cancer therapies has also seen some recent breakthroughs, including a better understanding of cancer fingerprinting. Cancer fingerprinting is a new approach to analysing how specific cases of cancer react to different treatments.

Every incidence of cancer has a unique fingerprint or identity code, and cancer fingerprinting allows medical staff to analyse the mutated genes of tumours and understand how sensitive particular cancers will be to different types of chemotherapy.

Additionally, there have been advances in cancer immunotherapy, which treats cancer by boosting the body's immune system, rather than removing or targeting the tumour cells through surgery or chemotherapy.

There are several types of immunotherapy, including monoclonal antibody therapy, oncolytic virus therapy, t-cell therapy and cancer vaccines. These use proteins, genetically modified viruses, immune cells and antigens to fight cancer. Immunotherapy can be given as oral pills or liquid, via an injection, as a cream to rub onto the skin, or is administered directly into the bladder.

While still not widely used in surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapy, immunotherapies have been approved to treat people with many types of cancer and are currently being studied in a number of clinical trials.

5. The bionic eye

The development of the bionic eye has begun to accelerate in the last few years. In 2013, Second Sight, a California-based company, received approval from the US government to start marketing a bionic eye. The artificial eye uses a camera set into the user's glasses, and the camera then transmits electrical messages wirelessly into the user's retinal implant.

While it doesn't fully restore normal vision, it does enable certain patients to attain a level of vision and some patients have even been able to see colour.

Then in 2016 in Australia, Bionic Vision Technologies was given $23.5 million in capital to develop their own version of a bionic eye. They intend to use the funds to begin surgical trials in Melbourne in the coming months.

And hot off the press, a new wireless bionic eye developed in Australia will be tested in humans for the first time later this year. While it won't fully restore sight, it's hoped that it will restore enough vision to improve a blind person's level of function in their daily activities.

The device is composed of a coiled antenna that sits on the back of the wearer's head and transmits information from a camera into the brain, bypassing the wearer's sightless eyes altogether. Trials will start this year and will take 6 to 12 months, with the results expected to be announced in 2019.

6. Hormones for heart treatment

While it seemed as though a major breakthrough was on the horizon for patients at risk of heart failure, the latest news is unfortunately not good.

While around a quarter of patients who are hospitalised for serious heart conditions don't live beyond a year after their hospitalisation, a new drug had seemed to have the potential to improve this outlook dramatically.

Serelaxin, a synthetic version of the hormone relaxin developed by Novartis, had been shown in trials to boost survival rates in patients by 37%. The drug works by opening up the blood vessels and had an anti-inflammatory impact on the system.

Unfortunately, serelaxin has recently failed to achieve its objectives in a second phase III trial by the company. Novartis has revealed that serelaxin missed two main endpoints in the trial - worsening of heart failure at day five and cardiovascular death at day 180.

This is a big disappointment for Novartis, which has said it will examine all the data in detail before deciding whether to continue with serelaxin. It's also a massive blow for patients, as AHF (Acute Heart Failure) has a high death rate and there have been no new therapies developed in recent decades.

So, unfortunately, as far as breakthrough heart treatments are concerned, for now at least we can only say .... watch this space.

7. Faecal transplants

Faecal transplants involve removing good bacteria from a healthy person's faecal matter and transplanting it into a patient's colon.

Commonly used to replace gut bacteria in people that have complications after the prolonged use of antibiotics, faecal transplants are now also being increasingly trialled in the treatment of conditions such as chronic fatigue syndrome, Parkinson's disease, autism and irritable bowel syndrome.

They have also been used to successfully treat people infected with C. difficile, which is a type of infectious diarrhoea responsible for around 15,000 deaths each year. Donors whose faecal matter has more bacterial diversity and doesn't contain diseases or antibiotic-resistant infections have a higher success rate treating intestinal disorders like C. difficile. The cure rate was over 90% for those who underwent multiple treatments.

In 2019, a clinical trial began in order to assess the long-term safety of faecal transplants via enema for C. difficile. The study is expected to be completed in three years.

An interesting side note reported recently regarding faecal transplants is that some patients seem to have been taking on the characteristics of their faecal donors, such as developing a similar body shape (over or underweight) or symptoms of depression.

While there are no immediate plans to start using faecal transplants to treat conditions such as depression or weight disorders, some researchers believe that faecal transplants could play a role in the future of a number of different treatments.

8. Cure for Hepatitis C

Hepatitis C is a potentially fatal disease that causes 12,000 deaths every year. Around 30% of people can't be cured, and those who are cured undergo a heavy anti-viral-drug treatment program that lasts for nearly a year and is associated with major side effects.

With a 95% cure rate and a treatment program lasting only 12 weeks, a new drug called Sofosbuvir could help patients avoid the extended treatment period and improve the rate of people cured from Hepatitis C.

Direct-acting antiviral drugs work by blocking the action of particular proteins or enzymes which the Hepatitis C virus needs to replicate and infect liver cells. And while some only work on specific strains, Sofosbuvir works against all six major types of Hepatitis C.

Sofosbuvir also has very few side effects and requires only one daily dose, making it ideal for widespread use in the quest to eliminate Hepatitis C.

Unfortunately, Sofosbuvir is quite expensive. While it's subsidised through the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) in Australia and costs just AUD$38.30 a month, the drug's regular price of USD$1,000 per pill for a 12-week treatment (upwards of $84,000 per patient) has meant that millions of people around the world have failed to gain access to it as yet.

9. Seizure stoppers

Epilepsy is a chronic brain disorder producing unpredictable seizures that can have a debilitating effect on a sufferer's lifestyle, with around 50 million people suffering from epilepsy worldwide.

In 2013, a company called NeuroPace revolutionised epilepsy therapy by developing the RNS System; the world's first closed loop, brain-responsive neuromodulation system.

The RNS System works by continually monitoring brain waves, and when it detects unusual activity, it emits electrical pulses before a seizure can occur. Since its initial release, NeuroPace has been working to refine the RNS System and has now produced what it calls the Next Gen RNS System.

This latest version has twice the battery power and twice the memory of previous models, all in the same size device. This means that patients will have fewer disruptions to their lives and doctors will be able to review a wider amount of brain activity data.

Responsive neurostimulation, the science behind the RNS System, holds a great deal of promise for the future. As well as being used to treat epilepsy, it's hoped it can be applied to treat a range of other disabling neurological, psychiatric and chronic disorders negatively impacting millions of people worldwide.

10. Synthetic cells

In 2010, the first completely new synthetic cells were created by stitching together chemicals to synthesise the full genome of a bacterium. This could open the way to new treatments in synthetic biology that could have applications in a range of industries, from biofuels to healthcare.

Research on synthetic cells progressed rapidly in 2015, when a group of Japanese biologists created a synthetic "protocell" made from DNA and proteins packaged inside lipids.

While these spheres weren't alive, the DNA in them contained instructions to replicate when the conditions were right. Then by altering the pH of their environment, the team were able to trigger the cells to divide.

Then in 2017, Israeli researchers developed synthetic cells that could function autonomously and be used to kill cancers. After being implanted in breast cancer tumours, they were encoded to produce an anti-cancer protein, which they did, killing cancer cells en masse and with little damage to surrounding healthy tissue.

This potential for on-site production of compounds necessary for a healthy body has wide reaching implications for medicine, and synthetic cells will be one to watch in the not-too-distant future.

11. Treatment for cluster headaches

Cluster headaches are chronically painful headaches many times more intense than a migraine. They can occur up to eight times a day and last from 2 weeks up to 3 months or longer.

Cluster headaches are believed to be generated by the hypothalamus, which is home to the brain's biological clock, and imaging studies have shown activation in this area during cluster attacks. Despite this, until now, there has been no known cause for cluster headaches and no cure.

Fortunately for sufferers of this debilitating condition, researchers at the Cleveland Clinic may be close to an effective, practicable treatment. Their research involved successfully implanting a small device behind a patient's upper jaw. The device works by sending electrical pulses into the patient's head and can be operated via remote control.

The electrical-pulse stimulation was shown to reduce the impact of headaches, so hopefully science is finally closing in on a cure or at least a remedy for this truly terrible condition.

12. New class of antibiotics

The emergence of superbugs makes discovering new antibiotics more critical than ever. The discovery of the first new class of antibiotics in 30 years was therefore welcome news in the medical field.

This new type of antibiotics, known as teixobactin, can kill serious infections such as tuberculosis and septicaemia without encountering resistance. It could eventually be used to treat drug-resistant infections caused by the superbug known as MRSA.

Currently, MRSA is treatable only with a combination of drugs, and without new classes of antibiotics being discovered, basic operations can carry a high risk of untreatable infection.

But progress is being made ...

In 2015, a University of Lincoln team revealed that it had developed a synthesised version of teixobactin with a much faster and easier synthesis process.

And now, three years later, an international team of researchers has successfully synthesised the teixobactin compound and used it to treat bacterial infection in mice.

Unfortunately, scientists believe we are still up to 10 years away from producing a drug that can be prescribed to humans. But with 10 million people worldwide predicted to succumb to drug-resistant infections every year by 2050, this latest development is an important milestone in the quest to developing a new weapon in the war against superbugs.

13. Cheap, high quality graphene

Valued for its strength and conductive properties, graphene can potentially be used in anything from medical treatments to solar cells.

At one atom thick, graphene is the thinnest material known to man. It's also around 200 times stronger than steel, is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity, and has unique light absorption abilities. It can also be combined with other elements such as gases and metals to create materials with unique properties, giving it unlimited value in practically any field.

But while graphene has excellent potential for a variety of applications, a major factor preventing its wide distribution is its high cost of production.

Until now.

Scientists have recently found a way to produce high-quality graphene at a fraction of the cost of previous manufacturing methods. This new technique involves applying graphene on copper foils by chemical vapor deposition.

Other researchers have found new ways to eliminate the need for highly controlled production environments by growing graphene film in ambient air with a natural precursor. This not only speeds up the production process, but also makes it much more cost effective.

14. Melt-away cataract treatment

Cataracts are a leading cause of blindness around the world, and current treatment options are limited to an operation to replace the clouded lens with an artificial one.

But researchers from the University of California, San Francisco, have discovered a non-surgical treatment that uses eye drops. These eye drops contain compounds that dissolve the cataracts, eliminating the need for surgery.

The researchers who discovered the compounds reviewed almost 2,500 different chemicals to identify two sterols known as lanosterol and compound 29 that could be used to melt away the amyloids that lead to cataracts.

A cataract forms when a natural protein clumps and folds together, which causes the lens to lose transparency. The eye drops used by the researchers were able to dissolve these clumps of protein in the eyes of lab mice and restore clearer vision. The drops were found to also be able to prevent this protein from clumping together in the first place.

This study is part of a growing body of research showing promising results of eye drops as a non-surgical alternative to cataract treatment, and those people living in the developing world, where access to cataract surgery is limited, will stand to benefit greatly from this new medical discovery.

15. Reprogrammed T-cells to treat leukaemia

Programming T-cells to fight a particular type of leukaemia has resulted in an extraordinary success rate in experimental trials. Of the patients suffering from acute lymphoblastic leukaemia who received the trial treatment, 94% experienced an elimination of symptoms. More than half of the patients had a complete remission of their cancer.

This new immunotherapy treatment known as Adoptive Cell Transfer (ACT) involves taking immune cells from patients and reprogramming them with receptor molecules to target specific types of cancer. The cells are then infused back into the body. What's more, the technique holds promising potential to treat other types of cancer and diseases.

The remarkable progress now being made in this field has come after several decades of painstaking research, with progress accelerating markedly in the past few years as researchers gain a better understanding of how these therapies work in patients.

Researchers warn though that it's still early days, with questions still surrounding whether this treatment will work against solid tumours, although one approach that uses immune cells from around the tumour (known as TILs), has shown promise in clinical trials.

16. The world's first artificial pancreas

Medtronic's MiniMed 670G measures your blood glucose every five minutes using a sensor with a protruding needle. Known as an artificial pancreas, the device also delivers insulin through a pump worn on your abdomen, adjusting the dosage according to your readings.

The MiniMed was approved by the American FDA in 2016. It's expected to significantly reduce the risk of hypoglycaemia and make life easier for those with type 1 diabetes by saving them from having to check their blood sugar levels throughout the day.

The MiniMed 670G can slow or stop the level of insulin delivery if it senses that the user's glucose is low, or increase it if it detects that the glucose levels are high. The sensor contains a wire inserted under the skin on the abdomen or upper arm, which measures glucose values in the tissue fluid.

These values are transmitted wirelessly to the insulin pump and displayed on the pump's screen. The pump then delivers a prescribed dose of insulin through an infusion set.

As well as alerting people with diabetes if their glucose levels are potentially approaching dangerously high or low levels, users can use the information from the MiniMed 670G to help determine patterns in their glucose levels, which they can then use to help keep their glucose at a safe level.

Additionally, the MiniMed 670G is a hybrid (not fully automatic) system as you have to manually enter the amount of carbohydrates you've eaten so it can adjust your insulin dose. The good news is that automatic artificial pancreas systems have been developed since then.

The Control-IQ system, derived from research done at the Center for Diabetes Technology at the University of Virginia, automatically monitors and regulates blood glucose levels in people with type 1 diabetes.

Researchers at the Australian Artificial Pancreas Program have developed SCEN1C for type 1 diabetes. It uses a closed loop algorithm to autonomously adjust insulin delivery as a person's blood glucose levels rise and fall.

17. Effective psoriasis medication

An effective psoriasis drug might be on the horizon for those who suffer from this chronic skin condition. Johnson & Johnson's drug Guselkumab has achieved the highest ever response rates in psoriasis patients in a phase three study.

Psoriasis is a common, chronic skin disease that can have a significant impact on a person's quality of life. An inflammatory autoimmune disorder, it results in the overproduction of skin cells, causing raised, inflamed red lesions, which can be physically painful.

Guselkumab is a human monoclonal antibody that selectively blocks the protein interleukin (IL)-23. Administered via injection, Guselkumab had 85.1% of patients achieving clearance or minimisation of their symptoms within 16 weeks, while only 6.9% of placebo patients achieved this.

At the 16 week stage of trial, 73.3% of patients had 90% skin clearance. By the 24-week stage, 80.2% of patients had 90% skin clearance compared with only 53% of patients who were given Humira, the current top-selling psoriasis drug.

It's believed that up to 125 million people around the globe suffer from psoriasis, which is nearly 3% of the world's population, so the amazing success rates achieved by Johnson & Johnson's new drug Guselkumab will have far reaching results once the drug is made readily available.

18. Opioid dependence treatment

Probuphine, an implant to treat opioid (painkiller) dependence, has been approved by the American FDA. Probuphine is used to automatically administer low doses of buprenorphine to opioid dependent patients to support their recovery process.

While buprenorphine tablets are already widely available, an implant is considered a 'breakthrough' development because it eliminates the need to take multiple pills throughout the day.

There's also no risk of forgetting to take your medication, and because the implant disperses the medication evenly through your body, it can be effective in reducing withdrawal symptoms.

An implant also can't be lost or stolen, is a safe way to have medication in your home around children and pets, and once it's inserted the daily temptation to take opioids instead of buprenorphine is removed.

Probuphine is implanted under the skin of the upper arm in a procedure which takes just 15 minutes in an outpatient setting.

19. Mitochondrial replacement therapy

The world's first baby born with a new three-parent technique has avoided the risk of developing the fatal Leigh syndrome, thanks to mitochondrial replacement therapy.

A team of doctors created an embryo by using the nucleus from the mother's egg and inserting it into a donor egg that had the nucleus removed. The egg was then fertilised with the father's sperm. In doing so, the doctors successfully created an embryo able to develop into a healthy baby boy.

Mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) is a procedure designed to bypass devastating genetic diseases arising from abnormalities in the DNA in mitochondria, the cell's power sources.

Babies can only inherit mitochondria from their mothers, so replacing abnormal mitochondria in an embryo with normal ones from a donor can produce healthy babies. But because it means the child will have DNA from three parents, MRT is a controversial procedure.

While MRT is illegal in many countries, the UK recently legalised it and Singapore appears about to follow suit. And because it's not much different to other fertility treatments, many scientists believe that with more research and proper legislation, MRT is likely to become commonplace in the future.

Additionally, MRT has been used in Spain to treat infertility despite it being illegal in the country. Spanish centre Embryotools partnered with the Institute of Life in Athens, Greece, to carry out a clinical trial using MRT with approval from the Greek National Authority of Assisted Reproduction. It resulted in a pregnancy, showing MRT to be a good alternative to egg donation.

The future of medical breakthroughs

These 19 developments only scratch the surface of the incredible medical breakthroughs that have occurred in the last nine years. Though there are plenty of technological advancements to be concerned about - weapons, surveillance and an increasingly virtual world, to name a few - these advances in medicine show the potential for humans to work together to engineer a brighter, healthier future for all.

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19 Mind-Blowing Medical Advances in the Past Decade

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Driverless cars, artificial intelligence, smartwatches, and more - the future is truly upon us. With science and technology developing so quickly, medical breakthroughs continue to be made every day all around the world. But what are some of the most profound advancements and how can they change th

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Here we review some of the key areas for medical advances over the next 20 years, including pharmaceutical and surgical innovation and regenerative medicine. Technological advances are explored in our information technology pages.

Key messages

Pharmaceutical innovation could provide new treatment for common diseases
Innovation in drug discovery, genetics, biotechnology, material sciences and bioinformatics has already improved treatments for conditions such as HIV, cancer and heart disease and offers hope of better treatments for neurodegenerative diseases.

Advances in diagnostics, devices and robotics could improve outcomes
Developments in diagnostics and drug delivery could reduce drug errors, increase compliance and improve efficacy.

Precision medicine could revolutionise our ability to predict, prevent and treat a range of conditions
Low-cost genetic sequencing, genome mapping, biomarker tests, and targeted drugs and treatments will enable professionals to provide tailored health information and create personalised treatments to improve patient outcomes.

Regenerative medicine shows potential but wide-scale benefits remain elusive
Despite advances in stem cell transplantation, cell reprogramming and synthetic and artificial organs, effective and safe regenerative therapies remain elusive and expensive and have yet to be realised on a wide scale.

Technological advances could transform interactions between professionals and patients
Professionals can already hold consultations with, monitor and deliver care to patients at home using home-based remote technologies and video conferencing. This trend is likely to continue. In the future, medical 'apps' for mobile phones will also allow patients to access their medical records, make appointments and seek personalised health information and support.

Budget constraints may limit the ability of the NHS to support and benefit from medical innovation
There is a real risk that medical advances could fuel demand for care. Innovations can extend the range of patients eligible for treatment, and so increase overall activity.

Key uncertainties

Uncertainties about the nature and speed of medical advances could impact on the trends in health and social care. For example, in the past forecasts have been over-optimistic about xeno-transplantation and gene therapy, while underestimating the speed and impact of breakthroughs in CT scanning and minimally invasive surgery.

Interplay between technology, evidence and affordability
Budgetary constraints could act as a major barrier in the adoption of new medical technologies. However, a more evidence-based approach targeting resources at interventions which have the greatest benefit could release resources for investment elsewhere.

Rate of adoption
Rates of adoption of new medical technologies can be highly variable. Uptake can be particularly slow if it requires a new pathway of care to support it, such as in telecare.

Technological interdependencies
Biomarkers may have the potential to enable clinicians to diagnose and treat conditions much more effectively, tailoring therapies to the individual. However, this technology is heavily reliant upon advances in other fields, including molecular biology and genomics. This type of interdependency could affect the rate at which developments move into clinical use.

Next page: Pharmaceutical innovation

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Here we review some of the key areas for medical advances over the next 20 years, including pharmaceutical and surgical innovation and regenerative medicine. Technological advances are explored in our information technology pages.

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An up-and-coming gene therapy for blood disorders. A new class of medications for cystic fibrosis. Increased access to telemedicine. These are some of the innovations that will enhance healing and change healthcare in the coming year, according to a distinguished panel of clinicians and researchers from Cleveland Clinic.

In conjunction with the 2020 Medical Innovation Summit, Cleveland Clinic announced the Top 10 Medical Innovations for 2021. Now in its 18 th year, the annual Medical Innovation Summit is organized by Cleveland Clinic Innovations, the development and commercialization arm of Cleveland Clinic.

The list of breakthrough technologies was selected by a committee of Cleveland Clinic subject matter experts, led by Will Morris, M.D., executive medical director for Cleveland Clinic Innovations, and Akhil Saklecha, M.D., managing director of Cleveland Clinic Ventures.

Here, in order of anticipated importance, are the Top 10 Medical Innovations for 2021:
1. Gene Therapy for Hemoglobinopathies
Hemoglobinopathies are genetic disorders affecting the structure or production of the hemoglobin molecule - the red protein responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood. The most common hemoglobinopathies include sickle cell disease and thalassemia - which combined affect more than 330,000 children born worldwide every year and more than 100,000 patients with sickle cell disease in the United States alone. The latest research in hemoglobinopathies has brought an experimental gene therapy, giving those who have the condition the potential ability to make functional hemoglobin molecules - reducing the presence of sickled blood cells or ineffective red blood cells in thalassemia to prevent associated complications.
2. Novel Drug for Primary-Progressive Multiple Sclerosis
In individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS), the immune system attacks the fatty protective myelin sheath that covers the nerve fibers - causing communication problems between the brain and the rest of the body that can result in permanent damage or deterioration and eventual death. Approximately 15 percent of people with MS experience a disease subset known as primary-progressive, characterized by gradual onset and steady progression of signs and symptoms. A new, FDA-approved therapeutic monoclonal antibody with a novel target is the first and only MS treatment for the primary-progressive population.
3. Smartphone-Connected Pacemaker Devices
Implantable devices like pacemakers and defibrillators deliver electrical impulses to the heart muscle chambers to contract and pump blood to the body. They are used to prevent or correct arrhythmias - heartbeats that are uneven, too slow or too fast. Remote monitoring of these devices is an essential part of care. Traditionally, remote monitoring of this device takes place through a bed-side console that transmits the pacemaker or defibrillator data to the physician. Though millions of patients have pacemakers and defibrillators, many lack a basic understanding of the device or how it functions and adherence to remote monitoring has been suboptimal. Bluetooth-enabled pacemaker devices can remedy these issues of disconnection between patients and their cardiac treatment. Used in conjunction with a mobile app, these connected devices allow patients greater insight into the health data from the pacemakers and transmit the health information to their physicians.
4. New Medication for Cystic Fibrosis
Today, more than 30,000 people in the United States are living with cystic fibrosis (CF) - a hereditary condition characterized by thick, sticky mucus that clogs airways and traps germs, leading to infections, inflammation and other complications. CF is caused by a defective cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein. A class of drugs called CFTR modulators correct the protein's action, but medications developed prior to last year had only been effective in a subset of people with certain mutations. A new combination drug, FDA approved in October 2019, provides relief for patients with the most common CF gene mutation (F508 del) - estimated to represent 90 percent of individuals living with the disease.
5. Universal Hepatitis C Treatment 6. Bubble CPAP for Increased Lung Function in Premature Babies
Classified as a "silent epidemic" by the CDC, hepatitis C has emerged as a major public health issue in the U.S. Infection with the hepatitis C virus can lead to serious, life-threatening health problems like liver failure, cirrhosis and liver cancer. With no vaccine for the virus, patients have been limited to medication, but many treatments were accompanied by adverse side effects or only effective for certain genotypes of the disease. A new, approved fixed-dose combination medication has vastly improved hepatitis C treatment. More than 90 percent effective for hepatitis C genotypes one through six, the therapy represents an effective option for a wider scope of patients.
7. Increased Access to Telemedicine through Novel Practice and Policy Changes
Underweight and frail, babies born prematurely often require specialized care - including ventilation for those with infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS). For IRDS, infants are commonly administered surfactant during mechanical ventilation, a practice that can cause lasting lung injury in preterm infants and contribute to the development of chronic lung disease. Unlike mechanical ventilation, b-CPAP is a non-invasive ventilation strategy - delivering continuous positive airway pressure to newborns to maintain lung volumes during exhalation. The oscillating, rather than constant pressure, plays a role in its safety and efficacy, minimizing physical trauma and stimulating lung growth when administered over a prolonged period.
8. Vacuum-Induced Uterine Tamponade Device for Postpartum Hemorrhage
COVID-19 saw increased adoption of telemedical practices as clinicians needed to conduct patient visits online. An increasingly virtual care model and increased consumer adoption came by way of fundamental shifts in policy at both the government and provider level. Since March, state and federal regulators have moved quickly to reduce barriers to telehealth, understanding that these new tools can speed access to care while protecting healthcare workers and community members. These measures opened the floodgates for telehealth, allowing for new programs and the expansion of existing networks.
9. PARP Inhibitors for Prostate Cancer
Characterized as excessive bleeding after having a baby, postpartum hemorrhage is a devastating complication of childbirth, affecting from one to five percent of women who give birth. Mothers experiencing postpartum hemorrhage may require blood transfusions, drugs which may cause dangerous side effects, long uncomfortable procedures, and even emergency hysterectomy with loss of fertility. Non-surgical interventions directed at the site of bleeding has been limited to balloon devices that expand the uterus while compressing the site of bleeding. But the newest advancement is that of vacuum-induced uterine tamponade - a method that uses negative pressure created inside the uterus to collapse the bleeding cavity causing the muscle to close off the vessels. The vacuum-induced device represents another minimally invasive tool for clinicians as they treat the complication and provides a low-tech solution that is potentially translatable to developing countries with low resource availability.
10. Immunologics for Migraine Prophylaxis
About one man in nine will be diagnosed with prostate cancer in his lifetime. While there has been progress in the last decade, the disease remains the second-leading cause of cancer death among men in the U.S. PARP inhibitors - pharmacological inhibitors for cancer treatment - block proteins called PARP that help repair damaged tumor DNA in people with BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene mutations. Though known for their success in women's cancers, two PARP inhibitors have been demonstrated to delay the progression of prostate cancer in men with refractory cancer and DNA repair pathway mutations. Both were approved for prostate cancer in May 2020.

Migraines affect more than 38 million people in the U.S. - an estimated 12 percent of the adult population. For some time, multi-purpose drugs like blood pressure medications, antidepressants, anti-seizure drugs and Botox injections have been used to prevent attacks. However, not developed specifically for migraines, these methods have been met with mixed results. In 2018, new medications were developed to help head off migraine pain. The class of drugs works by blocking the activity of a molecule called calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), which spikes during a migraine. Actively prescribed in 2020, this new FDA-approved class of medication is the first to be specifically designed for the preventive treatment of migraine, marking a new era of migraine therapeutics.

At next year's Medical Innovation Summit, in addition to the annual Top 10 list, Cleveland Clinic will present a new award in honor of its rich history of innovation and advancements in healthcare delivery. The inaugural prize will be awarded to a team, organization or individual who has made a significant contribution to healthcare delivery with a focus on one or more defined areas. Details will be released in early 2021.

For more information on the annual Top 10 Medical Innovations list including descriptions, videos, and year-by-year comparisons, visit Cleveland Clinic's Top 10 Medical Innovations page.

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Cleveland Clinic Unveils Top 10 Medical Innovations For 2021

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An up-and-coming gene therapy for blood disorders. A new class of medications for cystic fibrosis. Increased access to telemedicine. These are some of the innovations that will enhance healing and change healthcare in the coming year, according to a distinguished panel of clinicians and researchers from Cleveland Clinic.

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Throughout history, disease has been a subject of fear and fascination in equal measure. However, each revolutionary medical discovery has brought us a crucial step closer to understanding the complex mysteries of disease and medicine. As a result, we have been able to develop medicines and treatments that have been instrumental in saving millions of lives.

Here's a chronological list of the top medical advances in history so far:

It is difficult to pinpoint when vaccines became an accepted practice, mostly because the journey to discovery was long and complicated. Beginning with an attempt by Edward Jenner in 1796 to use inoculations to tame the infamous smallpox virus, the usefulness and popularity of vaccines grew very quickly. Throughout the 1800s and early 1900s, various vaccinations were created to combat some of the world's deadliest diseases, including smallpox, rabies, tuberculosis, and cholera. Over the course of 200 years, one of the deadliest diseases known to man - the smallpox - was wiped off the face of the earth. Since then, virtually all vaccines have worked using the same concept. That was until a new technology, called mRNA, came along and created game-changing possibilities for the future of healthcare. Its high effectiveness, capacity for rapid development and potential for low production costs was evident during the Covid-19 pandemic two separate mRNA vaccines were developed and approved for use in just a matter of months.

Anaesthesia (1846)

Before the first use of a general anaesthetic in the mid-19th century, surgery was undertaken only as a last resort, with several patients opting for death rather than enduring the excruciating ordeal. Although there were countless earlier experiments with anaesthetic dating as far back to 4000 BC - William T. G. Morton made history in 1846 when he successfully used ether as an anaesthetic during surgery. Soon after, a faster-acting substance called chloroform became widely used but was considered high-risk after several fatalities were reported. Since the 1800s, safer anaesthetics have been developed, allowing millions of life-saving, painless operations to take place.

Germ theory (1861)

Before the 'germ' theory came about, the widely believed theory was that disease was caused by 'spontaneous generation'. In other words, physicians of the time thought that disease could appear out of thin air, rather than being air-borne or transferred via skin-to-skin contact. In 1861, French microbiologist Louis Pasteur proved through a simple experiment that infectious disease was a result of an invasion of specific microscopic organisms - also known as pathogens - into living hosts. This new understanding marked a significant turning point in how diseases were treated, controlled and prevented, helping to prevent devastating epidemics that were responsible for thousands of deaths every year, such as the plague, dysentery and typhoid fever.

Medical imaging (1895)

Antibiotics (1928)

Alexander Fleming's penicillin, the world's first antibiotic, completely revolutionised the war against deadly bacteria. Famously, the Scottish biologist accidentally discovered the anti-bacterial 'mould' in a petri dish in 1928. However, Fleming's incredible findings were not properly recognised until the 1940s, when they began being mass-produced by American drug companies for use in World War II. Two other scientists were responsible for the mass distribution of penicillin, Australian Howard Florey and Nazi-Germany refugee Ernst Chain, and their development of the substance ended up saving millions of future lives. Unfortunately, over the years certain bacterium have become increasingly resistant to antibiotics, leading to a world-wide crisis that calls for the pharmaceutical industry to develop new anti-bacterial treatments as soon as possible.

Organ transplants (1954)

In December 1954, the first successful kidney transplant was carried out by Dr Joseph Murray and Dr David Hume in Boston, USA. Despite many previous attempts in history, this was the first instance where the recipient of an organ transplant survived the operation. The turning point came when various technical issues were overcome, such as vascular anastomosis (the connection between two blood vessels), placement of the kidney and immune response. In 1963, the first lung transplant was carried out, followed by a pancreas/kidney in 1966, and liver and heart in 1967. Aside from saving thousands of lives in the years following, transplant procedures have also become increasingly innovative and complex, with doctors successfully completing the first hand transplant in 1998 and full-face transplant in 2010!

Antiviral drugs (1960s)

Terrible viruses such as small-pox, influenza and hepatitis have ravaged many human populations throughout history. Unlike the sweeping success of antibiotics in the late 1930s and 1940s, the development of antivirals did not really take off until the 1960s. This was mostly due to the structure of a virus, which was a core of genetic material surrounded by a protective protein coat that hides and reproduces inside a person's cells. As the virus information is so protected, it was difficult to treat them without damaging the host cell. Over the years antivirals have improved significantly, and work by blocking the rapid reproduction of viral infections, and some can even stimulate the immune system to attack the virus. The development of effective antivirals has been significant in treating and controlling the spread of deadly virus outbreaks such as HIV/AIDS, Ebola and rabies.

Stem cell therapy (1970s)

The incredible potential of stem cells was discovered in the late 1970s, when they were found inside human cord blood. Two specific characteristics make stem cells remarkable: they are unspecialised cells that can renew themselves through cell division even after being inactive, and under certain conditions can be used to make any type of human cell. This discovery has enormous potential and stem cell therapy has already been used to treat leukaemia and other blood disorders, as well as in bone marrow transplantation. Research is currently ongoing to use stem cells to treat spinal cord injuries and a number of neurological conditions such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson' and strokes. However, due to the ethical issues surrounding the use of embryonic stem cells, researchers are likely to face many obstacles when developing stem cell-based therapy.

Immunotherapy (1970s)

Immunotherapy, a treatment that stimulates the immune system to fight off a disease, has been in the making for over a century. The story began in the 1890s with the experimental work of William B. Coley who injected inactive bacteria into cancerous tumours, achieving remission in some patients. However, it is only in the last 40 years that serious progress has been made in immunotherapy, particularly in respect to treating cancer. In the 1970s, antibody therapies were developed and in 1991, researchers produced the first cancer vaccine which was approved by the FDA in 2010. In the last decade, immuno-oncology has become one of the most revolutionary cancer therapies in existence.

Artificial intelligence (21st century)

Having been in gradual development since the turn of the century, artificial intelligence has already produced impressive technologies that have significantly altered the healthcare landscape. Life science companies and research institutions are teaming up with pioneering technology giants such as Google, IBM and Apple to invent smarter and faster ways to deal with diseases. These innovative technologies range from diagnostic tools that can detect malignant tumours invisible to the naked eye, to cognitive computing systems that produce tailored treatment plans for cancer patients. The potential of artificial intelligence in detecting, diagnosing and treating disease is rapidly unfolding before us and looks set to transform the future.

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Throughout history, disease has been a subject of fear and fascination in equal measure. However, each revolutionary medical discovery has brought us a crucial step closer to understanding the complex mysteries of disease and medicine. As a result, we have been able to develop medicines and treatments that have been instrumental in saving millions of lives.

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Boris Johnson will call on social media companies to do more to stop anti-vaccination messages spreading online as he visits a hospital in the south-west of England.

The prime minister will lay out his plans to halt the resurgence of measles in the UK after more than 230 cases were diagnosed in the first quarter of the year.

He will not go so far as to give his backing to mandatory vaccination, which is not being ruled out by Matt Hancock, the health secretary. But he will set out plans for the UK to regain its lost "measles-free" status.

NHS England will be asked to write to all GPs urging them to promote catch-up vaccinations for older children and those who missed out on a second booster jab.

Johnson's central idea is to call a summit of social media companies to discuss how to ensure that only accurate information on vaccinations is disseminated, at a time when anti-vaccination material has spread wildly online.

Unicef released figures this year showing that more than half a million children in the UK went unvaccinated against measles between 2010 and 2017. Anti-vaccine messages on social media have been blamed for promoting scepticism among parents.

Johnson will call for the NHS to meet a target of 95% of children receiving both doses of the MMR vaccine, which protects against measles, mumps and rubella. Just 87% now get both jabs.

"After a period of progress where we were once able to declare Britain measles-free, we've now seen hundreds of cases of measles in the UK this year. One case of this horrible disease is too many, and I am determined to step up our efforts to tackle its spread," Johnson will say.

"From reassuring parents about the safety of vaccines to making sure people are attending follow-up appointments, we can and must do more to halt the spread of infectious, treatable diseases in modern-day Britain."

Hancock, who ran for the Tory leadership before supporting Johnson, said he wanted the whole health system to come together to renew focus on vaccinations with the aim of eliminating measles for good. He has previously said campaigners against jabs for diseases such as measles have "blood on their hands".

Johnson is due to visit Cornwall on Monday where he will meet doctors and nurses. It is his second hospital visit in recent weeks amid speculation that he is preparing to fight an election promising to spend more on the NHS. The Vote Leave campaign in 2016 pledged an extra £350m a week for the NHS after Brexit.

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Johnson urges social media firms to block anti-vaccine messages

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Boris Johnson will call on social media companies to do more to stop anti-vaccination messages spreading online as he visits a hospital in the south-west of England. The prime minister will lay out his plans to halt the resurgence of measles in the UK after more than 230 cases were diagnosed in the first quarter of the year.

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Medical Breakthroughs We Will See In The Next 50 Years