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making your voice heard.

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Miley Cyrus is very well known for sticking up for all human rights, environmental rights, and animal rights. She considers herself a feminist

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A well known country song that represents a common female theme in country music.

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Angelina Jolie is known for being an international humanitarian who also isn't afraid to speak out for women's rights.

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Kelly Clarson speaks out about women not needing a man to survive.

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This is a great article speaking about what it means to be privileged.

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Knowing that if you ask to speak to "the person in charge," you'll almost certainly be facing someone of your own race. Being able to think about different social, political or professional options without asking whether someone of your race would be accepted or allowed to do what you want to do. Assuming that if you buy a house in a nice neighborhood, your neighbors will be pleasant or neutral toward you. Feeling welcomed and "normal" in the usual walks of public life, institutional and social.
What is white privilege? It's the level of societal advantage that comes with being seen as the norm in America, automatically conferred irrespective of wealth, gender or other factors. It makes life smoother, but it's something you would barely notice unless it were suddenly taken away - or unless it had never applied to you in the first place.

In 1988, the professor Peggy McIntosh used the paper White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack to describe it as a set of unearned assets that a white person in America can count on cashing in each day but to which they remain largely oblivious. The concept has been percolating in academic circles ever since and is approaching broad usage among young people on the political left. Yet as Post reporter Janell Ross noted earlier this week, it's also a term that many Americans "instinctively don't trust or believe to be real," despite reams of evidence to the contrary. Black children- 4-year-olds! - comprise 18 percent of preschool enrollment but are given nearly nearly 50 percent of all out-of-school suspensions. Job applicants with white-sounding names are 50 percent more likely to get called in for an interview. Black defendants are at least 30 percent more likely to be imprisoned than white defendants for the same crime.

Why does such a fraught piece of academic lingo matter now? Because people are finally beginning to talk about what it means in their own lives. At a time when minorities are becoming more vocal about the ways in which their experiences in America differ from those of their white counterparts, the term might finally be entering the mainstream. On Monday night, at a forum for presidential hopefuls held in Iowa, Democratic front-runner Hillary Clinton was asked by an audience member to explain what white privilege meant to her, and how it had affected her life. Her response? " Look, where do I start? "

Yet for every instance in which white privilege is acknowledged, there is an inevitable backlash.

Commentators quickly jump in to remind us that " not all white people are privileged," a clear (and perhaps willful) misreading of the term. Obviously not all white people are wealthy, and yes, there are minorities who have achieved wealth and other marks of status. But white privilege is something specific and different - it's the idea that just by virtue of being a white person of any kind, you're part of the dominant group which tends to be respected, assumed the best of, and given the benefit of the doubt. That just isn't the case for people of other races, no matter how wealthy, smart or hard-working they might be.

Others denounce the term as a weapon used to guilt, shame, and silence, pointing at presumably well-meaning students told by holier-than-thou faculty and classmates to " check their privilege." Yet while the term can be used to silence, that's more the fault of a rude terminology-wielder than of the concept itself. All sorts of formerly harmless words have been deployed to guilt people and suppress speech - "unpatriotic" and "elitist" come to mind. A reminder to acknowledge one's privilege is just a reminder to be aware - aware that you might not be able to fully understand someone else's experiences, or that the assumptions you were brought up with may be blinding you to certain concerns. That awareness that is key to any sort of civil discussion, about race, class or anything else.

Before everyone gets too defensive (and let's be honest - it's probably too late), a few notes of clarification: Pointing out that white privilege exists isn't the same as accusing every white person of being a racist. Acknowledging that you might benefit from such privilege isn't equivalent to self-hatred or kowtowing to detested "social justice warriors."

The thing about white privilege is that it tends to be unintentional, unconscious, uncomfortable to recognize but easy to take for granted. But it's that very invisibility that makes it that much more important to understand: Without confronting what exists, there's no chance of leveling the field.

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Knowing that if you ask to speak to "the person in charge," you'll almost certainly be facing someone of your own race. Being able to think about different social, political or professional options without asking whether someone of your race would be accepted or allowed to do what you want to do.

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First known football player to kneel during the national anthem to raise awareness of oppression with African American civilians being targeted by police.

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I don't think enough people know what Intersectionality. I for one, didn't know what it meant before taking this course.

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the complex, cumulative way in which the effects of multiple forms of discrimination (such as racism, sexism, and classism) combine, overlap, or intersect especially in the experiences of marginalized individuals or groups… See the full definition

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A good way to read about statistics and ways to overcome.

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Oppression tends to exist in compartmentalized, clearly labeled categories of race, social class, gender, or sexual preference. While these rigidly defined categories may have been applied to allow for rational discussion of problems and solutions, the truth is that they are inherently oppressive themselves. Hatt-Echeverria and Urrieta (2003) indicate that the oppression of class and race tend to intersect, creating a grey area of overlapping categorizations. They further assert that this "compartmentalization of oppression arises from imperialistic and institutionalized motivation to quantify, order, and label the world in order to 'know' it and, consequently, control it" (p. 39).

Such is the case with the relationship between classism and racism. The two "-isms" are closely related, as racial and socio-economic lines intersect. Berliner (2006), in his research and discussion on poverty in urban schools, found that minority groups who live in urban areas are strongly represented in the census numbers reflecting groups experiencing extreme poverty.

There exists a strong correlation between poverty and race, which directly contributes to the achievement gap that exists among minority students in urban public schools and their dominantly Caucasian, suburban counterparts. This correlation results in a shift of power and privilege to the dominant race/ culture, and the marginalization of many students, first by social class, and secondarily by race.

The strong correlation between poverty and race directly contributes to the achievement gap that exists between minority students and their dominantly Caucasian counterparts. The result is a shift of power and privilege to the dominant group and the marginalization of many students, first by social class, and secondarily by race.

Hatt-Echeverria and Urrieta (2003) discuss the conceptual framework termed the "matrix of domination," which identifies how the stratified power structure is organized, and how power and privilege are circulated among individuals with varying relationships with that power structure (p. 39). Those relationships can differ based on the individual identity of the person affected.

Essentially, an African American female student may be affected or influenced differently by an oppressive force than a Latino male. While both students may be struggling with systemic oppression in the form of poverty, they each would be influenced differently by it within the contexts of their own gender and race. Thus, the individual's place in the "matrix" is determined by his or her own personal backgrounds and experiences.

This is an important idea to understand for the teacher. It is important to see through the systemically oppressive categories that have been put in place, and the assumptions they create and support. Recognizing each student as an individual is the first step in rising above the paradigms created by such labeling. A teacher who views his or her class through the lens created by racist or classist stereotypes serves only to perpetuate the oppression that is already in place.
Only 8% of kids growing up in low-income communities graduate college by the age of 24. Of those who grow up in high-income communities, 80% graduate college by the same age.
Paolo Freire (1970) discusses the nature of oppression, and the problems that might impact strategies to counteract it. He discusses the nature of the existence of the oppressed, and the catch-22 that it represents. Over generations, this situation manifests itself in the oppressed people or person as a struggle over their dual desire for, and fear of freedom. It is known that authentic existence and therefore respect and education cannot exist without freedom, but that freedom itself is, at times, innately feared by the oppressed because of their internalization of the oppressive system itself. The aforementioned dilemma must be taken into consideration in the education of these individuals.

Dewey's (1989) concept of "the influence of tradition" also indicates the duality of this issue, in a way similar to Freire's catch-22 approach: "On one hand, it leads to effort to perpetuate and strengthen the conditions which brought it into existence. But, on the other hand, a tradition may result in habits that obstruct observation of what is actually going on" (p. 48). As teachers, we must recognize the ramifications of this tradition of oppression, and not be blinded by the habits that might accompany it.

Good and Brophy (2003) also touch on this, though in a more tangible manner. It is true, as they indicate, that interactions between teacher and students could be impacted by race. Teachers might feel a sense of hostility or rejection of minority students, or even rate those students less favorably than their classmates. The teacher must be sensitive to the diversity found in the classroom, and foster a learning environment that incorporates that diversity. This begins with an awareness of the differences amongst students, as well as the differences between the teacher and the students.

The solution offered by Freire is authentic dialogue. From an educational literacy standpoint, this dialogue must be genuine, and not a "false charity" (p. 48) as described by Freire. Forging mutual understanding and respect is paramount, and introducing learning materials that would be more easily related to by marginalized students is a good place to start in engaging those students in the learning process.

Since part of that dilemma is the struggle for identity as "spectators or actors" (p. 48), it is vital to encourage the student to take an active role in their education, and break through whatever cultural paradigms they may have internalized through tradition.

Socio-economic stratification in American society creates clear dividing lines between the "haves" and the "have-nots." Spradlin and Parsons (2008) point out that class distinctions are incredibly powerful determinants of the quality of schooling an individual receives as well as how that individual might interact with peers and society as a whole.

In terms of oppressive force, the lack of opportunities for impoverished students can be the most stifling, with a direct impact on the student's educational attainment. The negative impact becomes institutionalized when public schools enter the system as a social microcosm, implementing "the prejudice, oppression, and discrimination evident in larger society" (p. 12).

The disadvantage perpetuated by this oppression can influence a student's motivation to succeed in school, and has been shown to negatively impact academic performance and levels of self-esteem. In many urban school settings, the racial impact of socio-economic status is reflected in the academic performance of minority students in those schools as well as in the sense of hopelessness that often accompanies it.

In the classroom, the teacher's greatest challenge is to instill hope. If a sense of hope can be fostered, and a plan for the future developed, an at-risk student may be able to find the motivation to succeed in school and work to better their prospects for a better life.

Jonathan Kozol (2008) conducted interviews with students in several New York City high schools that exposed hopelessness. Through his narrative, it is clear that the students' plans for the future following high school are uncertain. Only one out the seven students interviewed, in one case, indicated they had plans to go to college.

The other students expressed their frustration and anger through obscenities and sarcasm. It is unclear how a student could strive to succeed academically if they have no hope of a positive future result, given their current circumstances. "All but one reported that they had attended segregated schools like this since kindergarten" (p. 146).

Kozol's interaction with the students cements the fact that race and class lines follow one another very closely, to the point of re-segregation in the cases of many inner-city schools. Hursh (2008) echoes this finding, pointing out that many urban school districts are predominantly comprised of a minority student population, with less than 1% of students being white.

The disparity in the diversity of urban school populations is matched by the growing achievement gap that exists between white students and students of color. The process begins early, during a child's infant and toddler years. What Kozol (2008) refers to as a "governmentally administered diminishment of value in the children of the poor" begins with the lack of opportunities for children from low-income communities to attend pre-school (p. 49). Education and politics are intertwined, and it seems the best way to address this problem is through political involvement.

Berliner (2006) asks a critical question of education reform policy that corresponds with Kozol's findings: "Why do we put so much of our attention and resources into trying to fix what goes on inside low performing schools when the causes of low performance may reside outside of the school?" (p. 19). Continued on Next Page "

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Race, Class, and Oppression: Solutions for Active Learning and Literacy in the Classroom

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Oppression tends to exist in compartmentalized, clearly labeled categories of race, social class, gender, or sexual preference. While these rigidly defined categories may have been applied to allow for rational discussion of problems and solutions, the truth is that they are inherently oppressive themselves.

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little girls clothes contain pink, bows and terms pertaining to their gender.

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Learning more about intersectionality

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An individual's identity consists of multiple, intersecting factors, including gender, race, ethnicity, class, and sexuality. In fact, some prefer to use the plural word "identities," emphasizing that identity is fluid and shifts throughout one's life.

A central aim of the feminist art movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s in the United States was to gain recognition for women artists. However, many felt that, during its early years, the feminist art movement privileged white women artists. Cuban-born American artist Ana Mendieta, writing about Howardena Pindell's work, explained: "As women ... came together in the feminist movement with the purpose to end domination and exploitation of the white male culture, they failed to remember us." ¹ The struggle for equality in the art world extended not only to women artists but also to artists of color.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the United States underwent a period of tumultuous cultural tensions that included the AIDS crisis, right-wing conservative social and economic policies under President Ronald Reagan, rapid gentrification, and increasing urban crime. Identity politics-the political debates around shared cultural characteristics such as race, class, and religion-became a way for people to address these issues. Many artists, such as Glenn Ligon, Deborah Kass, and Lorna Simpson, created work in response to their multifaceted identities, suggesting that the problems society faces are a result of intersecting forms of discrimination toward various social groups.

To explore more, click on each artwork thumbnail, then click again on the larger image that appears in the box above.

Yolanda M. Lopez and Moira Roth. "Social Protest: Racism and Sexism," in Norma Broude and Mary D. Garrard, The Power of Feminist Art, New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1994. p. 155

Art seeking to challenge the dominance of men in both art and society, to gain recognition and equality for women artists, and to question assumptions about womanhood. Beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, feminist artists used a variety of mediums-including painting, performance art, and crafts historically considered "women's work"-to make work aimed at ending sexism and oppression and exposing femininity to be a masquerade or set of poses adopted by women to conform to societal expectations. While many of the debates inaugurated in these decades are still ongoing, a younger generation of feminist artists takes an approach incorporating intersecting concerns about race, class, forms of privilege, and gender identity and fluidity. Both feminism and feminist art continue to evolve.

The customs, arts, social institutions, and achievements of a particular nation, people, or other social group.

A representation of oneself made by oneself.

The technique and resulting work of art in which fragments of paper and other materials are arranged and glued to a supporting surface.

The process of creating art that is not representational or based on external reality or nature.

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An individual's identity consists of multiple, intersecting factors, including gender, race, ethnicity, class, and sexuality. In fact, some prefer to use the plural word "identities," emphasizing that identity is fluid and shifts throughout one's life. A central aim of the feminist art movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s in the United States was to gain recognition for women artists.

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Self-described "black, lesbian, mother, warrior, poet" Audre Lorde shaped the Black Arts Movement with her writings on racism, sexism, homophobia, and po...

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Each week, In Theory Kimberlé Crenshaw is the executive director of the African American Policy Forum and a professor of law at Columbia University and the University of California, Los Angeles, law schools. takes on a big idea in the news and explores it from a range of perspectives. This week we're talking about intersectionality. Need a primer? Catch up here.
Intersectionality was a lived reality before it became a term.

Today, nearly three decades after I first put a name to the concept, the term seems to be everywhere. But if women and girls of color continue to be left in the shadows, something vital to the understanding of intersectionality has been lost.

In 1976, Emma DeGraffenreid and several other black women sued General Motors for discrimination, arguing that the company segregated its workforce by race and gender: Blacks did one set of jobs and whites did another. According to the plaintiffs' experiences, women were welcome to apply for some jobs, while only men were suitable for others. This was of course a problem in and of itself, but for black women the consequences were compounded. You see, the black jobs were men's jobs, and the women's jobs were only for whites. Thus, while a black applicant might get hired to work on the floor of the factory if he were male; if she were a black female she would not be considered. Similarly, a woman might be hired as a secretary if she were white, but wouldn't have a chance at that job if she were black. Neither the black jobs nor the women's jobs were appropriate for black women, since they were neither male nor white. Wasn't this clearly discrimination, even if some blacks and some women were hired?

Unfortunately for DeGraffenreid and millions of other black women, the court dismissed their claims. Why? Because the court believed that black women should not be permitted to combine their race and gender claims into one. Because they could not prove that what happened to them was just like what happened to white women or black men, the discrimination that happened to these black women fell through the cracks.
[Intersectionality: A Primer]
It was in thinking about why such a "big miss" could have happened within the complex structure of anti-discrimination law that the term "intersectionality" was born. As a young law professor, I wanted to define this profound invisibility in relation to the law. Racial and gender discrimination overlapped not only in the workplace but in other other arenas of life; equally significant, these burdens were almost completely absent from feminist and anti-racist advocacy. Intersectionality, then, was my attempt to make feminism, anti-racist activism, and anti-discrimination law do what I thought they should - highlight the multiple avenues through which racial and gender oppression were experienced so that the problems would be easier to discuss and understand.

Intersectionality is an analytic sensibility, a way of thinking about identity and its relationship to power. Originally articulated on behalf of black women, the term brought to light the invisibility of many constituents within groups that claim them as members, but often fail to represent them. Intersectional erasures are not exclusive to black women. People of color within LGBTQ movements; girls of color in the fight against the school-to-prison pipeline; women within immigration movements; trans women within feminist movements; and people with disabilities fighting police abuse - all face vulnerabilities that reflect the intersections of racism, sexism, class oppression, transphobia, able-ism and more. Intersectionality has given many advocates a way to frame their circumstances and to fight for their visibility and inclusion.

Intersectionality has been the banner under which many demands for inclusion have been made, but a term can do no more than those who use it have the power to demand. And not surprisingly, intersectionality has generated its share of debate and controversy.

Conservatives have painted those who practice intersectionality as obsessed with "identity politics." Of course, as the DeGraffenreid case shows, intersectionality is not just about identities but about the institutions that use identity to exclude and privilege. The better we understand how identities and power work together from one context to another, the less likely our movements for change are to fracture.
[Why Equal Protection may not protect everyone equally.]
Others accuse intersectionality of being too theoretical, of being "all talk and no action." To that I say we've been "talking" about racial equality since the era of slavery and we're still not even close to realizing it. Instead of blaming the voices that highlight problems, we need to examine the structures of power that so successfully resist change.

Some have argued that intersectional understanding creates an atmosphere of bullying and "privilege checking." Acknowledging privilege is hard - particularly for those who also experience discrimination and exclusion. While white women and men of color also experience discrimination, all too often their experiences are taken as the only point of departure for all conversations about discrimination. Being front and center in conversations about racism or sexism is a complicated privilege that is often hard to see.

Although the president's recent call to support black women was commendable, undertaking intersectional work requires concrete action to address the barriers to equality facing women and girls of color in U.S. society.

Intersectionality alone cannot bring invisible bodies into view. Mere words won't change the way that some people - the less-visible members of political constituencies - must continue to wait for leaders, decision-makers and others to see their struggles. In the context of addressing the racial disparities that still plague our nation, activists and stakeholders must raise awareness about the intersectional dimensions of racial injustice that must be addressed to enhance the lives of all youths of color.
Explore these other perspectives:
This is why we continue the work of the #WhyWeCantWait Campaign, calling for holistic and inclusive approaches to racial justice. It is why "Say Her Name" continues to draw attention to the fact that women too are vulnerable to losing their lives at the hands of police. And it is why thousands have agreed that the tragedy in Charleston, S.C., demonstrates our need to sustain a vision of social justice that recognizes the ways racism, sexism and other inequalities work together to undermine us all. We simply do not have the luxury of building social movements that are not intersectional, nor can we believe we are doing intersectional work just by saying words.
Latoya Peterson: Intersectionality is not a label. Lauren Sudeall Lucas: Why Equal Protection may not protect everyone equally. Alyssa Rosenberg: How 'Orange Is the New Black' wins at illustrating identity
Brittney Cooper: Black lives matter - all of them.

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Opinion | Why intersectionality can't wait

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Each week, In Theory Kimberlé Crenshaw is the executive director of the African American Policy Forum and a professor of law at Columbia University and the University of California, Los Angeles, law schools. takes on a big idea in the news and explores it from a range of perspectives.

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Gender Socialization

Gender socialization is the process by which males and females are informed about the norms and behaviors associated with their sex.

Learning Objectives

Explain the influence of socialization on gender roles and their impact

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Gender socialization is the process by which individuals are taught how to socially behave in accordance with their assigned gender, which is assigned at birth based on their biological sex.

Today it is largely believed that most gender differences are attributed to differences in socialization, rather than genetic and biological factors.

Gender stereotypes can be a result of gender socialization: girls and boys are expected to act in certain ways that are socialized from birth. Children and adults who do not conform to gender stereotypes are often ostracized by peers for being different.

While individuals are typically socialized into viewing gender as a masculine-feminine binary, there are individuals who challenge and complicate this notion. These individuals believe that gender is fluid and not a rigid binary.

Key Terms

Sociologists and other social scientists generally attribute many of the behavioral differences between genders to socialization. Socialization is the process of transferring norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors to group members. The most intense period of socialization is during childhood, when adults who are members of a particular cultural group instruct young children on how to behave in order to comply with social norms. Gender is included in this process; individuals are taught how to socially behave in accordance with their assigned gender, which is assigned at birth based on their biological sex (for instance, male babies are given the gender of "boy", while female babies are given the gender of "girl"). Gender socialization is thus the process of educating and instructing males and females as to the norms, behaviors, values, and beliefs of group membership.

Preparations for gender socialization begin even before the birth of the child. One of the first questions people ask of expectant parents is the sex of the child. This is the beginning of a social categorization process that continues throughout life. Preparations for the birth often take the infant's sex into consideration (e.g., painting the room blue if the child is a boy, pink for a girl). Today it is largely believed that most gender differences are attributed to differences in socialization, rather than genetic and biological factors.

Gender stereotypes can be a result of gender socialization. Girls and boys are expected to act in certain ways, and these ways are socialized from birth by many parents (and society). For example, girls are expected to be clean and quiet, while boys are messy and loud. As children get older, gender stereotypes become more apparent in styles of dress and choice of leisure activities. Boys and girls who do not conform to gender stereotypes are usually ostracized by same-age peers for being different. This can lead to negative effects, such as lower self-esteem.

In Western contexts, gender socialization operates as a binary, or a concept that is exclusively comprised of two parts. In other words, individuals are socialized into conceiving of their gender as either masculine (male) or feminine (female). Identities are therefore normatively constructed along this single parameter. However, some individuals do not feel that they fall into the gender binary and they choose to question or challenge the male-masculine / female-feminine binary. For example, individuals that identify as transgender feel that their gender identity does not match their biological sex. Individuals that identify as genderqueer challenge classifications of masculine and feminine, and may identify as somewhere other than male and female, in between male and female, a combination of male and female, or a third (or forth, or fifth, etc.) gender altogether. These identities demonstrate the fluidity of gender, which is so frequently thought to be biological and immutable. Gender fluidity also shows how gender norms are learned and either accepted or rejected by the socialized individual.

Gender Identity in Everyday Life

Gender identity is one's sense of one's own gender. It is the result of socialization, but it also has a biological basis.

Learning Objectives

Discuss the difference between biological and social construction of gender identity

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Gender identity typically falls on a gender binary -individuals are expected to exclusively identify either as male or female. However, some individuals believe that this binary model is illegitimate and identify as a third, or mixed, gender.

Individuals whose gender identity aligns with their sex organs are said to be cisgender. Transgender individuals are those whose gender identity does not align with their sex organs.

Gender identity discourse derives from medical and psychological conceptions of gender. There is vigorous debate over biological versus environmental causes of the development of one's gender identity.

As gender identities come to be more disputed, new legal frontiers are opening on the basis that a male/female gender binary, as written into the law, discriminates against individuals who either identify as the opposite of their biological sex or who do not identify as either male or female.

The extreme cultural variation in notions of gender indicate the socially constructed nature of gender identity.

Key Terms

Gender identity is one's sense of being male, female, or a third gender. Gender identity typically falls on a gender binary-individuals are expected to exclusively identify either as male or female. However, some individuals believe that this binary model is illegitimate and identify as a third, or mixed, gender. Gender identity is socially constructed, yet it still pertains to one's sense of self. Gender identity is not only about how one perceives one's own gender, but also about how one presents one's gender to the public.

Cisgender and Transgender

Individuals whose gender identity aligns with their sex organs are said to be cisgender. Transgender individuals are those whose gender identity does not align with their sex organs. These people generally dress according to how they feel but do not make an drastic change within their sexual organs. Transsexuals, however, take drastic measures to assume their believed identity. This includes hormone therapy and sexual reassignment operations. Recently, there has been a growing gender/queer movement consisting of individuals who do not feel that their sex organs are mismatched to their gender identity, but who still wish to trouble the notion of a gender binary, considering it overly simplistic and misrepresentative.

Causes of Confusion in Gender Identity

What causes individuals to sense a sort of confusion between their biological gender and their gender identity? This question is hotly contested, with no clear answer. Some scientists argue that the sense of confusion is a biological result of the pre- and post-natal swinging of hormone levels and genetic regulation. Sociologists tend to emphasize the environmental impetuses for gender identity. Certainly, socialization, or the process of transferring norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors to group members, plays a significant part in how individuals learn and internalize gender roles and subsequently impact their gender identity.

Though the medical emphasis in some conversations about gender identity is frequently scrutinized by sociologists, there is clearly some biological basis to gender, even if it has more to do with appearances and social presentation than identity formation. Women have two X chromosomes, where men have one X and one Y chromosome. However, despite the deep relationship to biology, gender identity cannot only be biologically determined. However, gender identity has a larger social component that needs to be considered. For example, although a person may be biologically male, "he" may feel more comfortable with a female identity, which is a social construction based on how he feels, not his physical makeup.

Gender Identities and Law

As gender identities come to be more disputed, new legal frontiers are opening on the basis that a male/female gender binary, as written into the law, discriminates against individuals who either identify as the opposite of their biological sex or who identify as neither male nor female. On college campuses, gender-restrictive dorm housing is facing opposition by individuals who identify as neither a man nor a woman. Many public spaces and workplaces are instituting gender-neutral bathroom facilities. Gender identity has become a piece of international law as a branch of human rights doctrines. The Yogyakarta Principles, drafted by international legal scholars in 2006, provide a definition of gender identity in its preamble. In the Principles "gender identity" refers to each person's deeply felt internal and individual experience of gender, which may or may not correspond with the biological sex assigned at birth, including the person's sense of the body and other expressions of gender.

Gender Identities across Cultures

Gender identities, and the malleability of the gender binary, vary across cultures. In some Polynesian societies, fa'afafine are considered to be a third gender alongside male and female. Fa'afafine are accepted as a natural gender and are neither looked down upon nor discriminated against. They are biologically male, but dress and behave in a manner that Polynesians typically consider female. Fa'afafine are often physiologically unable to reproduce. Fa'afafine also reinforce their femininity by claiming to be only attracted to and receiving sexual attention from heterosexual men.

In the Indian subcontinent, a hijra is usually considered to be neither male nor female. The hijra form a third gender, although they do not enjoy the same acceptance and respect as individuals who identify along the gender binary.

The xanith form an accepted third gender in Oman, a society that also holds a gender binary as a social norm. The xanith are male, homosexual prostitutes whose dressing is male, featuring pastel colors rather than the white clothes traditionally worn by men, but their mannerisms are coded as female. Xanith can mingle with women where men cannot. However, similar to other men in Oman, xanith can marry women and prove their masculinity by consummating the marriage. This extreme cultural variation in notions of gender indicate the socially constructed nature of gender identity.

The Cross-Cultural Perspective

Gender roles vary widely across different cultural contexts.

Learning Objectives

Compare and contrast gender roles in different cultures

Key Takeaways

Key Points

It is impossible to generalize what life is like for one woman from assumptions about gender roles in different countries.

To assess what daily life is like for women, one must learn the particulars about the cultural and historical moment she occupies.

In Sweden, all working parents are entitled to sixteen months paid leave per child. To encourage greater paternal involvement in childrearing, a minimum of two months out of the sixteen is required to be used by the "minority" parent, usually the father.

62% of Chileans are opposed to full gender equality and believe that women should limit themselves to the roles of mother and wife. Until recently, women lost their right to administer their own assets once they were married, and were required by law to obey their husbands.

Women in Japan are usually well-educated and employed, though gender dynamics emerge in regards to social pressure to find a husband. Historically, gender has been an important principle of Japanese social stratification, but gender differences have varied over time and within social class.

Key Terms

Michelle Bachelet: Chile's first female president (2006-2010).

parental leave: A leave of absence from a job for a parent to take care of a baby.

Gender roles vary significantly across cultures. Indeed, all gender roles are culturally and historically contingent, meaning that they cannot be analyzed outside of their cultural and historical contexts. This section attempts to provide a few examples of variation in gender roles and the lives of women in various places around the world. These small glimpses are not universal by any means, but this overview should provide a brief summary of just how much women's lives vary and how much women's lives seem similar across national boundaries.

Gender Roles in Sweden

Governments in Europe are typically more active in governing the lives of their citizens than the U.S. government. As such, European governments have used their social powers to encourage equality between men and women. In Sweden, for example, all working parents are entitled to sixteen months paid leave per child, with the cost shared by the government and the employer. To encourage greater paternal involvement in childrearing, a minimum of two months out of the sixteen is required to be used by the "minority" parent, usually the father. Through policies such as parental leave, European states actively work to promote equality between genders in childrearing and professional lives.

Gender Roles In Chile

As is the case for many women in the United States and in Europe, many women in Chile feel pressure to conform to traditional gender roles. A 2010 study by the United Nations Development Programme found that 62% of Chileans are opposed to full gender equality and expressed the belief that women should limit themselves to the roles of mother and wife. These social barriers to gender equality exist in the face of legal equality.

Chilean law has recently undergone some drastic changes to support gender equality. Until recently, women lost their right to administer their own assets once they were married, with their husbands receiving all of their wealth. Now, a woman is allowed to maintain her own property. Previously, women were legally required to live with and be faithful and obedient to her husband, but now it is not law.

Chile grants both men and women the right to vote and had one of the first female presidents in the world. From 2006 until 2010, Michelle Bachelet served as Chile's first female president. Women are gaining increasingly prominent positions in various aspects of government. The prominence of female politicians is working to undo traditional stereotypes of women belonging only in the domestic sphere.

Gender Roles in Japan

Women in Japan are usually well-educated and employed, though gender dynamics emerge in regards to social pressure to find a husband. Historically, gender has been an important principle of Japanese social stratification but the cultural elaboration of gender differences has, of course, varied over time and within social class. After World War II, the legal position of women was redefined by the occupation authorities. Individual rights were given precedence over obligation to family. Women were guaranteed the right to choose spouses and occupations, to inherit and own property in their own names, and to retain custody of their children. Women were granted the right to vote in 1946. Legally, few barriers to women's equal participation in social and professional life remain in Japan.

However, gender inequality continues in family life, the workplace, and popular values. A common Japanese proverb that continues to influence gender roles is "good wife, wise mother. " The proverb reflects the still common social belief, encouraged by men and women alike, that it is in the woman's, her children's, and society's best interests for her to stay home and devote herself to her children. In most households, women are responsible for family budgets and make independent decisions about the education, careers, and life styles of their families.

Better educational prospects are improving women's professional prospects. Immediately after World War II, the common image of womanhood was that of a secretary who becomes a housewife and mother after marriage. But a new generation of educated woman is emerging who wishes to establish a career in the workforce. Japanese women are joining the labor force in unprecedented numbers such that around 50% of the workforce is comprised of women. One important change is that married women have begun to participate in the work force. In the 1950s, most female employees were young and single; 62% of the female labor force had never been married. By 1987, 68% of the female workforce was married and only 23% had never been married.

Despite changes in the workforce, women are still expected to get married. It is common for unmarried women to experience anxiety and social pressure as a result of her unwed status.

These examples from Sweden, Chile, and Japan hardly scratch the surface of demonstrating some of the extreme variation in gender roles worldwide.

Adolescent Socialization

Adolescence is a transitional stage of biological, cognitive and social development that prepares individuals for taking on adult roles.

Learning Objectives

Describe the three general approaches to understanding identity development

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Identity development is a normative process of change in both the content and structure of how people think about themselves. Identity development encompasses the following notions: self-concept, sense of identity and self-esteem.

Self-concept is the awareness of the self in relation to a variety of different characteristics and concepts.

A sense of identity is much more integrated and less conflicting than the self-concept, as an identity is a coherent sense of self that is consistent across different contexts and circumstances past, present and future.

Self-esteem is one's perception of and feelings toward one's self-concept and identity.

Familial, peer and sexual/romantic relationships exert a siginficant influence over adolescent development and can encourage either positive or negative outcomes.

Key Terms

identity: A coherent sense of self stable across circumstances and including past experiences and future goals.

Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological human development. The period of adolescence is most closely associated with the teenage years, although its physical, psychological and cultural expressions can begin earlier and end later. In studying adolescent development, adolescence can be defined biologically as the physical transition marked by the onset of puberty and the termination of physical growth; cognitively, as changes in the ability to think abstractly and multi-dimensionally; and socially as a period of preparation for adult roles. Major pubertal and biological changes include changes to the sex organs, height, weight and muscle mass, as well as major changes in brain structure and organization. Cognitive advances encompass both increases in knowledge and the ability to think abstractly and to reason more effectively. This is also a time when adolescents start to explore gender identity and sexuality in depth.

Identity Development

Among the most common beliefs about adolescence is that it is the time when teens form their personal identities. Empirical studies confirm a normative process of change in both the content and structure of one's thoughts about the self. Researchers have used three general approaches to understanding identity development: self-concept, sense of identity and self-esteem.

Self-Concept

Early in adolescence, cognitive developments result in greater self-awareness, greater awareness of others and their thoughts and judgments, the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities, and the ability to consider multiple possibilities at once. While children define themselves with physical traits, adolescents define themselves based on their values, thoughts and opinions. Adolescents can now conceptualize multiple "possible selves" they could become and long-term possibilities and consequences of their choices. Exploring these possibilities may result in abrupt changes in self-presentation as the adolescent chooses or rejects qualities and behaviors, trying to guide the actual self toward the ideal self (who the adolescent wishes to be) and away from the feared self (who the adolescent does not want to be). In terms of gender socialization, boys and girls start to gravitate toward traditional roles. For example, girls may take more liberal art type classes while boys are more physical. Boys and girls tend to socialize together, although dating starts to occur. Girls generally look to their mothers or female role models for guidance, while boys tend to identify more with their fathers or male role models.

Sense of Identity

Unlike the conflicting aspects of self-concept, identity represents a coherent sense of self stable across circumstances and including past experiences and future goals. Development psychologist Erik Erikson describes adolescence as the period during which individuals ponder the questions: who am I and what can I be? As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents ponder the roles they will play in the adult world. Initially, they are apt to experience some role confusion-mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society-and may experiment with a variety of behaviors and activities. For example, a girl may want to pursue a career that is predominantly male, and if she is stifled by her sense of female identity, she may end up with a lifetime of regret. The same is true of males wishing to pursue a female-dominated career. Erikson proposed that most adolescents eventually achieve a sense of identity regarding who they are and where their lives are headed.

Self-Esteem

The final major aspect of identity formation is self-esteem, which is one's thoughts and feelings about one's self-concept and identity. Contrary to popular belief, there is no empirical evidence for a significant drop in self-esteem over the course of adolescence. "Barometric self-esteem" fluctuates rapidly and can cause severe distress and anxiety, but baseline self-esteem remains highly stable across adolescence.The validity of global self-esteem scales has been questioned, and many suggest that more specific scales might reveal more about the adolescent experience. For girls, they are most likely to enjoy high self-esteem when engaged in supportive relationships with friends, as the most important function of friendship to them is having someone who can provide social and moral support. In contrast, boys are more concerned with establishing and asserting their independence and defining their relation to authority. As such, they are more likely to derive high self-esteem from their ability to successfully influence their friends.

Relationships

Peers

Peer groups are especially important during adolescence, a period of development characterized by a dramatic increase in time spent with peers and a decrease in adult supervision. Adolescents also associate with friends of the opposite sex much more than in childhood and tend to identify with larger groups of peers based on shared characteristics. Peer groups offer members the opportunity to develop various social skills like empathy, sharing and leadership.

Romance and Sexual Activity

Romantic relationships tend to increase in prevalence throughout adolescence. The typical duration of relationships increases throughout the teenage years as well. This constant increase in the likelihood of a long-term relationship can be explained by sexual maturation and the development of cognitive skills necessary to maintain a romantic bond, although these skills are not strongly developed until late adolescence. Overall, positive romantic relationships among adolescents can result in long-term benefits. High-quality romantic relationships are associated with higher commitment in early adulthood and are positively associated with self-esteem, self-confidence and social competence.

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Gender socialization is the process by which males and females are informed about the norms and behaviors associated with their sex. Explain the influence of socialization on gender roles and their impact Key Points Gender socialization is the process by which individuals are taught how to socially behave in accordance with their assigned gender, which is assigned at birth based on their biological sex.

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Gender identity is not accepted usually by sports leagues and groups.