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1)Explain the context in which America grew into its role as a world power

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1)Explain the context in which America grew into its role as a world power

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America's growth into a world power was made possible by numerous things. Mainly, the shifting stances on the World Wars is what made the US so "high and mighty" on the world stage. After remaining neutral in the first part of the first World War, America was able to mobilize its insanely effective industrial-wartime-economy and sweep the enemy with vast resources. Thus, they looked like heroes to the allies, in large part thanks to Wilson's morale high ground. Similarly in World War II, when all seemed lost for Britain, America entered the war after being attacked at Pearl Harbor. With this entrance, they were able to openly support their British Allies and defeat the Germans and the Japanese. The combination of industrial defense industry successes, timing of mobilization, and post-war politics made the US a world leader after World War II. Since this deals with the world wars, the theme that best fits here is America in the World.

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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1)Explain the context in which the United States faced international and domestic challenges after 1980

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1)Explain the context in which the United States faced international and domestic challenges after 1980

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After America "suffered" through Jimmy Carter's Presidency, with the Iran-Hostage Crisis and the oil-crisis, Reagan breathed new air into conservative politics. He entered a new arms race against the soviets to outspend them and corner them diplomatically, which ended up working. However, his federal deficit spending set the stage for stock market crashes and corruption. When Bush took the reins, the persian gulf crisis kicked off what many believe to be the true start of America's war on Terror with Operation Desert Storm. Of course, it would be the tragedy of 9/11 that kicked off the War on Terror in the 21st century. Domestically the US struggled to get their welfare programs and housing crisis under control. So, post-1980s, the fall of the Soviet Union led to more focus on the Middle East and the 9/11 attack kicked off the War on Terror while America dealt with welfare issues and economic recession at home. Seeing as how this deals with foreign policy and domestic policy, the themes that fits best here would be American and National Identity, Politics and Power, and America in the World.

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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2)Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government over time

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2)Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government over time

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As explained by Crash Course, Reagan's reaganomics and resurgence of conservationism sparked continuing policy debates about government size and policy in regards to government. Reagan's lowering of taxes using the Tax Reform Act sparked backlash from liberals around the country and that backlash was "validated" by the recession that happened early in Reagan's term. Except, that wasn't really Reagan's fault but rather, his predecessor, Carter's fault for spending so much money on the Energy program. In fact, Reaganomics did expand the economy in a positive manner. Reagan's prosperity as a conservative President is a direct contrast to Hoover's failure as one. While Reagan easily got the country out of recession, Hoover didn't even attempt to interfere when the Great Depression occured, garnering him more hate than he had already had. Since we're dealing with internal developments and economics, the theme that fits best here would be that of Work, Exchange and Technology.

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The Reagan Revolution: Crash Course US History #43

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3)Explain the causes and effects of the end of the Cold War and its legacy

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3)Explain the causes and effects of the end of the Cold War and its legacy

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Heimler claims that Reagan ended the war through diplomatic peace-making and a renewed arms race. The INF agreement stipulated Reagan's attempts at making detente with the Soviet Union by destroying missiles. While the star wars program, however improbable it might've been, did renew the arms race with the Soviets. Both of these factors, economics and diplomacy, lead to the fall of the Soviets during Bush's time. This is stipulated by Crash Course(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L-K19rVDxoM&list=PLaWB7HAtihqB-kV8sP1mlZIJnd6MwlAIO&index=2). Some might argue that it was because the Cold War ended in Bush's time that Bush was the reason as to why the Cold War ended. However, given all the work that Reagan did to pressure the Soviet Union, it's obvious that it was him that ended the Cold War. Since this talks about the Cold War's end, the theme that fits best here would be America in the World.

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The END of the Cold War [APUSH Review Unit 9 Topic 3] Period 9: 1980-Present

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4)Explain the causes and effects of economic and technological change over time

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4)Explain the causes and effects of economic and technological change over time

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This article explains the evolution of the internet. It is written by a modern journalist, whose seen and/or researched the evolution of the internet as a whole throughout American and world history. It is important because it shows how the development of the internet revolutionized communication, work, and daily life within America and throughout the world. Since this deals with social changes, it fits best with the theme of Social Structures.

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These machines were powerful but limited in numbers, and researchers grew increasingly frustrated: they required access to the technology, but had to travel great distances to use it.

To solve this problem, researchers started 'time-sharing'. This meant that users could simultaneously access a mainframe computer through a series of terminals, although individually they had only a fraction of the computer's actual power at their command.

The difficulty of using such systems led various scientists, engineers and organisations to research the possibility of a large-scale computer network.

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A short history of the internet | National Science and Media Museum

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Read about the history of the internet, from its 1950s origins to the World Wide Web's explosion in popularity in the late 1990s and the 'dotcom bubble'.

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5)Explain the causes and effects of domestic and international migration over time.

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5)Explain the causes and effects of domestic and international migration over time.

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As Heimler stipulates, immigrant's work has only benefited the American economy. Mexican immigrants have taken lots of low-wage agricultural work in the sun-belt states that many others aren't willing to do and thus they stimulate the economy. This is supported by the Institute for the Study of Labor, who say that Mexicans have not detracted from the economy in the slightest. Some nativists might argue that immigrants are taking their jobs  and that the economy is suffering because of that. However, as mentioned previously, immigrants are more often than not, working jobs that no one else is willing to work. Even if their jobs were being taken, the argument that immigrants were and are having a negative effect on the American economy is just wrong due to the multiple studies done from the Institute of for the Study of Labor.  Since this deals with immigration and geography, the themes that best fit here are Migration and Settlement and Geography and the Environment.

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MIGRATION & IMMIGRATION in the 1990s & 2000s [APUSH Review Unit 9 Topic 5] Period 9: 1980-Present

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6)Explain the causes and effects of the domestic and international challenges the United States has faced in the 21st century

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6)Explain the causes and effects of the domestic and international challenges the United States has faced in the 21st century

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As Heimler explains, the war on terror was caused by the terrorist attacks on the Twin Towers on 9/11/2001. This attack shook the country and spurred Bush to declare a war on terror in the Middle East. Thus began the controversial Iraq and the Afghanistan wars. Meanwhile, domestically the US dealt with the 2008 financial crisis and the presidency of Donald Trump in which the COVID-19 pandemic hit the country hard and left countless Americans jobless. Since this deals with American politics, the theme that fits best here would be that of Politics and Power.

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CHALLENGES of the 21st Century in America [APUSH Review Unit 9 Topic 6] Period 9: 1980-Present

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7)Explain the relative significance of the effects of change in the period after 1980 on American national identity. 

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7)Explain the relative significance of the effects of change in the period after 1980 on American national identity. 

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As Crash Course explains, the 9/11 attacks united the American people in the war on terrorism. This made Americans more receptive to invasive government attempts to root out terrorism in the homeland, giving the US the Patriot Acts. The debate on climate change sharply increased and so did the debate on economics. These debates became more prevalent when the presidency of Trump polarized the country. This fits with the theme of America and National Identity since it deals with changes in America as a whole.

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Terrorism, War, and Bush 43: Crash Course US History #46

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1)Explain the context for societal change from 1945 to 1980

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1)Explain the context for societal change from 1945 to 1980

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The US entered a new age of war. That is to say, they entered the Cold War. This war pitted the US against the Soviets in every way possible: militarily, ideologically, politically, and economically. Ideology and economy are more important in terms of the societal change that occured from 1945 to 1980. The US stood for democracy and capitalism, while the Soviet Union stood for communism and dictatorial regimes. This distinction during the war was further emphasized in US society during the war and the ideology of the US was challenged by the "communist menace". This fits with the theme of American and National Identity  since it talks about the identity of America as a whole during the war.

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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2)Explain the continuities and changes in Cold War policies from 1945 to 1980

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2)Explain the continuities and changes in Cold War policies from 1945 to 1980

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As Heimler explains, the US entered the Cold War with the aim to contain the spread of communism. So, they enacted the Truman (AKA containment) Doctrine. They would help underdeveloped countries in an effort to turn them democratic to stop the spread of communism. This can be seen with how the Western powers wanted to strengthen Germany. The Marshall Plan for European recovery was also part of the containment policy that the US had adopted. This containment policy is similar to the Northern containment policy in opposition to slavery in the pre-Civil War days, as seen with the Wilmot Proviso. The North wanted to stop the spread of slavery in order to prevent the South from gaining more power and more states. Similarly, the US wanted to the Soviets from spreading communism so that they could prevent the Soviets from gaining more power and they wanted to stop Soviet expansion. Of course there were other policies during the war, like the scorched earth policy which later switched to the flexibility policy as to avoid total nuclear warfare over smaller proxy wars, thanks to JFK's logical reasoning. But the containment policy remained a constant and consistent goal throughout the Cold War. This fits best with the theme of America in the World since this deals with the Cold War.

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The COLD WAR [APUSH Review Unit 8 Topic 2] Period 8: 1945-1980

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3)Explain the causes and effects of the Red Scare after World War II

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3)Explain the causes and effects of the Red Scare after World War II

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This Collier magazine covering the Army-McCarthy Hearings laments over the ridiculous and embarrassing nature of the hearings. Of course, the writer of this magazine is covering the events after they had already taken place, meaning that McCarthy no doubt failed to win his accusation battle against army. However, in his failing, he made the whole of Congress and American Democracy look foolish on national and international television from which the hearings were broadcast. It goes to show the effects of rampant anti-communist paranoia in the late 1940s and throughout the 1950s. What had once been caused by fear of spy rings in the US turned into a massive witch hunt led by Joseph McCarthy to oust the menace of communism, when in reality McCarthy probably only got a scarce number of accusations correct. Still, he pursued them with the backing of many Americans because of how he portrayed communism as the ultimate enemy. But, this nature, as seen in the article, didn't go well in his favor when he challenged the US military. The themes that fit best here are Politics and Power and Social Structures since this deals directly with internal politics and the social movement of McCarthyism.

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"Damage": Collier's Assesses the Army-McCarthy Hearings

Anticommunist crusader Senator Joseph R. McCarthy stepped into national prominence on February 9, 1950, when he mounted an attack on President Truman's foreign policy agenda. McCarthy charged that the State Department and its Secretary, Dean Acheson, harbored "traitorous" Communists. McCarthy's apocalyptic rhetoric-he portrayed the Cold War conflict as "a final, all-out battle between communistic atheism and Christianity"-made critics hesitate before challenging him. Those accused by McCarthy faced loss of employment, damaged careers, and in many cases, broken lives. After the 1952 election, in which the Republican Party won control of both branches of Congress, McCarthy became chairman of the Senate Committee on Government Operations and its Subcommittee on Investigations. McCarthy then extended his targets to include numerous government agencies, in addition to the broadcasting and defense industries, universities, and the United Nations. His dramatic hearings investigating purported Communist infiltration in the Army were televised live to the nation. The following editorial from the popular magazine Collier's assessed the damage to public perception of governmental institutions.

After the Brawl

Now that the Army-McCarthy hearings have been history for a month, and the soap operas have reinherited the daytime TV channels, we should like to do a final review of the long-run show from Washington, and try to summarize its effect-aside from the subcommittee's report.

We suppose the effect can be summarized in one word: damage. The legislative operations of Congress must have been delayed. The morale of the armed forces certainly could not have been heightened by the hearings. And our friends in other countries were obviously bewildered and dismayed by the goings on, with a consequent impairment of American prestige. But the greatest damage, we believe, occurred in the millions of homes where the televised proceedings were seen and heard.

Incidentally, this is not a rap at television. The wrangle over Private Schine, with all its ramifications, was of wide public interest, and the TV people had the same duty to cover it as the press and radio. And technically the television production was good. It's the script and the performances that concern us here.

The recent hearings were not the first Congressional proceedings to be broadcast, to be sure. But networks have been greatly extended and millions of sets have been sold since Senator Kefauver & Company had their crimebusting act on the air some three years ago. So it is safe to assume that more than half the people who viewed the Army-McCarthy hearings had never seen Congress in action before.

Probably they had formed some preconceptions. If they had envisioned Congressional procedure as something marked by statesmanship, responsibility, befitting seriousness and, above all, dignity, they must have suffered a rude disillusionment. But if they were among those who thoughtlessly sneer at politics and politicians-and we have listened to many such-their unflattering opinion could have been intensified.

It's too bad, for both houses of Congress have men of wisdom and intellectual stature who treat their positions with respect, who are patriots first and partisans second, and who deserve the country's thanks. Some such men were on the subcommittee which investigated itself on television. But in general the hearings seemed to us as pretty much of a disgrace to the tradition of a Senate where great men have served, great words have been spoken and great decisions made.

What must many Americans have thought, knowing that tradition but seeing government in action for the first time! It was a carnival, a sprawling, brawling travesty. It was a performance to shame some of the leading participants, who seemed to forget that their hammy hokum and snarling words were being seen across the country and heard around the world.

How much damage was done cannot be calculated. But fortunately the carnival is over. Now let us hope that responsible members of party and government will take over and, without any further side-show diversions, guide us wisely through the crises that face the country. And let us also hope that those citizens who were shocked by the recent burlesque of responsible government will be assured that some of the performers are not typical of the men in the Capitol who, through the years, have helped to make America great and strong and just.

Source: "After the Brawl," Collier's, August 6, 1954, 90.

See Also:"You Are the Un-Americans, and You Ought to be Ashamed of Yourselves": Paul Robeson Appears Before HUAC
"They Want to Muzzle Public Opinion": John Howard Lawson's Warning to the American Public
"The World Was at Stake": Three "Friendly" HUAC Hollywood Witnesses Assess Pro-Soviet Wartime Films
"A Damaging Impression of Hollywood Has Spread": Movie "Czar" Eric Johnston Testifies before HUAC
"Have You No Sense of Decency": The Army-McCarthy Hearings
"Communists are second to none in our devotion to our people and to our country": Prosecution and Defense Statements, 1949 Trial of American Communist Party Leaders
"Not Only Ridiculous, but Dangerous": Collier's Objects to Joseph McCarthy's Attacks on the Press
"I Cannot and Will Not Cut My Conscience to Fit This Year's Fashions": Lillian Hellman Refuses to Name Names
"Enemies from Within": Senator Joseph R. McCarthy's Accusations of Disloyalty
"I Have Sung in Hobo Jungles, and I Have Sung for the Rockefellers": Pete Seeger Refuses to "Sing" for HUAC
"We Must Keep the Labor Unions Clean": "Friendly" HUAC Witnesses Ronald Reagan and Walt Disney Blame Hollywood Labor Conflicts on Communist Infiltration
"National Suicide": Margaret Chase Smith and Six Republican Senators Speak Out Against Joseph McCarthy's Attack on "Individual Freedom"

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Anticommunist crusader Senator Joseph R. McCarthy stepped into national prominence on February 9, 1950, when he mounted an attack on President Truman's foreign policy agenda. McCarthy charged that the State Department and its Secretary, Dean Acheson, harbored "traitorous" Communists.

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4)Explain the causes of economic growth in the years after World War II

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4)Explain the causes of economic growth in the years after World War II

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Khan Academy's sub-unit on the economy after 1945 explains the causes of economic growth. Mainly, those causes being the lasting success of the defense industries post-war. Khan Academy claims that the GI bill deliberately excluded African Americans. They argue that since the program was federally funded, its implementation was directed at the state and local level by the Veterans Administration (VA), which was almost entirely white and closely affiliated with the pro-segregation American Legion. As a result, blacks got the treatment of the "separate but equal" educational programs and facilities (which were never equal in the slightest). Heimler on the other hand, (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gd-ebcBSV8k&list=PLEHRHjICEfDWhNFWxbvPY_FihVyhZEtR7&index=3) paints this bill in a much more positive light. He talks about how it gave veterans government-funded education and loans, which Khan Academy stipulates as well while pointing out the racial bias occurring within the program. Some might claim that the African Americans didn't benefit at all from the bill, and although veteran blacks didn't get the same treatment as whites, they still got to take advantage of the bill and get vocational training instead of university courses. This fits with the theme of Work, Exchange and Technology since it deals directly with the economy.

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Learn about the origins and effects of the GI Bill, which provided American veterans with housing and tuition benefits.

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5)Explain the causes and effects of the migration of various groups of Americans after 1945.

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5)Explain the causes and effects of the migration of various groups of Americans after 1945.

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As my notes stipulate, migration was mainly caused due to the rise of suburbia. The rise of suburbia occured in the Southern sunbelt  states. With it came lower housing costs and better access to the interstate highways. As a result, the Defense Industries of WWII moved to the sunbelt states and the people followed their jobs to the states. Of course, urbanization had taken its toll on housing costs in the North as well, which may explain why so many people moved down South in droves. Now, the reason as to why this is so important is because it drew up the regional ethnic lines that we see today. Since the Great Migration brought many blacks north prior to the sunbelt migration, we see them far more along with more minorities in general up in the North rather than in the South, where white suburban families lay in the sunbelt states. Some may argue that the Great Migration was more significant to migration and ethnic regional patterns seen post-1945, however both the Great Migration and the Sunbelt Migration are equally as important in terms of divvying up regional ethnic lines. This division is not possible without both migrations. Since this deals with regional ethnicity and migration and settlement, and ethnic lines, the themes that best fit here are Migration and Settlement, American and Regional Culture, and Geography and the Environment.

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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6)Explain how mass culture has been maintained or challenged over time

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6)Explain how mass culture has been maintained or challenged over time

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As Heimler explains, mass culture came about due to the rise of McCarthyism, mass consumerism, credit cards, and entertainment. McCarthyism, with its wild accusations of communistic maleficence, made people conform to the norms of society to avoid such accusations. Mass consumerism united the nation under the drive to reach the "ideal" American lifestyle. That is, a lifestyle with ease and obedience. Credit cards stimulated mass consumerism with the ability to commit to deficit spending without worry of economic repercussions, so long as one payed back debt over time. Lastly, television and music united the nation under mass culture and showed America what the "ideal family" looked and acted like. However, their where many detractors to mass culture who united under the "counter-culture" movement. They acted against societal norms deliberately as a protest against conformism. Since this deals with society and culture, the theme that fits best would be Social Structures.

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CULTURE After 1945 [APUSH Review Unit 8 Topic 5] Period 8: 1945-1980

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7)Explain how and why the civil rights movements developed and expanded from 1945 to 1960

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7)Explain how and why the civil rights movements developed and expanded from 1945 to 1960

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As Khan Academy's sub-unit on Civil Rights from 1945-1960 explains, Civil Righters of the time sought to make the promises of Reconstruction come to fruition through government enforcement and legislation. To this degree, they were somewhat successful. They got Truman to desegregate the military. The 24th Amendment was passed and the poll taxes(which barred blacks from voting) was abolished. Brown vs the Board of Education reversed the Plessy vs Ferguson decision and decided that separate facilities were inherently unequal. But this was not enforced until much later due to Southern resistance to Civil Rights. All of this is starkly similar to the Reconstruction Era. After acquiring basic legislation, blacks and Republicans tried to enforce that legislation but more often than not failed to do so, which is similar to what happened in the 1940s and 1950s. Since this deals with society and the domestic civil rights movement, the theme that fits best here would be American and National Identity.

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The Civil Rights Movement: an introduction (article) | Khan Academy

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Learn about the origins, strategies, and unfinished business of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States.

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8)Explain the various military and diplomatic responses to international developments over time

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8)Explain the various military and diplomatic responses to international developments over time

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As Heimler explains, due to the destruction of many empires during WWII, decolonization occurred world-wide upon the eve and throughout the Cold War. This fed directly into US democratic/capitalist expansion and Soviet dictatorial/communistic expansion. This became escalated quickly when it came to matters of Cuba. The failed bay of pigs invasion led directly to Cuban embracement of soviet communism and the cuban missile crisis two years later. Vietnam and Iranian affairs are also great examples of this. The domino theory drove American politics when supporting secondary wars during the cold war (Vietnam, Korea, etc). This fits well with the theme of America in the World since it deals with the Cold War.

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America as a WORLD POWER [APUSH Review Unit 8 Topic 7] Period 8: 1945-1980

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9)Explain the causes and effects of the Vietnam War

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9)Explain the causes and effects of the Vietnam War

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As John Greene stipulates, the Vietnam war was an unneeded war that happened solely due to the US fear of the domino theory. The Gulf of Tonkin incident supports this point tremendously.It supposedly occurred in 1965 when North Korean war boats attacked US patrol ships in the Gulf of Tonkin, kicking off the Vietnam War. Except, this never happened. The Gulf of Tonkin situation was made up to justify going to war against Northern Vietnam, because Johnson and the rest of Congress feared that if Vietnam became communist, so to would the other Asian countries. This is stipulated by the Gulf of Tonkin resolution. One might argue that the Vietnam War began due to the need to defend the South Vietnamese, but they would be wrong since we're looking at the US involvement in the war, which would've been neutral had it not been for fear of the domino effect. The Vietnam War caused domestic strife in America due to broadcasting of the war and government corruption being exposed (Pentagon Papers). Since this deals with the Vietnam war, the theme it best fits with is America in the World.

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The Cold War in Asia: Crash Course US History #38

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10)Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government over time

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10)Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government over time

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As Jocz productions explains, the policy debates surrounding the government were changed often to conform to liberalism or conservatism according to the alignment of the executive administration. So, under Johnson's administration, government size and spending increased dramatically with the Great Society. The Great Society was extremely similar to the New Deal in the sense that it provided mass legislation to try and fix the economic and social woes of the nation. Then, conservatism resurged with Nixon, similar to the resurgence of conservative Republicans in the 1920s through limited government and economic reform. This fits with the theme of Politics and Power since it deals with domestic and foreign policy debates.

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APUSH Period 8 Review (1945-1980): Domestic

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11)Explain the continuities and changes in immigration patterns over time

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11)Explain the continuities and changes in immigration patterns over time

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The Immigration Act of 1965 eliminated the previous immigration quota, added on labor certification requirements, and provided aid to those seeking asylum. This law was written under the administration of Lyndon B. Johnson as a part of his Great Society program, which pushed liberal legislation and reform such as this. This act allowed for the immigration of Asians and Latin Americans to spike, which explains the reason as to why immigration was dominated by these minority groups in the latter half and the early part of the 20th and 21st centuries. Since this deals with immigration, the theme of Migration and Settlement fits well.

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12)Explain how and why various groups responded to calls for the expansion of civil rights from 1960 to 1980

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12)Explain how and why various groups responded to calls for the expansion of civil rights from 1960 to 1980

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As Heimler explains how Southern states resisted the Civil Rights movement heavily, as seen in the Montgomery bus movement. Civil Righters included many youthful blacks who marched with MLK to protest civil rights. Of course, they were met with brutal force from Southern leaders like Bull Connors. Many white northerners also supported the movement. Of course, there were more militant, radical civil righters like Malcolm X and the black power movement that came after MLK's death. This fits with the theme of American and Regional Culture since it discusses domestic culture and movements.

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The African American CIVIL RIGHTS Movement (1960s) [APUSH Review 8.10] Period 8: 1945-1980

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13)Explain the various ways in which the federal government responded to the calls for the expansion of civil rights

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13)Explain the various ways in which the federal government responded to the calls for the expansion of civil rights

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As Crash Course explains, in response to the Montgomery Bus Boycott, the government ended the requirement for blacks to yield their seats to white passengers. But this was just the beginning. In response to rampant civil rights protests and anti-civil rights violence, Johnson passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and 1965, finally ending discrimination and securing and enforcing voting rights for blacks. The Supreme Court also expanded Civil Rights with Loving vs Virginia, which federally allowed interracial marriage. This fits with the theme of Politics and Power since it deals with domestic Civil Rights legislation.

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The 1960s in America: Crash Course US History #40

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14)Explain how and why opposition to existing policies and values developed and changed over the course of the 20th century

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14)Explain how and why opposition to existing policies and values developed and changed over the course of the 20th century

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As Crash Course explains, in opposition to liberal policies, conservatism resurged in the 1970s and 1980s due to Nixon and Reagan. This resurgence arised from Johnson's unpopular Vietnam War, which many Americans fervently hated due to the fact that no ground had been made in many years due to aggressive North Vietnamese counterattacks. Not only that, but many critics of Johnson's overspending allowed Conservatives to push their economic policy reform in an effort to balance the budget. Of course, this silent majority of conservatives was also opposed due to the staunch corruption (watergate) that they brought about. This fits best with American and National Identity since it describes the changes in America as a whole.

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The Rise of Conservatism: Crash Course US History #41

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15)Explain how and why policies related to the environment developed and changed from 1968 to 1980

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15)Explain how and why policies related to the environment developed and changed from 1968 to 1980

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As Heimler explains, the US was choked of oil due to OPEC shutting them out through reduction of oil exports. So, alternative sources of energy were searched for. First, nuclear energy was sought which was quickly abandoned after the 3-mile incident. The environmental movement took the lead afterwards. Nixon created the environmental protection agency (EPA) to address environmental concerns. The clean air act helped reduce air pollution. This fits well with the theme of Geography and the Environment since it is dealing with environmental policies.

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The ENVIRONMENT & NATURAL RESOURCES (1968-1980) [APUSH Review Unit 8 Topic 13] Period 8: 1845-1980

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16)Explain the effects of the growth of religious movements over the course of the 20th century

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16)Explain the effects of the growth of religious movements over the course of the 20th century

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As Jocz explains, the religious movement expanded into progressive-esque movements in  the 20th century. Civil Rights was christianity driven, as was much of the feminist movement and the early 20th century temperance movement. This fits with the theme of Social Structures since it deals with religious movements.

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American Pageant Chapter 38 APUSH Review

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17)Explain the extent to which the events of the period from 1945 to 1980 reshaped national identity. 

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17)Explain the extent to which the events of the period from 1945 to 1980 reshaped national identity. 

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Heimler's insane final review covers the major events of Period 8, including the overall Cold War, the Korean War and the Vietnam War, the Civil Rights movement and its expansion to other movements, etc. All of these affected the national identity as two cultures clashed within America, vying for dominance: mass-culture and counter-culture. Of course, there was far more nuance to these issues than just the labels that were provided here. But in brief, Period 8 showed America not to trust their government entirely, to question different sects of society, and it helped America develop their Civil Rights legislation, their women's rights legislation, and their environmental legislation. This fits with the theme of American and National Identity since it deals with change in America as a whole.

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APUSH Exam CONTENT REVIEW (Units 7-9: 1890-PRESENT)

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2)Explain the similarities and differences in attitudes about the nation’s proper role in the world

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2)Explain the similarities and differences in attitudes about the nation’s proper role in the world

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As Heimler explains, the closing of the Western frontier led to a larger focus on Imperialistic conquest for the country. This sparked a debate between imperialists and anti-imperialists (later, many anti-imperialists turned progressive). Both of these groups argued for their causes using religious backing, racial backing, and constitutional argumentation. This argument lay into the post-WWI roaring 20's, in which America took a backseat to foreign politics after years of imperialism and wars. This conservative change of the Republicans led to the Great Depression that preceded WWII, during which America decided that the anti-interventionist, isolationist route wasn't working out all that well for them. So, they interfered in WWII. Similarly, they continued to interfere in world politics and wars beyond Period 7 and well into Period 8 with conflicts like the Korean War and the Vietnam war. This increase in war intervention is similar to early imperialism in the sense that these wars weren't fought for the American people but rather, fought for the "oppressed people" that the Americans supported. Whether that be the Cubans or the Southern Vietnamese, both sides suffered due to American intervention. Since this focuses on foreign politics and imperialistics policy debates, the theme that fits best here is Politics and Power.

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DEBATES About AMERICAN IMPERIALISM [APUSH Unit 7 Topic 2] Period 7: 1898-1945

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3)Explain the effects of the Spanish–American War

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3)Explain the effects of the Spanish–American War

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In this document, Mckinley voices his decision to annex the Philippines, despite his earlier dispositions to such an action. He cited his reason to annexing the Philippines was to "uplift and Christianize" the Filipinos and to also protect them from the influence and tyranny of other European powers. This is important because it shows how imperialism led to annexation of territories and how those territories were regarded in terms of being part of America or simply a "territory of America." In the case of the Filipinos, they received the latter treatment more often than the former. Mckinley was pressured into making this decision by his imperialist backers and the yellow press. This fits most closely with the theme of American and National Identity because it shows the development of America through the annexation of acquired territories from imperialistic conquest.

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Printable Version

Decision on the Philippines
Digital History ID 1257

Author: William McKinley
Date:1900

Annotation: President William McKinley was deeply ambivalent about war against Spain. The last president to have served in the Civil War said he had seen too much carnage at battles like Antietam to be enthusiastic about war with Spain. "I've been through one war. I have seen the dead piled up, and I do not want to see another."

Ultimately, however, the pressure of public opinion forced McKinley into the war that made the United States an international power. Newspaper publishers like William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer worked up war fever among the public with reports of Spanish atrocities against Cuban rebels. Then, Hearst's New York Journal published a leaked letter in which the chief Spanish diplomat in Washington, Enrique Duby de Lome, described President McKinley as "weak" and a "petty politician." Hearst publicized the DeLome letter under the screaming headline: "WORST INSULT TO THE UNITED STATES IN ITS HISTORY". Days later an explosion sank the U.S.S. Maine in Cuban's Havana harbor. A naval court of inquiry blamed the explosion on a mine, further inflaming public sentiment against Spain.

At the end of the Spanish-American war, pressure on President William McKinley to annex the Philippines was intense. After originally declaring that it would "be criminal aggression" for the United States to annex the archipelago, he reversed himself, partly out of fear that another power would seize the Philippines. Six weeks after Dewey defeated the Spanish fleet at Manila Bay, a German fleet sought to set up a naval base there. The British, French, and Japanese also sought bases in the Philippines. Unaware that the Philippines were the only predominantly Catholic nation in Asia, President McKinley said that American occupation was necessary to "uplift and Christianize" the Filipinos.

Document: When next I realized that the Philippines had dropped into our laps, I confess I did not know what to do with them. I sought counsel from all sides-Democrats as well as Republicans-but got little help. I thought first we would take only Manila; then Luzon; then other islands, perhaps, also.

I walked the floor of the White House night after night until midnight; and I am not ashamed to tell you, gentlemen, that I went down on my knees and prayed to Almighty God for light and guidance more than one night. And one night late it came to me this way-I don't know how it was, but it came:

(1) That we could not give them back to Spain-that would be cowardly and dishonorable;

(2) That we could not turn them over to France or Germany, our commercial rivals in the Orient-that would be bad business and discreditable;

(3) That we could not leave them to themselves-they were unfit for self-government, and they would soon have anarchy and misrule worse then Spain's was; and

(4) That there was nothing left for us to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them and by God's grace do the very best we could by them, as our fellow men for whom Christ also died.

And then I went to bed and went to sleep, and slept soundly, and the next morning I sent for the chief engineer of the War Department (our map-maker), and I told him to put the Philippines on the map of the United States (pointing to a large map on the wall of his office), and there they are and there they will stay while I am President!

Source: General James Rusling, "Interview with President William McKinley," The Christian Advocate 22 January 1903, 17.

Copyright 2019 Digital History

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Printable Version Decision on the Philippines Digital History ID 1257 Author: William McKinley Date:1900 Annotation: President William McKinley was deeply ambivalent about war against Spain. The last president to have served in the Civil War said he had seen too much carnage at battles like Antietam to be enthusiastic about war with Spain.

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4)Compare the goals and effects of the Progressive reform movement

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4)Compare the goals and effects of the Progressive reform movement

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Heimler claims that the progressive movement made real ground on the national level thanks to the presidency of Teddy Roosevelt. This can be seen with Roosevelt's Pure Food and Drug Act, his trust busting, and a majority of his square deal reformations. This claim is also stipulated and supported by crash course (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F7flSW1PGsA&list=PLLOMKjLJ2n2Mpqndgk-C6HWz-GB6RA5YO&index=3). However, Roosevelt was also a big supporter of imperialism, a very anti-progressive foreign policy. Though this did not impede his popularity with progressives, it does show his conservative side. Since this deals with the progressive movement as a whole and the social movement behind it, the theme that best fits here is Social Structures.

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The PROGRESSIVE Era [APUSH Unit 7 Topic 4] Period 7: 1898-1945

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5)Compare attitudes toward the use of natural resources from 1890 to 1945

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5)Compare attitudes toward the use of natural resources from 1890 to 1945

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According to this article, conservationists called for federal supervision of the nation's resources which had been overused by the general population and the industries of America, mostly for private gain. In President Theodore Roosevelt, the conservationists found a sympathetic ear and man of action. Conservation of the nation's resources, putting an end to wasteful uses of raw materials, and the reclamation of large areas of neglected land have been identified as some of the major achievements of the Roosevelt era. Since this fits with the political aspects of environmental conservation, the theme that fits best would be Geography and the Environment.

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Yosemite Valley, California

In the mid to late 19th century, natural resources were heavily exploited, especially in the West. Land speculators and developers took over large tracts of forests and grazing land. Acreage important to waterpower was seized by private concerns. Mining companies practiced improper and wasteful mining practices. Assuming a seemingly inexhaustible supply of natural resources, Americans developed a "tradition of waste."

Alarmed by the public's attitude toward natural resources as well as the exploitation of natural resources for private gain, conservationists called for federal supervision of the nation's resources and the preservation of those resources for future generations. In President Theodore Roosevelt, the conservationists found a sympathetic ear and man of action. Conservation of the nation's resources, putting an end to wasteful uses of raw materials, and the reclamation of large areas of neglected land have been identified as some of the major achievements of the Roosevelt era.

President Roosevelt's concern for the environment was influenced by American naturalists, such as John Muir, and by his own political appointees, including Gifford Pinchot, Chief of Forestry. Working in concert with many individuals and organizations, the Roosevelt administration was responsible for the following: the Newlands Act of 1902, which funded irrigation projects from the proceeds of the sale of federal lands in the West; the appointment of the Inland Waterways Commission in 1907 to study the relation of rivers, soil, forest, waterpower development, and water transportation; and the National Conservation Commission of 1909, which was charged with drawing up long-range plans for preserving national resources. Along with a vocal group of conservationists, the Roosevelt administration created an environmental conservation movement whose words and actions continue to be heard and felt throughout the nation today.

To find additional documents in Loc.gov, use such words as conservation, reclamation, natural resources, preservation, and Theodore Roosevelt.

Documents

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Conservation in the Progressive Era | Progressive Era to New Era, 1900-1929 | U.S. History Primary Source Timeline | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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In the mid to late 19th century, natural resources were heavily exploited, especially in the West. Land speculators and developers took over large tracts of forests and grazing land. Acreage important to waterpower was seized by private concerns. Mining companies practiced improper and wasteful mining practices.

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6)Explain the causes and consequences of U.S. involvement in World War I

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6)Explain the causes and consequences of U.S. involvement in World War I

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The US entered the first World War mainly due to the zimmerman telegram, as supported by Oversimplified's summary. Although Woodrow Wilson was already strained due to German belligerence on American ships, Germany kept backing out before it could reek too much havoc. They didn't want the US to involve themselves in the war, so they always stopped short of aggravating the US to that point and after they sank ships that had US citizens on them, like the Arabic  or the Lusitania, they opted for arbitration with the US. However, by sending the Zimmerman Telegram and inciting Mexico to attack the US, Wilson was forced to declare war, despite wanting to be neutral ever since the war's start. One might argue that had Germany continued with it's ship sinking, the US would've entered the war. However, with Wilson's unwillingness to break neutrality and German arbitration, that proved to be highly unlikely. The theme that fits best here would be that of America in the World.

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7)Explain the causes and effects of international and internal migration patterns over time.

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7)Explain the causes and effects of international and internal migration patterns over time.

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As Khan Academy explains, African Americans moved North to escaped Jim Crow laws and to seek new job opportunities provided by the advent of both World War 1 and World War 2. The World Wars caused a slow-down in immigration, which wasn't helped by the immigration quota act that was later passed. This allowed internal migration to occur. The Great Migration is similar to the Sunbelt Migration that happened post-WWII in Period 8-9 due to the rise of economic opportunities in suburban and urban areas of the South, spurred by defense industries from WWII. Both migrations were made to follow the economic opportunities provided by wartime industries. Since this deals with both migration and regions, the best theme for this would be Migration and Settlement and American and Regional Culture.

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World War I: Homefront (video) | Khan Academy

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World War I led to many changes at home for the United States. As international migration slowed considerably, the availability of wartime factory jobs led half a million African Americans to leave the South and move to northern and western cities for work.

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8)Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in communication and technology in the United States over time

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8)Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in communication and technology in the United States over time

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Heimler claims that it was the creation of Henry Ford's assembly line method that drove most of the industrial innovations of the 1920s. This is supported by Ford's wildly successful car industry, and the radio industry that followed along with the oil industry. This viewpoint is supported by Crash Course (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VfOR1XCMf7A&list=PLLOMKjLJ2n2Mpqndgk-C6HWz-GB6RA5YO&index=6), with the added information that older industries adopted the Ford assembly line to survive in the age of consumerism. Of course, one might claim that the laissez-faire economics of the government allowed for these innovations to come to pass in the 1920s, but they would be wrong considering how that was just a method of dealing with business from a federal stand, which is to stay that stand was to not deal with business at all and let it run its course. It didn't allow for these innovations so much as the increase in productivity provided by the assembly line, which wasn't constricted to the 1920s as the laissez-faire economics favoring government was. The theme that best fits here is the theme of Work, Exchange and Technology since this deals with the growth of technology.

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The 1920s: Innovations in COMMUNICATION and TECHNOLOGY [APUSH Unit 7 Topic 7] Period 7: 1898-1945

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9)Explain the causes and effects of developments in popular culture in the United States over time

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9)Explain the causes and effects of developments in popular culture in the United States over time

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As seen in the Great Gatsby , the resurgence of pop culture came about after the end of WWI when America turned back to isolationism and the Great Migration moved black culture up North while technological innovations turned the country into one of consumers. Radios, talk shows, movies, cars, jazz, music, the harlem renaissance, the whole shebang. This fictional story, written by F. Scott Fitzgerald who had lived in the 1920s and was reminiscing about them in the days of the Great Depression, is extremely important because it shows off the culture of the time while pushing the theme of the almighty and failing American Dream to its forefront. The theme this best fits with is American and Regional Culture since it deals with pop culture as a whole.

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10)Explain the causes of the Great Depression and its effects on the economy

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10)Explain the causes of the Great Depression and its effects on the economy

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As Crash Course explains, the end of WWI brought about the 1920s. The roaring 20's saw the rise of conservative Republicans with their laissez-faire economics and deficit spending which set Herbert Hoover up for a horrible economic crash. In part, the depression was due to Hoover as well since he let the Hawley-Smoot Tariff pass, which raised duties so high that the stock market crashed and the world went into a Great Depression due to post WWI debt loops and the stock market crash. The Great Depression caused the American economy to recede. It hit farmers hard, who's products although plentiful, sold for little to nothing. The wave of bank failures also had a big part to due with the cause and effects of the depression on the economy. The US economy only started a minimal recovery when FDR took control and enacted his costly but well thought out New Deal legislation. The US economy made a full recovery during WWII. This fits great with the theme of Work, Exchange and Technology.

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The Great Depression: Crash Course US History #33

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11)Explain how the Great Depression and the New Deal impacted American political, social, and economic life over time

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11)Explain how the Great Depression and the New Deal impacted American political, social, and economic life over time

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As Heimler explains, the New Deal amidst the Great Depression ended the conservative age of the 1920s. The New Deal transformed the US into a Limited Welfare State. This also had the effect of changing party loyalties. The once liberal Republicans who became conservative were now the complete opposite of the formerly conservative but now liberal Democrats. As such, blacks began supporting the Democrats during the New Deal. One can say that the New Deal expanded the aims of the modern liberalism. Since this deals with politics, it fits well in the thee of Politics and Power.

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The GREAT DEPRESSION & the NEW DEAL [APUSH Unit 7 Topics 9-10] Period 7: 1898-1945

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12)Explain how and why U.S. participation in World War II transformed American society.

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12)Explain how and why U.S. participation in World War II transformed American society.

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As Crash Course explains, mobilizing for the war changed American society. Federal spending increased sharply and increased GDP greatly, pulling America out of the Great Depression. The Defense Industries were doing well until they went shorthanded on labor due to the men going off to war. So the women took their place. Black Americans participated in the Double V campaign to push for victory in the war and victory in civil rights back home. Mexican farm workers were allowed to enter the US without any legal process due to farming shorthandedness. The Japanese were put in internment camps from executive order 9066 due to Japanese paranoia post-Pearl Harbor. Korematsu vs the US ruled that the Japanese relocation was constitutional. Since this deals with internal developments within America as a whole, the theme that fits best is American and National Identity.

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World War II Part 2 - The Homefront: Crash Course US History #36

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13)Explain the causes and effects of the victory of the United States and its allies over the Axis Powers

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13)Explain the causes and effects of the victory of the United States and its allies over the Axis Powers

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As Sal explains, the Russian counterattack, the Allied offensive through Italy, and the American victories in the Pacific throughout 1943 allowed the Allies to topple the Axis Powers. The bulk of the German forces were pushed back from Stalingrad thanks to the Russian winter and new Russian tanks. America used island-hopping strategies to defeat the Japanese throughout the Pacific. The Allied forces pushed up from the underbelly of Italy and began to gain ground once again on the European front. Thus, began the fall of the German, Italian, and Japanese powers that had once dominated the war. Since this deals with the second world war, the theme of America in the World.

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Video transcript

in 1943 we see the tide really turns in favor of the Allies especially in Europe but it's actually happening in the Pacific as well to begin with in 1943 the siege of Stalingrad which doesn't quite exactly fit on this map but we would be rightly right over here it ends with the Soviets being victorious and this is actually an incredible story there's many movies about the siege of Salim Stalingrad for a reason this the the Soviets are able to mount a pretty epic counter-attack by attacking the flanks of the axis army and they're able to push them back and defeat the axis army Stalingrad itself gets reduced to rubble and you know if you actually look up pictures of it it's it's it's it's kind of mind-blowing to just even imagine what went on there in Stalingrad right over here although right now Leningrad in 1943 is still under siege and if you want your stomach to really be sick look up images of things that happened over there but needless to say 1943 it's a turning or it's not the turning point forty-two really is a turning point but 1943 the Momentum's really in the Allies favor the Soviets defeat the Germans at Stalingrad they're able to push the Germans and the Axis powers out of the caucuses and then they can they begin to advance and then the Soviets begin to advance and retake ground from the Axis powers now at the same time you might remember that at the end of 1942 in in North Africa in North Africa let me go right over here have all these maps layered over here you might remember that the British were able to push back the axis army back into Libya then this continues as we go into nineteen as we go into nineteen forty three and the Allied army is essentially able to kick the axis army out of North Africa and be victorious in North African you remember you have these the armies that are coming from Egypt you also had you also had Allies land in Morocco and Algeria and then they all meet up and by mid year they're able to use their victory in with Africa as a launching point to start attacking the mainland of Italy they first they can go to Sicily but then they go to the actual mainland and there's an attack at Salerno and they start to to really kind of fight their way up the Italian peninsula maybe I'll do this in a blue color so you can see this is the Allies as we go into mid and late 1943 are able to take more and more of the Italian of the Italian peninsula now as this happened as this happens conditions in Italy aren't good the Italian people aren't happy and they're actually able to depose Mussolini so let me write that down so this is in 1943 Mussolini Mussolini next day I think there's another s Mussolini is deposed Mussolini is Mussolini is deposed and as we get later that year Italy formally surrenders to the Allies now with that said Italy has surrendered but the entire country of Italy the entire time Peninsula there's still access troops there so the Allies have to continue to slog through 1943 in 1944 and even into 1945 to completely rid Italy of the Axis powers and especially the Germans now Rome especially is fairly hard bombing campaigns start in Rome in order to completely get the Axis powers out of that and that all is happening in nineteen this is all happening in 1943 now other other things of note and there's many things that are happening in Europe and once again these are just overview videos that are happening in 1943 is American forces as early as not early 1943 are able to start doing bombing attacks on Germany itself and these bombing attacks only become more and more fierce as the war progresses another battle of note of note in mid-1943 is the Battle of Kursk Kursk and this is really the last offensive that the Axis powers are able to mount on the Eastern Front and they are defeated in this battle by the Soviets and then once again that allows the soviets to start going on the offensive so when you look at things from a European point of view the Allies are definitely they have the bulk of the momentum now they're now kind of putting the squeeze on the Axis powers and frankly the same thing is happening in the Pacific the especially the Americans they are now on the offensive they're able to get closer and closer and closer to Japan

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1943 Axis losing in Europe (video) | Khan Academy

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In 1943, the tide really turns in favor of the Allies in World War II. They are able to push the Axis out of N.Africa and force a surrender from Italy (along with Mussolini being deposed). The Soviets are able to start pushing the Axis out of the Soviet Union.

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14)Explain the consequences of U.S. involvement in World War II.

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14)Explain the consequences of U.S. involvement in World War II.

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As Heimler explains, the mobilization of defense industries and the US involvement in the victory of the war allowed the US to become the world's greatest superpower. However, at the Yalta conference, US-Soviet tensions heightened after the Soviets claimed Eastern European nations against US and British interests. This led to the advent of the Cold War and the Marshall Plan. The US involvement during the war extended afterwards in world affairs through the United Nations. The theme that fits best here is America in the World.

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Postwar DIPLOMACY [APUSH Review Unit 7 Topic 14] Period 7: 1898-1945

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15)Compare the relative significance of the major events of the first half of the 20th century in shaping American identity

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15)Compare the relative significance of the major events of the first half of the 20th century in shaping American identity

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The US identity was shaped by 4 significant periods/events during the first half of the 20th century: the Progressive Era, WWI, the interwar years, and WWII. The Progressive Era allowed for major reform movements to take the US by storm. This died down by WWI, which focused more on economic growth, which led into a resurgence of conservative economics when America reverted to isolationism in the 1920s. This conservatism led to the Great Depression and the resurgence of progressive-esque ideals through the New Deal and new liberalism that democrats provided under FDR. WWII brought the US out of the Great Depression and made them a world power. This deals with the theme of American and National Identity.

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APUSH Period 7: Ultimate Guide to Period 7 APUSH

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1)Explain the historical context for the rise of industrial capitalism in the United States

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1)Explain the historical context for the rise of industrial capitalism in the United States

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As Crash Course explains, the US had lots of natural resources that could be reaped for the benefit of industrialization. Not only that, but the surgance on new immigrants from Southern Europe helped the growth of urbanization, especially in the North. The US also became favorable to businesses, sporting laissez-faire economics and allowing said businesses to grow unimpeded. The US became the biggest industrial power due to the railroads and the commerce they brought to each region of the US. Since this deals with economic growth, the theme that fits best here is Work, Exchange and Technology.

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The Industrial Economy: Crash Course US History #23

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2)Explain the causes and effects of the settlement of the West from 1877 to 1898

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2)Explain the causes and effects of the settlement of the West from 1877 to 1898

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As Heimler explains, the farmers of the South and the West became ten times more efficient due to the mechanization of farms. The production of crops increased and their prices decreased, putting pressure on small farmers. Industrial companies raised prices on goods and railroad companies charged farmers extra for travel. The farmers resisted with the Grange movement. Both the Pacific Railroads act, which allowed the government to grant land to railroads, and the homestead act, which granted western settlers 160 acres of land out west, encouraged western expansion. However, the mechanization of farms allowed for larger farms to buy out smaller farms who couldn't get by in the West. These farmers suffered in a way similar to the slaveless farmers of the pre-Civil War days. The yeomen farmers weren't powerful enough to stand up to the planter aristocracy, much like how the smaller farmers weren't able to stand up to the larger plantation owners and the railroads. However, the key difference is that the farmers of the Gilded Age organized into the aforementioned Grange movement and later, the Populist party, to resist farmer oppression from government and business. Since this deals with migration west and the general Western region's effects on farmers, the themes that fit best are Geography and the Environment and Migration and Settlement.

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Westward Expansion: Economic Development [APUSH Review Unit 6 Topic 2] Period 6: 1865-1898

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3)Explain how various factors contributed to continuity and change in the “New South” from 1877 to 1898

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3)Explain how various factors contributed to continuity and change in the “New South” from 1877 to 1898

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As Khan Academy explains, proponents of the "New South" wanted to industrialize and modernize the South, much like the North. Henry W. Grand was the biggest supporter of this concept.  Khan Academy also claims that the South failed to industrialize. Although the South did gain some industrialize terms of textile mills and tobacco industries, they remained largely agrarian, sticking to tenant and sharecropping. Even Heimler's history ( https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t9FZzMo8R-U&list=PLEHRHjICEfDWvmaCOVrEIh30TbHTuuLMf&index=3) supports this viewpoint, though he takes a more positive spin on the New South side of things, saying that the New South vision was successful in quite a few isolated cities in the South. Of course, one might claim that the South did some aspects of industrialization better than the North, and they would be correct! The South outpaced the North in terms of textile mills and textile production. Still, it lagged behind in pretty much every other aspect compared to Northern industries. Since this deals with the regional culture of the South post-Civil War, the theme that fits best here is American and Regional Culture.

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Could the American South be remade as an industrial economy like the North?

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4)Explain the effects of technological advances in the development of the United States over time

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4)Explain the effects of technological advances in the development of the United States over time

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As Heimler stipulates, the advent of railroad technology was the main reason as to why the industrial revolution was successful. Without railroads, the US wouldn't have prospered industrially due to lack of commerce in Southern and Western regions, as well as the lack of transportation of goods that make so many things possible in industry, including oil, gold, and steel. Railroads also opened up mass production and mass consumption, allowing the national market to prosper with the aforementioned transportation of goods to consumers who built cities around railroads, thus fueling urbanization which in turn, fueled further industrialization. One might argue that communication was what made the industrial revolution prosper. Although communication was important, its preliminary stage in the Gilded Age (that stage being the telegram) wouldn't have been that effective on the national level and it wouldn't have helped the growth of consumer culture, since consumer culture at the time was catered to exportation abroad rather than on the homefront. Since this deals with technological development and exportation abroad, it fits best with the themes of Work, Exchange and Technology  and America in the World.

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TECHNOLOGICAL Innovation in the Gilded Age [APUSH Review Unit 6 Topic 5] Period 6: 1865-1898

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5)Explain the socioeconomic continuities and changes associated with the growth of industrial capitalism from 1865 to 1898

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5)Explain the socioeconomic continuities and changes associated with the growth of industrial capitalism from 1865 to 1898

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Andrew Carnegie's story is that of rag's to riches and he grew up from poor immigrant Irishmen to rise to the top of the steel industry. In this essay, created the notion of “gospel of wealth.” Carnegie believed that the wealthy had an obligation to give back to society. He donated a large portion of his fortune to education, local libraries, world peace, and scientific research. Of course, this view wasn't held by many industrial capitalists, who would've much rather prefer to keep their money to themselves. Amongst the rich, a belief of social darwinism took root, and thus they convinced themselves that the poor were poor because they didn't work hard. Carnegie wasn't much better in this regard and while he did support the gospel of wealth, that only gave back to society in forms of promotional education rather than actual charity work or anything of the sort. This is important because it shows the limits of empathy that most industrial capitalists showed during the Gilded Age to the poor and the common man. Such mocking sentimentalities led to the wildly successful progressive movement. Since this focuses on the classes and how they view each other, a theme that fits well here is Social Structures.

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Printable Version

Annotation: Andrew Carnegie's essay "Wealth."

Andrew Carnegie was born to poor Scottish parents that later immigrated to the United States. A true "rags to riches" story, he became a hugely successful business man, creating an American steel conglomerate by providing iron and steel to the railways. To contradict the creation of wealth, he created the notion of "gospel of wealth." Carnegie believed that the wealthy had an obligation to give back to society. He donated a large portion of his fortune to education, local libraries, world peace, and scientific research.

Document: Andrew Carnegie: The Gospel of Wealth, 1889

The problem of our age is the administration of wealth, so that the ties of brotherhood may still bind together the rich and poor in harmonious relationship. The conditions of human life have not only been changed, but revolutionized, within the past few hundred years. In former days there was little difference between the dwelling, dress, food, and environment of the chief and those of his retainers. The contrast between the palace of the millionaire and the cottage of the laborer with us today measures the change which has come with civilization.

This change, however, is not to be deplored, but welcomed as highly beneficial. It is well, nay, essential for the progress of the race that the houses of some should be homes for all that is highest and best in literature and the arts, and for all the refinements of civilization, rather than that none should be so. Much better this great irregularity than universal squalor. Without wealth there can be no Maecenas [Note: a rich Roman patron of the arts]. The "good old times" were not good old times. Neither master nor servant was as well situated then as to day. A relapse to old conditions would be disastrous to both-not the least so to him who serves-and would sweep away civilization with it.

We start, then, with a condition of affairs under which the best interests of the race are promoted, but which inevitably gives wealth to the few. Thus far, accepting conditions as they exist, the situation can be surveyed and pronounced good. The question then arises-and, if the foregoing be correct, it is the only question with which we have to deal-What is the proper mode of administering wealth after the laws upon which civilization is founded have thrown it into the hands of the few? And it is of this great question that I believe I offer the true solution. It will be understood that fortunes are here spoken of, not moderate sums saved by many years of effort, the returns from which are required for the comfortable maintenance and education of families. This is not wealth, but only competence, which it should be the aim of all to acquire.

There are but three modes in which surplus wealth can be disposed of. It can be left to the families of the decedents; or it can be bequeathed for public purposes; or, finally, it can be administered during their lives by its possessors. Under the first and second modes most of the wealth of the world that has reached the few has hitherto been applied. Let us in turn consider each of these modes. The first is the most injudicious. In monarchial countries, the estates and the greatest portion of the wealth are left to the first son, that the vanity of the parent may be gratified by the thought that his name and title are to descend to succeeding generations unimpaired. The condition of this class in Europe today teaches the futility of such hopes or ambitions. The successors have become impoverished through their follies or from the fall in the value of land. Why should men leave great fortunes to their children? If this is done from affection, is it not misguided affection? Observation teaches that, generally speaking, it is not well for the children that they should be so burdened. Neither is it well for the state. Beyond providing for the wife and daughters moderate sources of income, and very moderate allowances indeed, if any, for the sons, men may well hesitate, for it is no longer questionable that great sums bequeathed oftener work more for the injury than for the good of the recipients. Wise men will soon conclude that, for the best interests of the members of their families and of the state, such bequests are an improper use of their means.

As to the second mode, that of leaving wealth at death for public uses, it may be said that this is only a means for the disposal of wealth, provided a man is content to wait until he is dead before it becomes of much good in the world. The cases are not few in which the real object sought by the testator is not attained, nor are they few in which his real wishes are thwarted.

The growing disposition to tax more and more heavily large estates left at death is a cheering indication of the growth of a salutary change in public opinion. Of all forms of taxation, this seems the wisest. Men who continue hoarding great sums all their lives, the proper use of which for public ends would work good to the community, should be made to feel that the community, in the form of the state, cannot thus be deprived of its proper share. By taxing estates heavily at death, the state marks its condemnation of the selfish millionaire's unworthy life.

This policy would work powerfully to induce the rich man to attend to the administration of wealth during his life, which is the end that society should always have in view, as being that by far most fruitful for the people.

There remains, then, only one mode of using great fortunes: but in this way we have the true antidote for the temporary unequal distribution of wealth, the reconciliation of the rich and the poor-a reign of harmony-another ideal, differing, indeed from that of the Communist in requiring only the further evolution of existing conditions, not the total overthrow of our civilization. It is founded upon the present most intense individualism, and the race is prepared to put it in practice by degrees whenever it pleases. Under its sway we shall have an ideal state, in which the surplus wealth of the few will become, in the best sense, the property of the many, because administered for the common good, and this wealth, passing through the hands of the few, can be made a much more potent force for the elevation of our race than if it had been distributed in small sums to the people themselves. Even the poorest can be made to see this, and to agree that great sums gathered by some of their fellowcitizens and spent for public purposes, from which the masses reap the principal benefit, are more valuable to them than if scattered among them through the course of many years in trifling amounts.

This, then, is held to be the duty of the man of Wealth: First, to set an example of modest, unostentatious living, shunning display or extravagance; to provide moderately for the legitimate wants of those dependent upon him; and after doing so to consider all surplus revenues which come to him simply as trust funds, which he is called upon to administer, and strictly bound as a matter of duty to administer in the manner which, in his judgment, is best calculated to produce the most beneficial result for the community-the man of wealth thus becoming the sole agent and trustee for his poorer brethren, bringing to their service his superior wisdom, experience, and ability to administer-doing for them better than they would or could do for themselves.

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1889carnegie.html

Additional information: Andrew Camegie, "Wealth," North American Review, 148, no. 391 (June 1889): 653, 65762.

Copyright 2021 Digital History

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Printable Version Annotation: Andrew Carnegie's essay "Wealth." Andrew Carnegie was born to poor Scottish parents that later immigrated to the United States. A true "rags to riches" story, he became a hugely successful business man, creating an American steel conglomerate by providing iron and steel to the railways.

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6)Explain how cultural and economic factors affected migration patterns over time

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6)Explain how cultural and economic factors affected migration patterns over time

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As Crash Course explains, the demand for agricultural products due to cities and the need to move westward increased as a result. Cities grew as a result of immigration from the Southern ends of Europe. As such, cities became ethnically diverse and immigrants would often find their kin in sectionalized areas of cities. They would work in the cogs of industrial machines. By taking low-wage jobs in mass, industrialization was able to occur at a rapid pace. Since this deals with migration and immigration, the theme that fits best here would be Migration and Settlement.

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Growth, Cities, and Immigration: Crash Course US History #25

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7)Explain the various responses to immigration in the period over time

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7)Explain the various responses to immigration in the period over time

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As Heimler explains, the resurgence of immigration from South Europe and Asia garnered a negative response from working class Americans. Nativists rose to "defend their American culture" from immigrants. They were made up of working class Americans who were angry that immigrants were working at lower wages and therefore stealing their jobs. The nativists were also made up of many protestant christians who despised the ideas of sharing the country with Irish catholics. The Chinese along the West Coast also received poor treatment, being banned from immigration thanks to the nativist driven Chinese Exclusion Act. The nativist reaction to immigration in the latter 19th century is extremely similar to American reactions to immigration in the latter 20th century and the early 21st century. Many thought and still think that Latin and Asian immigrants are taking their jobs and ruining the American economy, when in fact they are doing neither and actually improving the economy immensely. Since this deals with the development of America's national identity and nativist politics, the themes that fit best here are American and National Identity and Politics and Power.

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RESPONSES to Immigration in the GILDED AGE [APUSH Review Unit 6 Topic 9] Period 6: 1865-1898

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8)Explain the causes of increased economic opportunity and its effects on society

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8)Explain the causes of increased economic opportunity and its effects on society

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The Homestead Act provided 160 acres of free land for anyone willing to travel west. It's important because it not only shows the attraction of western migration, but it shows the increase of economic opportunity and its effects on American society. Most Americans in the Gilded Age migrated to where the money was. Whether that be West with farming using the land given by the Homestead Act, written to attract people West after the Civil War, or that be in the Eastern cities where the industrial machine ran unopposed, Americans---immigrants included--chased after economic opportunity in what can be seen as the early "American Dream". However, that dream of economic prosperity proved disappointing to most as it yielded little profit. Urbanization and western migration led to increased economic opportunity, which caused low-wage workers to follow that opportunity and more often than not, be disappointed by the results. The theme that fits best here would be Work, Exchange and Technology and Migration and Settlement.

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Printable Version

Homestead Act
Digital History ID 3978

Annotation: Law providing for free land for western settlers.

The Homestead Act of 1862 provided settlers with 160 acres of undeveloped land to encourage western migration. After paying a nominal filing fee, title to the land was granted for those who were at least 21 years of age, had built a home on the land and had resided there for five years. Northerners opposed the act. They argued that the free land would lower property values and reduce the cheap labor supply. Southerners also opposed the distribution of free land. They feared the West would become politically stronger and lend a voice in support of abolishing slavery. The Republican Party adopted the homestead legislation as part of its 1860 campaign; plus, the secession of the South led the way for the legislation to pass. President Abraham Lincoln signed the act into law on May 20, 1862.

Document: The Homestead Act May 20, 1862

An Act to secure homesteads to actual settlers on the public domain.

Be it enacted, That any person who is the head of a family, or who has arrived at the age of twenty-one years, and is a citizen of the United States, or who shall have filed his declaration of intention to become such, as required by the naturalization laws of the United States, and who has never borne arms against the United States Government or given aid and comfort to its enemies, shall, from and after the first of January, eighteen hundred and sixty-three, be entitled to enter one quarter-section or a less quantity of unappropriated public lands, upon which said person may have filed a pre-emption claim, or which may, at the time the application is made, be subject to pre-emption at one dollar and twenty-five cents, or less, per acre; or eighty acres or less of such unappropriated lands, at two dollars and fifty cents per acre, to be located in a body, in conformity to the legal subdivisions of the public lands, and after the same shall have been surveyed: Provided, That any person owning or residing on land may, under the provisions of this act, enter other land lying contiguous to his or her said land, which shall not, with the land so already owned and occupied, exceed in the aggregate one hundred and sixty acres.

Sec. 2. That the person applying for the benefit of this act shall, upon application to the register of the land office in which he or she is about to make such entry, make affidavit before the said register or receiver that he or she is the head of a family, or is twenty-one or more years of age, or shall have performed service in the Army or Navy of the United States, and that he has never borne arms against the Government of the United States or given aid and comfort to its enemies, and that such application is made for his or her exclusive use and benefit, and that said entry is made for the purpose of actual settlement and cultivation, and not, either directly or indirectly, for the use or benefit of any other person or persons whomsoever; and upon filing the said affidavit with the register or receiver, and on payment of ten dollars, he or she shall thereupon he permitted to enter the quantity of land specified: Provided, however, That no certificate shall be given or patent issued therefore until the expiration of five years from the date of such entry; and if, at the expiration of such time, or at any time within two years thereafter, the person making such entry -- or if he be dead, his widow; or in case of her death, his heirs or devisee; or in case of a widow making such entry, her heirs or devisee, in case of her death -- shall prove by two credible witnesses that he, she, or they have resided upon or cultivated the same for the term of five years immediately succeeding the time of filing the affidavit aforesaid, and shall make affidavit that no part of said land has been alienated, and that he has borne true allegiance to the Government of the United States; then, in such case, he, she, or they, if at that time a citizen of the United States, shall be entitled to a patent, as in other cases provided for by law: And provided, further, That in case of the death of both father and mother, leaving an infant child or children under twenty-one years of age, the right and fee shall inure to the benefit of said infant child or children, and the executor, administrator, or guardian may, at any time within two years after the death of the surviving parent, and in accordance with the laws of the State in which such children for the time being have their domicile, sell said land for the benefit of said infants, but for no other purpose; and the purchaser shall acquire the absolute title by the purchase, and be entitled to a patent from the United States, and payment of the office fees and sum of money herein specified.

Source: U. S. Statutes at Large, Vol. XII, p. 392 ff.

Additional information not located on Digital History (opens in a new window):
http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/resources/archives/five/homestd.htm

Copyright 2021 Digital History

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Printable Version Homestead Act Digital History ID 3978 Annotation: Law providing for free land for western settlers. The Homestead Act of 1862 provided settlers with 160 acres of undeveloped land to encourage western migration.

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9)Explain how different reform movements responded to the rise of industrial capitalism in the Gilded Age

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9)Explain how different reform movements responded to the rise of industrial capitalism in the Gilded Age

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As Heimler stipulates, the reform movements that rose in opposition to industrial capitalism were socialism, advocates of the social gospel, and populism. Socialism rose as the anti-capitalist ideology. The sharing of wealth was the name of the game. However, it never took off, even after Eugene Debs created the Socialist Party and tried running for President on it. The social gospel opposed the corruption of industry by spreading religious charity and fervor to the poor and working class. The Populist Party empowered farmers to face off against their corporate overlords in a valiant but failed reform movement. Since this deals with the development of the nation as a whole, it fits best with the theme of American and National Identity.

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REFORM in the Gilded Age [APUSH Review Unit 6 Topic 11] Period 6:1865-1898

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10)Explain continuities and changes in the role of the government in the U.S. economy

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10)Explain continuities and changes in the role of the government in the U.S. economy

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American politics continued to serve its role of domestic sustenance with laissez-faire economics. But it changed with urban politics and urban city machines. Local urban city machines were corrupt and filled with graft, as seen with Boss Tweed. He ran a political machine and stayed in power thanks to help from "bribed" immigrants. Thanks to that power, he was able to scam the US out of millions of dollars. Government laissez-faire politics might've seemed like a big change, but the US had already been letting the economy grow on its own, ignoring the organization of economy with things like bank of the US. It was just more notable during this time due to the growth of corrupt industrial monopolies and trusts. Politics also emphasized the issue of gold vs silver during the Gilded Age, although gold won in the end. Seeing as how this deals directly with politics, the theme that fits best here would be Politics and Power.

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Gilded Age Politics:Crash Course US History #26

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11)Explain the similarities and differences between the political parties during the Gilded Age

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11)Explain the similarities and differences between the political parties during the Gilded Age

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The major parties of this era were the Democrats and Republicans. There beliefs relied on lingering Civil War loyalties, as stipulated by Heimler. While Democrats were mainly southerners who championed states rights and racial segregation, the Republicans were mainly Northerners and more industrial than their opponents. However, both parties didn't really have a strong legislative agenda. The only issues that surrounded party politics was the patronage system, which came under fire after  Garfield's assassination. This system was fixed by the Pendleton  Act of 1881. Another issue was the gold standard vs silver greenbacking. The Populist party drove this debate forward and the Democrats adopted Populist ideals while the Republicans remained close to the Gold Standard. Seeing as how this deals directly with politics, the theme that fits best here would be Politics and Power.

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POLITICS in the Gilded Age [APUSH Unit 6 Topic 13] Period 6: 1865-1898

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12)Explain the extent to which industrialization brought change from 1865 to 1898

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12)Explain the extent to which industrialization brought change from 1865 to 1898

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As this assignment helped me see, the industrial revolution changed the entire basis of the American economy. Railroads interconnected the national market, which promoted the growth of cities thus increasing urbanization which in turn, increased industrialization which in turn, garnered immigration which in turn, increased industrialization. I think I've made my point. Industrialization grew so easily because often times, it's products would end up fueling it further. This made America the strongest industrial power by the end of the Gilded Age. The theme that fits best here is Work, Exchange and Technology since this talks about the growth of industrialization.

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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1) Explain the context in which American gained independence and developed a sense of national identity.  

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1) Explain the context in which American gained independence and developed a sense of national identity.  

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As explained in my Chapter 7 notes, English Whig and European enlightenment ideas took America by storm when England began imposing "heavy" taxes on them. These ideas were further developed and explored in Thomas Paine's  Common Sense, which helped later spurr the Declaration of Independence in 1766. This declaration declared American independence and the natural rights of Americans to govern themselves. This helps exemplify the theme of American and National Identity as it shows the roots of the American Democracy.

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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1) Explain the context in which sectional conflict emerged from 1844 to 1877.  

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1) Explain the context in which sectional conflict emerged from 1844 to 1877.  

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As this assignment shows, sectional conflict brewed long before the Mexican-American war, but it was renewed after that due to the polarizing Wilmot Proviso. The Proviso proposed to outlaw slavery in all new territories acquired from the war, and it sparked a stormy debate in congress that culminated in the Compromise of 1850. This entered California as a free state, outlawed the slave trade in washington, revitalized the fugitive slave law, and introduced the concept of popular sovereignty for slave-state vs free state decisions. This backfired when Bleeding Kansas occur, causing a mini-civil war in Kansas over the voting on slavery. All of this culminated in the election of 1860, which Lincoln won, causing the South to secede and for the civil war. The effects of the civil war would cause sectional strife right up until the end of reconstruction with the election of 1876 and the compromise of 1877. Since this assignment focuses heavily on the political reasons for the civil war, the theme that fits best would be Politics and Power.

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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2) Explain the causes and effects of westward expansion from 1844 to 1877.  

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2) Explain the causes and effects of westward expansion from 1844 to 1877.  

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New opportunity out West spurred by tracts of land granted by Mexico (Texas) and the large territory of Louisiana prompted people to go West in search of new chances at life, farming, and economic prosperity. This is similar to the reasons as to why Asian and Latin immigrants would come to America  in the latter half of the 20th century. They came to indulge in economic prosperity, much like the western migraters of the 19th century. Seeing as how this deals with migration and settlement, the theme that fits best here would be Migration and Settlement.

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War & Expansion: Crash Course US History #17

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3) Explain the causes and effects of the Mexican–American War.  

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3) Explain the causes and effects of the Mexican–American War.  

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As Heimler stipulates, President Polk was the main reason as to why the Mexican-American war occurred. His campaign platform was built on the policy of annexing Texas, a move that he knew very well would cause war with Mexico. Not only that, but when he came into office, he sent General Zachary Taylor to the disputed Rio Grande territory, inciting Mexican belligerence which kicked off the Mexican-American War. Polk made these very deliberate actions to incite Mexico into war because he wanted to expand the US territory further by winning the war and acquiring more land from the spoils. As such, he incited the war in the two ways mentioned above: annexing an enemy of the Mexico and trespassing on what Mexico perceived to be their territory. This obvious aggression was the main reason as to why the Mexican-American war began. Although some might argue that the Mexican-American War was started  solely because of Mexican belligerence, they would be wrong because Mexico would've been fine with Texas being an independent state and the US respecting their boundaries. It was the US and Polk who incited the conflict in the first place, not Mexico. Since this deals with both disputed territory issues and the Mexican-American War, the themes that best fit here are Geography and the Environment and America in the World.

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The MEXICAN-AMERICAN War [APUSH Review Unit 5 Topic 3] Period 5: 1844-1877

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4) Explain the similarities and differences in how regional attitudes affected federal policy in the period after the Mexican–American War.  

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4) Explain the similarities and differences in how regional attitudes affected federal policy in the period after the Mexican–American War.  

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Wilmot delivered his proviso in front of the Congressional Globe after the Mexican-American War's end. He believed that the new territories acquired from the Mexican-American War should be free of slavery. This reignited the slavery debate that echoed throughout the 1850s all the way up to the Election of 1860. The North wanted the new territories to be free, not only to gain more political power in Congress with the addition of free-states, but to also stop the spread of slavery as a part of the abolitionist movement. Of course, the South wanted the exact opposite. This led to the Compromise of 1850, meaning that the federal government followed a similar policy to try an diffuse the tensions caused by the slave-state vs free-state argument between the North and South. However, Northerners and Southerners were so impassioned by the Wilmot Proviso, that no matter the Federal policy of arbitration put into place, the two were on a collision course that no amount of compromise could halt. Since this deals with regional identity and strife, the theme that fits best would be the theme of American and Regional Culture.

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5) Explain the effects of immigration from various parts of the world on American culture from 1844 to 1877.  

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5) Explain the effects of immigration from various parts of the world on American culture from 1844 to 1877.  

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This document claims that immigration helped the Roman Catholics rise to power. This was because of the surgance of Irish immigrants, displaced by the Irish-potato famine, coming to America and working out West and in the North. This second source(http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/nineteen/nkeyinfo/nromcath.htm) stipulates this claim with a tighter focus on the growth of roman catholicism in the US. Of course, one might argue that the resurgence of catholicism was caused by the Second Great Awakening. While the Second Great Awakening did revive religious fervor, however, it was mostly in favor the Protestants. Since this deals with the growth of the catholics in America, the theme that fits best here is that of Social Structures.

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Immigration to the United States

The pace of immigration accelerated in the 1840s and 1850s, as people from Europe sought land, freedom, opportunity, and jobs in the United States.

Learning Objectives

Summarize the patterns of immigration into the United States during the first two-thirds of the nineteenth century

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Immigration to the United States from Britain, Ireland, Germany, and other parts of western Europe increased beginning in the 1830s.

Most immigrants were attracted by the cheap farmland available in the United States; some immigrants were artisans and skilled factory workers attracted by the first stage of industrialization.

Many Irish immigrants became unskilled workers on infrastructure projects and in factories; many German immigrants became farmers and craftsmen.

The California gold rush of 1849 rapidly expanded the population of the new territory, attracting thousands of immigrants from Latin America, China, Australia, and Europe.

Between 1841 and 1850, immigration nearly tripled, totaling 1,713,000 immigrants.

As German and Irish immigrants poured into the United States in the decades preceding the Civil War, native-born laborers found themselves competing for jobs with new arrivals who were more likely to work longer hours for less pay.

Key Terms

infrastructure: The basic facilities, services, and installations needed for the functioning of a community or society.

industrialization: A process of social and economic change whereby a human society is transformed through manufacturing and advances in technology, particularly with the development of large-scale energy and metallurgy production.

Immigration in the Nineteenth Century

There was relatively little immigration into the United States from 1770 to 1830. Large-scale immigration resumed in the 1830s from Britain, Ireland, Germany, and other parts of western Europe, and the pace of immigration accelerated in the 1840s and 1850s. Most immigrants were attracted by the cheap farmland available in the United States; some immigrants were artisans and skilled factory workers attracted by the first stage of industrialization. Poor economic conditions in Europe drove many people to seek land, freedom, opportunity, and jobs in the new nation of America.

Immigration from Europe

Many new members of the working class came from the ranks of these immigrants, who brought new foods, customs, and religions. The Roman Catholic population of the United States, fairly small before this period, began to swell with the arrival of the Irish and the Germans. Many people immigrated from Ireland to work on infrastructure projects such as canals and railroads and settled in urban areas. Many Irish went to the emerging textile mill towns of the Northeast, while others became longshoremen in the growing Atlantic and Gulf port cities. About half of the immigrants from Germany headed to farms, especially in the Midwest and Texas, while the other half became craftsmen in urban areas.

Between 1841 and 1850, immigration nearly tripled, totaling 1,713,000 immigrants. The great potato famine in Ireland (1845-1849) drove the Irish to the United States in large numbers; they emigrated directly from their homeland to escape poverty and death. The failed Irish revolutions of 1848 brought many intellectuals and activists to exile in the United States.

The California Gold Rush

By 1848, thousands of California's residents had gone north to the gold fields with visions of wealth, and in 1849, thousands of people from around the world followed them, marking the beginning of the gold rush. The California gold rush rapidly expanded the population of the new territory, attracting thousands of immigrants from Latin America, China, Australia, and Europe; it also prompted concerns about immigration, especially from China.

Foreigners were generally disliked, especially those from South America. The most discriminated against, however, were the thousands of Chinese immigrants. Eager to earn money to send to their families in Hong Kong and southern China, they quickly earned a reputation as frugal and hard workers who routinely took over diggings others had abandoned as worthless and worked them until every scrap of gold had been found. Many American miners, often spendthrifts, resented their presence and discriminated against them, believing the Chinese, who represented about 8 percent of the nearly 300,000 who arrived, were depriving them of the opportunity to make a living.

In 1850, California imposed a tax on foreign miners, and in 1858, it prohibited all immigration from China. Those Chinese who remained in the face of the growing hostility were often beaten and killed, and some Westerners made a sport of cutting off Chinese men's queues, the long braids of hair worn down their backs. In 1882, Congress took up the power to restrict immigration by banning the further immigration of Chinese.

Immigration and Worker Exploitation

As German and Irish immigrants poured into the United States in the decades preceding the Civil War, native-born laborers found themselves competing for jobs with new arrivals who were more likely to work longer hours for less pay. As a result, many wage workers in the North were largely hostile to immigration. In Lowell, Massachusetts, for example, the daughters of New England farmers encountered competition from the daughters of Irish farmers suffering the effects of the potato famine; these immigrant women were more likely to be exploited by employers, working for far less money and enduring worse conditions than native-born women. Male German and Irish immigrants also competed with native-born men. Germans, many of whom were skilled workers, took jobs in furniture making. The Irish provided a ready source of unskilled labor needed to lay railroad tracks and dig canals. American men with families to support grudgingly accepted low wages in order to keep their jobs. As work became increasingly deskilled, no worker was irreplaceable, and no one's job was safe.

Irish Immigration

A second wave of Irish Catholic immigration began in the 1840s following the potato famine in Ireland.

Learning Objectives

Discuss the waves of Irish immigration into the United States

Key Takeaways

Key Points

The first wave of Irish immigration, which occurred before the American Revolution, consisted mostly of Protestants from Ulster who settled in the American interior. Descendants of this first wave called themselves "Scotch-Irish."

A second wave of Irish Catholic immigration began in the 1840s following the potato famine in Ireland. By 1890, two of every five Irish-born people were living abroad.

Most of the new Irish Catholic immigrants worked as unskilled laborers. In the Northeast, they worked in textile mills in emerging industrial cities. In the interior of the country, they worked on infrastructure projects such as canals and railroads.

Native-born laborers found themselves competing for jobs with new Irish arrivals who were more likely to work longer hours for less pay; the resulting job competition caused widespread discrimination against Irish immigrants.

Key Terms

potato famine: A period of mass starvation, disease, and emigration in Ireland between 1845 and 1852.

unskilled labor: Of a person or workforce: not having specific technical training.

Early Irish Immigrants

Protestant Irish immigrants from Ulster had been coming to British North America since the 1700s, and many had settled in the upland areas of the American interior. They participated in the American Revolution in large numbers and were a well-established community by the 1840s, when a second wave of Irish immigration began. At that time, descendants of the first wave of Irish immigration began to refer to themselves as "Scotch-Irish" to distinguish themselves from the newly arrived immigrants.

The Potato Famine

The Irish potato famine (1845-1849) destroyed much of the potato crop in Ireland and sent the entire country into starvation. Many emigrated to America in order to escape poverty and death. These new Irish immigrants were primarily Catholic, and most became unskilled workers who settled in urban areas in the Northeast and Midwest such as Boston, New York, and Chicago. Many Irish went to the emerging textile- mill towns of the Northeast; some also migrated to the interior of America to work on large-scale infrastructure projects such as canals and railroads.

By 1840, emigration had become a massive, relentless, and efficiently managed national enterprise. Including those who moved to Britain, between 9 and 10 million Irish people emigrated after 1700. The total flow was more than the population at its historical peak in the 1830s of 8.5 million. From 1830 to 1914, almost 5 million Irish traveled to the United States alone. In 1890, two of every five Irish-born people were living abroad. By the 2000s, an estimated 80 million people worldwide claimed some Irish descent; among them are 50 million Americans who claim "Irish" as their primary ethnicity.

Discrimination and Assimilation

As Irish immigrants poured into the United States in the decades preceding the Civil War, native-born laborers found themselves competing for jobs with new arrivals who were more likely to work longer hours for less pay. In Lowell, Massachusetts, for example, the daughters of New England farmers encountered competition from the daughters of Irish farmers suffering the effects of the potato famine; these immigrant women were more easily exploited by employers, working for far less money and enduring worse conditions than native-born women. Male Irish immigrants also competed with native-born men. The Irish provided a ready source of unskilled labor needed to lay railroad tracks and dig canals. American men with families to support grudgingly accepted low wages in order to keep their jobs.

As work became increasingly deskilled, no worker was irreplaceable, and no one's job was safe. The resulting job competition caused a general hostility toward Irish immigrants. Nineteenth-century Protestant American "nativist" discrimination against Irish Catholics reached a peak in the mid-1850s, when the Know-Nothing Party tried to oust Catholics from public office. Much of the opposition came from Irish Protestants, as in the 1831 riots in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. During the 1830s, riots for control of job sites broke out in rural areas between Irish and local American work teams competing for construction jobs. After 1860, many Irish sang songs about "NINA signs" reading, "Help wanted-no Irish need apply."

Effects on American Culture

The Irish had a huge impact on America as a whole. Even today, many major cities in the United States retain a substantial Irish American community. Massachusetts mill towns such as Lawrence, Lowell, and Pawtucket attracted many Irish women in particular. The anthracite-coal region of northeastern Pennsylvania saw a massive influx of Irish during this time period; conditions in the mines eventually gave rise to groups and secret societies such as the Molly Maguires. As they assimilated, Irish Americans contributed to U.S. culture in a wide variety of fields, such as the fine and performing arts, film, literature, politics, sports, and religion.

German Immigration

Between 1820 and World War I, many German political refugees came to America following a series of German revolutions.

Learning Objectives

Summarize the political significance of German immigration in mid-nineteenth century America

Key Takeaways

Key Points

The largest flow of German immigration to America occurred between 1820 and World War I, during which time nearly six million Germans immigrated to the United States. Roughly half of German immigrants settled in cities and became skilled workers and entrepreneurs, while the other half established large farms in the Midwest.

In the mid-nineteenth century, German immigrants formed the largest incoming group to America.

Cities such as Milwaukee, Cincinnati, and St. Louis attracted large German populations, and many cities had neighborhoods named in reference to this German heritage.

Sentiment among German Americans was largely antislavery, and hundreds of thousands of German Americans volunteered to fight for the Union in the American Civil War.

Key Terms

entrepreneur: A person who organizes and operates a business venture and assumes much of the associated risk.

brewing: The production of alcoholic beverages, such as beer, by fermentation.

Immigration from Germany

The largest flow of German immigration to America occurred between 1820 and World War I, during which time nearly six million Germans immigrated to the United States. From 1840 to 1880, they were the largest group of immigrants to the United States. Following the Revolutions of 1848 in Germany, a wave of political refugees fled to America who became known as "Forty-Eighters." They included professionals, journalists, and politicians. Prominent Forty-Eighters included Carl Schurz and Henry Villard.

Location of German Communities

The cities of Milwaukee, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Chicago, New York, and Baltimore were favored destinations of German immigrants. Many communities acquired distinctive names suggesting their heritage, such as the "Over-the-Rhine" district in Cincinnati and the "German Village" in Columbus, Ohio. Milwaukee was once known as "the German Athens," and radical Germans trained in politics in the old country dominated the city's Socialists. Skilled workers produced many crafts, while entrepreneurs created the beer brewing industry; the most famous brands included Pabst, Schlitz, Miller, and Blatz.

While roughly half of German immigrants settled in cities, the other half established farms in the Midwest. From Ohio to the Plains states, a heavy presence of German heritage persists in rural areas today. Few Germans settled in the Deep South, apart from some in New Orleans.

Politics and Role in Society

Sentiment among German Americans was largely antislavery, especially among Forty-Eighters. Hundreds of thousands of German Americans volunteered to fight for the Union in the American Civil War, making them the largest immigrant group to participate. Although only one in four Germans fought in all-German regiments, they created the public image of the German soldier.

Relatively few German Americans held office, but the men voted after they became citizens. In general during the Third Party System (1850s-1890s), the Protestants and Jews leaned toward the new Republican Party and the Catholics were strongly Democratic. When prohibition was on the ballot, the Germans voted solidly against it. In the late nineteenth century, many Germans in cities were socialists, and Germans played a significant role in the labor-union movement.

The Germans worked hard to maintain and cultivate their language, especially through newspapers and classes in elementary and high schools. German Americans in many cities, such as Milwaukee, brought their strong support of education, establishing German-language schools and teacher-training seminaries (Töchter-Institut) to prepare students and teachers in German-language training. By the late nineteenth century, the Germania Publishing Company-a publisher of books, magazines, and newspapers in German-was established in Milwaukee.

"Germania" was the common term for German-American neighborhoods and their organizations. Deutschtum was the term for transplanted German nationalism, both culturally and politically. Between 1875 and 1915, the German-American population in the United States doubled, and many of its members worked hard to maintain their culture. German was used in local schools and churches, while numerous Vereine-associations dedicated to literature, humor, gymnastics, and singing-sprang up in German-American communities. German Americans tended to support the German government's actions, and, even after the United States entered World War I, they often voted for antidraft and antiwar candidates. Deutschtum in the United States disintegrated after 1918.

Nativism

Nativism was an anti-immigration movement that favored those descended from the inhabitants of the original thirteen colonies.

Learning Objectives

Describe anti-immigrant sentiment in mid-nineteenth century America

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Nativists believed they were the true "Native" Americans, despite their being descended from immigrants themselves.

In response to the waves of immigration in the mid-nineteenth century, Nativists created political parties and tried to limit the rights of immigrants. One Nativist organization, the "Order of the Star Spangled Banner," became known as the "Know-Nothings."

Much Nativist sentiment was focused on Irish Americans, but German and Chinese immigrants came under attack as well.

Key Terms

Know-Nothings: A movement by the Nativist American political faction of the 1850s characterized by political xenophobia, anti-Catholic sentiment, and occasional bouts of violence against the groups members opposed.

American Party: A political party active in Connecticut in the early nineteenth century.

Order of the Star Spangled Banner: An oath-bound secret society in New York City created in 1849 by Charles Allen to protest the rise of Irish, Roman Catholic, and German immigration into the United States.

Anti-Immigration Sentiments

The large numbers of immigrants that came from dramatically different cultures during the middle of the nineteenth century sparked a number of anti-immigration movements. The largest of these movements was nativism, which took its name from the "Native American" parties. In this context, "native" did not mean indigenous or American Indian, but rather those descended from the inhabitants of the original British thirteen colonies. Nativists objected primarily to Irish Roman Catholics because of their loyalty to the Pope and because of their supposed rejection of the American ideal of republicanism. Nativism's prejudice was not exclusive to Irish Catholics, however: German and Chinese immigrants also came under attack during the second half of the nineteenth century.

As German and Irish immigrants poured into the United States in the decades preceding the Civil War, native-born laborers also found themselves competing for jobs with new arrivals who were more likely to work longer hours for less pay. This job competition resulted in increased hostility toward immigrants; as work became increasingly deskilled, no worker was irreplaceable, and no one's job was safe.

Nativist outbursts occurred in the Northeast from the 1830s to the 1850s, primarily in response to a surge of Irish Catholic immigration. In 1836, Samuel F.B. Morse ran unsuccessfully for mayor of New York City on a Nativist ticket, receiving only 1,496 votes. Following the Philadelphia Nativist riots in the spring and summer of 1844, the Order of United Americans, a Nativist fraternity, was founded in New York City.

The Know-Nothings

By 1850, Charles B. Allen had founded a Nativist society called the "Order of the Star Spangled Banner" in New York City. In order to join the Order, a man had to be 21 years of age, a Protestant, a believer in God, and willing to obey without question the dictates of the Order. Members became known as the "Know-Nothings" because, if asked in public, they claimed to know nothing about the secret society. The anti-Catholic Know-Nothings wanted to extend the amount of time it took immigrants to become citizens and voters; they also wanted to prevent foreign-born people from ever holding public office.

The American Party

The Nativists went public in 1854 when they formed the American Party, which was especially hostile to the immigration of Irish Catholics and campaigned for laws to require longer wait time between immigration and naturalization. The laws never passed. It was at this time that the term "nativist" first appeared; opponents denounced them as "bigoted nativists." In the 1854 elections, Nativists won control of state governments in Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and California. They won elections in Maryland and Kentucky and took 45 percent of the vote in five other states. In 1856, Millard Fillmore was the American Party candidate for president and trumpeted anti-immigrant themes. Nativism caused much splintering in the political landscape

Immigrant Labor

Many of the economic gains in the United States during the nineteenth century were made possible by immigrant labor.

Learning Objectives

Describe the contribution immigration made to economic growth in nineteenth-century America

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Immigration provided the population growth necessary for the booming American economy of the nineteenth century.

Many immigrants came to the United States specifically for job opportunities that promised a better life.

Immigrant communities were attracted to a wide range of jobs: Irish immigrants largely became factory workers and laborers, while German immigrants became skilled craftsmen, entrepreneurs, and farmers.

The California gold rush of 1849 provided another reason for thousands of immigrants seeking opportunities to come to the United States.

Key Terms

unskilled labor: Of a person or workforce: not having technical training.

infrastructure: The basic facilities, services, and installations needed for the functioning of a community or society.

Immigrant Labor

Immigrants of the nineteenth century flocked to urban destinations, making up the bulk of the U.S. industrial labor pool. These new sources of labor profoundly influenced the emergence of the steel, coal, automobile, textile, and garment industries, increasing production and enabling the United States to leap into the front ranks of the world's economies.

Many of the population and economic gains during the nineteenth century were made possible by immigration, as hundreds of thousands of people came from Europe, China, and Latin America seeking the job opportunities and the perceived prospect of a better life in America. Different immigrant groups tended to drift toward different occupations, depending on their background. The Irish provided mostly unskilled labor in factories, textile mills, and large infrastructure projects such as canals and railroads. Many Irish went to the emerging textile mill towns of the Northeast, while others became longshoremen in the growing Atlantic and Gulf port cities. Roughly half of the immigrants from Germany went to farms, especially in the Midwest and Texas, while the other half became craftsmen and entrepreneurs in urban areas.

The California Gold Rush

In 1849, the California gold rush brought in more than 100,000 would-be miners from the eastern United States, Latin America, China, Australia, and Europe. California became a state in 1850 with a population of about 90,000. Many of the immigrants who came for the gold rush also stayed to work on large infrastructure projects such as the railroads.

Exploitation and Discrimination

As German and Irish immigrants poured into the United States in the decades preceding the Civil War, native-born laborers found themselves competing for jobs with new arrivals who were more likely to work longer hours for less pay. In Lowell, Massachusetts, for example, the daughters of New England farmers encountered competition from the daughters of Irish farmers suffering the effects of the potato famine; these immigrant women were willing to work for far less and endure worse conditions than native-born women. Male German and Irish immigrants also competed with native-born men. Germans, many of whom were skilled workers, took jobs in furniture making. The Irish provided a ready source of unskilled labor needed to lay railroad tracks and dig canals.

American men with families to support grudgingly accepted low wages in order to keep their jobs. As work became increasingly deskilled, no worker was irreplaceable, and no one's job was safe. The resulting competition over jobs led to increased hostility from many native-born Americans toward immigrants during the nineteenth century.

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The pace of immigration accelerated in the 1840s and 1850s, as people from Europe sought land, freedom, opportunity, and jobs in the United States. Summarize the patterns of immigration into the United States during the first two-thirds of the nineteenth century Key Points Immigration to the United States from Britain, Ireland, Germany, and other parts of western Europe increased beginning in the 1830s.

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6) Explain how regional differences related to slavery caused tension in the years leading up to the Civil War.  

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6) Explain how regional differences related to slavery caused tension in the years leading up to the Civil War.  

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As Heimler explains, the labor differences between the North and the South racked up tension between the two of them in the years leading up to the Civil War. Since the Northern economy was based in manufacturing and industry, free wage laborers were prominent there. The South, on the other hand, had an agrarian economy based on the reaping of cotton. Such laborious work was done by slaves, who were a "mainstay" of the Southern economy. This difference in economy, manufacturing vs agrarian, free wage laborers vs slavery, caused political strife that lead to the Civil War. Since this deals with economy, the theme that fits best here would be Work, Exchange and Technology.

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SECTIONAL Conflict: Regional Differences [APUSH Review Unit 5 Topic 5] Period 5: 1844-1877

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7) Explain the political causes of the Civil War.  

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7) Explain the political causes of the Civil War.  

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As Crash Course explained, the political causes of the Civil War stemmed from the compromise of 1850, which riled up Northerners with the Fugitive Slave Law, riled up Southerners with the annexation of California as a free state, and introduced popular sovereignty for the voting on slavery. So, all-in-all, no one was happy. The Popular Sovereignty policy backfired in Bleeding Kansas, a mini-Civil War in Kansas over the vote on slavery. Kansas and Nebraska were both admitted as free states and when the Democrats began fighting amongst themselves over presidential candidacy, Lincoln took the Presidency for the Republicans in 1860. This was the final straw for the Southerners, who seceded and attack Fort Sumter a year later, causing the Civil War. Since this deals largely with politics, it can be placed with the theme of Politics and Power.

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The Election of 1860 & the Road to Disunion: Crash Course US History #18

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8) Describe the effects of Lincoln’s election.  

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8) Describe the effects of Lincoln’s election.  

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As Heimler explains, Lincoln's victory caused the South to secede.  They did this because Lincoln represented the new, Northern, pro-abolitionist sentiments, Republican party. His victory marked the end of the Democratic reign and with the fear of having their main money-makers being taken from them, the Democrats left the Union. This is similar to how the Democrats threatened to leave upon the victory of the Republican Hayes in the Election of 1876, since in both cases, the country was on the verge of splitting apart. The only difference being that the South actually did split from the North after the Election of 1860, and the compromise of 1877 prevented the South from doing so again at the Election of 1876. Since this again, deals with the political aspects of Period 5, it fits well with the theme of Politics and Power.

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The Election of 1860 and SECESSION [APUSH Review Unit 5 Topic 7] Period 5: 1844-1877

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9) Explain the various factors that contributed to the Union victory in the Civil War. 

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9) Explain the various factors that contributed to the Union victory in the Civil War. 

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As explained by the comedic genius, Oversimplified, the Union victory in the Civil War was due to a multitude of factors. First and most importantly, Lincoln finally found some good generals. After failed leadership led the Union to lose battle after battle, Lincoln settled on Grant as his main general. Grant's tactics, although brutish, were effective. General's Sherman total war tactics also played a heavy hand in crippling the Southern economy, which brings up the next point. The Union had more resources and men than the Confederates. As such, the Union was able to whittle the Confederate resources down and enact the Anaconda plan to strangle the South. The combined factors of Union finally getting some good leadership and their superior resources led to their ultimate victory against the Confederates. Since this focuses on the Civil War, the theme that best fits here is that of American and Regional Culture.

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The American Civil War  - OverSimplified (Part 2)

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10) Explain how Lincoln’s leadership during the Civil War impacted American ideals over the course of the war.  

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10) Explain how Lincoln’s leadership during the Civil War impacted American ideals over the course of the war.  

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As Heimler stipulates, Lincoln's decision to enact the Emancipation Proclamation and his Gettysburg Address turned the war in the favor of the Union by not only giving them the moral high ground but by also discouraging the interference of other countries. Also, by making the war a war on slavery rather than a war to preserve the Union, Lincoln set up the groundbreaking legislation of the Reconstruction Era that would secure black rights in form of law. Since this deals with how the nation changes its ideals as a whole, the theme that best fits here is that of American and National Identity.

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GOVERNMENT Policies During the CIVIL WAR [APUSH Review Unit 5 Topic 9] Period 5: 1844-1877

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11) Explain the effects of government policy during Reconstruction on society from 1865 to 1877.  

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11) Explain the effects of government policy during Reconstruction on society from 1865 to 1877.  

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As Jocz summarizes, Radical Republican policy during Reconstruction helped secure the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments for African Americans. However, when trying to implement those amendments the Reconstruction Act, the Radical Republicans turned the South into a military regime. This embittered the South further, causing them to resist the military rule enacted during reconstruction (KKK). This all culminated in the Election of 1876, in which the Republicans had to take troops out of the South in order to secure their victory. So, by overstepping their powers, the Radical Republicans dug Reconstruction's grave and incited Southern belligerence. This fits best under the theme of politics and power.

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APUSH American Pageant Chapter 22 Review

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12) Explain how and why Reconstruction resulted in continuity and change in regional and national understandings of what it meant to be American.  

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12) Explain how and why Reconstruction resulted in continuity and change in regional and national understandings of what it meant to be American.  

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Reconstruction brought with it questions of Southern culture, threats of secession yet again, and party tensions so high, they seemed to reach the same levels as those of the Election of 1860. Southern plantation owners continued to own the majority of the region's land even after Reconstruction. Former slaves sought land ownership but generally fell short of self-sufficiency, as an exploitative and soil-intensive sharecropping system limited blacks' and poor whites' access to land in the South.
Segregation, violence, Supreme Court decisions (Civil Rights Cases, U.S. v. Cruikshank), and local political tactics progressively stripped away African American rights, but the 14th and 15th amendments eventually became the basis for court decisions upholding civil rights in the 20th century. Since this deals with regional conflict and strife, it fits well with the theme of American and Regional Culture.

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Reconstruction and 1876: Crash Course US History #22

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13) Compare the relative significance of the effects of the Civil War on American values. 

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13) Compare the relative significance of the effects of the Civil War on American values. 

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This article explains in great detail, the effects of the Civil War on American values. The Civil War destroyed the South and in doing so, destroyed the agrarian economy to such a degree, that it could never compete with Northern industrialization (which is what led to the industrial revolution). The Civil War may have freed slaves, but many Southerners still believed black people should be in chains. However, African-Americans were finally granted basic civil rights and suffrage by the end of Reconstruction as a result of the Civil War. This set the stage for the Civil Rights Movement that would take place a century later, that finally gave African-Americans civil rights (in a sense that it ensured those civil rights). America had gone through its fiery crucible and the Republican experiment had been tested. But, the Union, although broken and destroyed, was once again whole by the end of the war. Thus, the experiment held together. Barely. Since this deals with the change of America and its ideals as a whole, the theme that fits best would be American and National Identity.

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Spring 2010, Vol. 42, No. 1

By James M. McPherson

The Civil War had a greater impact on American society and the polity than any other event in the country's history.

It was also the most traumatic experience endured by any generation of Americans.

At least 620,000 soldiers lost their lives in the war, 2 percent of the American population in 1861. If the same percentage of Americans were to be killed in a war fought today, the number of American war dead would exceed 6 million. The number of casualties suffered in a single day at the battle of Antietam on September 17, 1862, was four times the number of Americans killed and wounded at the Normandy beaches on D day, June 6, 1944. More Americans were killed in action that September day near Sharpsburg, Maryland, than died in combat in all the other wars fought by the United States in the 19th century combined.

How could such a conflict happen?

Why did Americans fight each other with a ferocity unmatched in the Western world during the century between the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and the beginning of World War I in 1914?

The origins of the American Civil War lay in the outcome of another war fought 15 years earlier: the Mexican-American War. The question whether slavery could expand into the 700,000 square miles of former Mexican territory acquired by the United States in 1848 polarized Americans and embittered political debate for the next dozen years.

In the House of Representatives, northern congressmen pushed through the Wilmot Proviso specifying that slavery should be excluded in all territories won from Mexico. In the Senate, southern strength defeated this proviso. South Carolina Senator John C. Calhoun introduced instead a series of resolutions affirming that slaveholders had the constitutional right to take their slave property into any United States territory they wished.

These opposing views set the terms of conflict for the next decade. When 80,000 Forty-Niners poured into California after the discovery of gold there in 1848, they organized a state government and petitioned Congress for admission to the Union as the 31st state. Because California's new constitution banned slavery, this request met fierce resistance from southerners. They uttered threats of secession if they were denied their "right' to take slaves into California and the other territories acquired from Mexico. The controversy in Congress grew so heated that Senator Henry S. Foote of Mississippi flourished a loaded revolver during a debate, and his colleague Jefferson Davis challenged an Illinois congressman to a duel. In 1850 the nation seemed held together by a thread, with war between free and slave states an alarming possibility.

Cooler heads finally prevailed, however. The Compromise of 1850 averted a violent confrontation. This series of laws admitted California as a free state, divided the remainder of the Mexican cession into the territories of New Mexico and Utah, and left to their residents the question whether or not they would have slavery. (Both territories did legalize slavery, but few slaves were taken there.) At the same time, Congress abolished the slave trade in the District of Columbia, ending the shameful practice of buying and selling human beings in the shadow of the Capitol.

But the Compromise of 1850 compensated the South with a tough new fugitive slave law that empowered Federal marshals, backed by the Army if necessary, to recover slaves who had escaped into free states.

These measures postponed but did not prevent a final showdown. The fugitive slave law angered many northerners who were compelled to watch black people-some of whom had lived in their communities for years-returned in chains to slavery. Southern anxiety grew as settlers poured into northern territories that were sure to join the Union as free states, thereby tipping the sectional balance of power against the South in Congress and the Electoral College.

In an effort to bring more slave states into the Union, southerners agitated for the purchase of Cuba from Spain and the acquisition of additional territory in Central America. Private armies of "filibusters," composed mainly of southerners, even tried to invade Cuba and Nicaragua to overthrow their governments and bring these regions into the United States as slave states.

The events that did most to divide North and South were the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 and the subsequent guerrilla war between pro- and anti-slavery partisans in Kansas territory. The region that became the territories of Kansas and Nebraska was part of the Louisiana Purchase, acquired by the United States from France in 1803. In 1820 the Missouri Compromise had divided this region at latitude 36° 30', with slavery permitted south of that line and prohibited north of it.

Considered by northerners to be an inviolable compact, the Missouri Compromise had lasted 34 years. But in 1854 southerners broke it by forcing Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, chairman of the Senate Committee on Territories, to agree to the repeal of the ban on slavery north of 36° 30' as the price of southern support for the formal organization of Kansas and Nebraska territories.

Douglas anticipated that his capitulation to southern pressure would "raise a hell of a storm" in the North. The storm was so powerful that it swept away many northern Democrats and gave rise to the Republican party, which pledged to keep slavery out of Kansas and all other territories.

An eloquent leader of this new party was an Illinois lawyer named Abraham Lincoln, who believed that "there can be no moral right in the enslaving of one man by another." Lincoln and other Republicans recognized that the United States Constitution protected slavery in the states where it already existed. But they intended to prevent its further expansion as the first step toward bringing it eventually to an end.

The United States, said Lincoln at the beginning of his famous campaign against Douglas in 1858 for election to the Senate, was a house divided between slavery and freedom. "'A house divided against itself cannot stand,'" he declared. "I believe this government cannot endure, permanently half slave and half free." By preventing the further expansion of slavery, Lincoln hoped to "place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction."

Lincoln lost the senatorial election in 1858. But two years later, running against a Democratic party split into northern and southern factions, Lincoln won the presidency by carrying every northern state. It was the first time in more than a generation that the South had lost effective control of the national government. Southerners saw the handwriting on the wall. A growing majority of the American population lived in free states. Pro-slavery forces had little prospect of winning any future national elections. The prospects for long-term survival of slavery appeared dim. To forestall anticipated antislavery actions by the incoming Lincoln administration, seven slave states seceded during the winter of 1860-1861.

Before Lincoln took office on March 4, 1861, delegates from those seven states had met at Montgomery, Alabama, adopted a Constitution for the Confederate States of America, and formed a new government with Jefferson Davis as president.

As they seceded, these states seized most forts, arsenals, and other Federal property within their borders-with the significant exception of Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina.

When Lincoln took his oath to "preserve, protect, and defend" the United States and its Constitution, the "united" states had already ceased to exist. When Confederate militia fired on Fort Sumter six weeks later, thereby inaugurating civil war, four more slave states seceded.

Secession and war transformed the immediate issue of the long sectional conflict from the future of slavery to the survival of the Union itself. Lincoln and most of the northern people refused to accept the constitutional legitimacy of secession. "The central idea pervading this struggle," Lincoln declared in May 1861, "is the necessity that is upon us, of proving that popular government is not an absurdity. We must settle this question now, whether in a free government the minority have the right to break up the government whenever they choose." Four years later, looking back over the bloody chasm of war, Lincoln said in his second inaugural address that one side in the controversy of 1861 "would make war rather than let the nation survive; the other would accept war rather than let it perish. And the war came."

The articles that follow focus on key aspects of the four-year conflict that not only preserved the nation, but also transformed it. The old decentralized republic in which the federal government had few direct contacts with the average citizen except through the post office became a nation that taxed people directly, created an internal revenue bureau to collect the taxes, drafted men into the Army, increased the powers of federal courts, created a national currency and a national banking system, and confiscated 3 billion dollars of personal property by emancipating the 4 million slaves. Eleven of the first 12 amendments to the Constitution had limited the powers of the national government; six of the next seven, beginning with the 13th amendment in 1865, vastly increased national powers at the expense of the states.

The first three of these postwar amendments accomplished the most radical and rapid social and political change in American history: the abolition of slavery (13th) and the granting of equal citizenship (14th) and voting rights (15th) to former slaves, all within a period of five years. This transformation of more than 4 million slaves into citizens with equal rights became the central issue of the troubled 12-year Reconstruction period after the Civil War, during which the promise of equal rights was fulfilled for a brief time and then largely abandoned.

During the past half century, however, the promises of the 1860s have been revived by the civil rights movement, which reached a milestone in 2008 with the election of an African American President who took the oath of office with his hand on the same Bible that Abraham Lincoln used for that purpose in 1861.

The Civil War tipped the sectional balance of power in favor of the North. From the adoption of the Constitution in 1789 until 1861, slaveholders from states that joined the Confederacy had served as Presidents of the United States during 49 of the 72 years-more than two-thirds of the time. Twenty-three of the 36 Speakers of the House and 24 of the presidents pro tem of the Senate had been southerners. The Supreme Court always had a southern majority before the Civil War; 20 of the 35 justices down to 1861 had been appointed from slave states.

After the war, a century passed before a resident of an ex-Confederate state was elected President. For half a century only one of the Speakers of the House and no president pro tem of the Senate came from the South, and only 5 of the 26 Supreme Court justices named during that half century were southerners.

The United States went to war in 1861 to preserve the Union; it emerged from the war in 1865 having created a nation. Before 1861 the two words "United States" were generally used as a plural noun: "the United States are a republic." After 1865 the United States became a singular noun. The loose union of states became a single nation. Lincoln's wartime speeches marked this transition. In his first inaugural address he mentioned the "Union" 20 times but the "nation" not once. In his first message to Congress on July 4, 1861, Lincoln used the word Union 32 times and nation only three times. But in his Gettysburg Address in November 1863 he did not mention the Union at all, but spoke of the nation five times to invoke a new birth of freedom and nationhood.

The Civil War resolved two fundamental, festering problems left unresolved by the American Revolution and the Constitution.

The first was the question whether this new republic born in a world of kings, emperors, tyrants, and oligarchs could survive. The republican experiment launched in 1776 was a fragile entity. The Founding Fathers were fearful about prospects for its survival. They were painfully aware that most republics through history had been overthrown by revolutions or had collapsed into anarchy or dictatorship. Some Americans alive in 1860 had twice seen French republics succumb to the forces of reaction. The same fate, they feared, could await them. That was why Lincoln at Gettysburg described the war as the great "testing" whether a "government of the people, by the people, for the people" would survive or "perish from the earth." It did not perish. Northern victory preserved the nation created in 1776. Since 1865 no disaffected state or region has seriously tried to secede. That question appears to have been settled.

At Gettysburg, Lincoln spoke also of a "new birth of freedom." He was referring to the other problem left unresolved by the Revolution of 1776-slavery. The Civil War settled that issue as well. Antebellum Americans had been fond of boasting that their "land of liberty" was a "beacon light of freedom" to the oppressed peoples of other lands. But as Lincoln had put it in 1854, "the monstrous injustice" of slavery deprived "our republican example of its just influence in the world-enables the enemies of free institutions, with plausibility, to taunt us as hypocrites." With the 13th amendment, that monstrous injustice, at least, came to an end.

Before 1861 two socioeconomic and cultural systems had competed for dominance within the body politic of the United States: an agricultural society based on slavery versus an entrepreneurial capitalist society based on free labor. Although in retrospect the triumph of free-labor capitalism seems to have been inevitable, that was by no means clear for most of the antebellum era.

Not only did the institutions and ideology of the rural, agricultural, plantation South with its rigorous system of racial caste and slave labor dominate the United States government during most of that time, but the territory of the slave states also considerably exceeded that of the free states and the southern drive for further territorial expansion seemed more aggressive than that of the North. It is quite possible that if the Confederacy had prevailed in the 1860s, the United States might never have emerged as the world's largest economy and foremost democracy by the late 19th century.

The institutions and ideology of a plantation society and a slave system that had dominated half of the country before 1861 went down with a great crash in 1865 and were replaced by the institutions and ideology of free-labor entrepreneurial capitalism. For better or worse, the flames of the Civil War forged the framework of modern America.

Mark Twain remarked on this process in 1873. The "cataclysm" of the Civil War, he wrote, "uprooted institutions that were centuries old, changed the politics of a people, and wrought so profoundly upon the entire national character that the influence cannot be measured short of two or three generations." Five generations have passed, and we are still measuring the consequences of that cataclysm.

James M. McPherson, professor emeritus of history at Princeton University, is one of the nation's foremost Civil War historians. His book Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era won the Pulitzer Prize for history in 1989. Two other Civil War-related books, For Cause and Comrades and Tried by War, have won the prestigious Lincoln Prize. In 2008, McPherson received the Records of Achievement Award from the Foundation for the National Archives.

Articles published in Prologue do not necessarily represent the views of NARA or of any other agency of the United States Government.

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Spring 2010, Vol. 42, No. 1 By James M. McPherson Enlarge An 1870 engraving of the Battle of Gettysburg, possibly Pickett s charge. (Library of Congress) The Civil War had a greater impact on American society and the polity than any other event in the country's history.

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1) Explain the context in which the republic developed from 1800 to 1848. 

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1) Explain the context in which the republic developed from 1800 to 1848. 

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As my Chapter 11 APUSH Notes state, the takeover of the Democratic-Republicans changed the Republic's ideology and practicality for the next era. Peaceful coercion and isolationism was followed, which went in line with Jefferson's beliefs. However, the War of 1812 forced Madison to abandon the attempted peaceful coercion method of conflict resolution. Later on, when Andrew Jackson took over, he expanded the role of government and the executive branch greatly, giving it powers unbeknownst to others. As such, this represents the theme of Politics and Power greatly since it shows the development of the three branches throughout the first half of the 19th century.

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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2) Explain the causes and effects of policy debates in the early republic. 

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2) Explain the causes and effects of policy debates in the early republic. 

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Crash course describes how Thomas Jefferson's policy shaped the policy of the next era. His peaceful coercion tactics were able to stop many conflicts and when he needed to, he was able to fight wars against people like the barbary pirates. He also had to sacrifice his strict constitution interpretation ideals to purchase Louisiana. Jefferson's policy was often times contradictory to his campaign promises of upholding the integrity of certain constitutional laws. Much debate was sparked after he passed the embargo law to deter impressment of American ships, which ended up backfiring and crashing the American economy, sparking much debate on the worst of Jefferson's early republic policies.  Jefferson's disastrous policy that left the country in a state of panic is similar to Jackson's reign, in the sense that Jackson's destruction of the bank led to the Panic of 1837. Since most of Jefferson's early policies were related to foreign policy, the theme of America in the World fits well with this.

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Thomas Jefferson & His Democracy: Crash Course US History #10

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3) Explain how different regional interests affected debates about the role of the federal government in the early republic.  

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3) Explain how different regional interests affected debates about the role of the federal government in the early republic.  

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During Jackson's era, Western expansion became all the craze in the 19th century. Jackson's reign and Westward expansion led to the Panic of 1837. This is due to the fact that wild cat banks were largely corrupt and ineffective in the West. Not only that, but overspeculation in the West racked up under Jackson's era. The Tariff of Abominations also didn't help. What was meant to be a protective tariff turned out to be very detrimental for the South and the West. Jackson's forced enforcement of this tariff raised questions about government overextension. When Jackson finally pulled the plug on the Bank of America, it was over speculation in the west and the rapid fall of multiple wildcat banks that led to the Panic of 1837. Some might argue that it was solely  Jackson's war against the Bank of the US that spurred the Panic of 1837. However, Jackson's destruction of the bank only put a void in the economy. It was the domino effect caused by that void from which the western investments failed and the Panic of 1837 occurred. Since this deals with both the failure of the Western economy and westward expansion the themes of Work, Exchange and Technology and Migration and Settlement fit well.

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4)Explain how and why American foreign policy developed and expanded over time.  

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4)Explain how and why American foreign policy developed and expanded over time.  

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Monroe's Doctrine to the world established two very important things: American Isolationism and European non-intervention. Monroe delivered this doctrine in response to multiple Latin American revolutions and the threat of European intervention in South America (Russia being a prime example). This doctrine stipulated that Europe will not involve themselves in the Americas. Monroe's Doctrine set an age of isolationism into high gear, allowing America to expand and grow, politically and socially. Since it established such a well-known policy of early America, it fits well with the theme of American and National Identity.

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Note: The Monroe Doctrine was expressed during President Monroe's seventh annual message to Congress, December 2, 1823:
. . . At the proposal of the Russian Imperial Government, made through the minister of the Emperor residing here, a full power and instructions have been transmitted to the minister of the United States at St. Petersburg to arrange by amicable negotiation the respective rights and interests of the two nations on the northwest coast of this continent. A similar proposal has been made by His Imperial Majesty to the Government of Great Britain, which has likewise been acceded to. The Government of the United States has been desirous by this friendly proceeding of manifesting the great value which they have invariably attached to the friendship of the Emperor and their solicitude to cultivate the best understanding with his Government. In the discussions to which this interest has given rise and in the arrangements by which they may terminate the occasion has been judged proper for asserting, as a principle in which the rights and interests of the United States are involved, that the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers. . .

It was stated at the commencement of the last session that a great effort was then making in Spain and Portugal to improve the condition of the people of those countries, and that it appeared to be conducted with extraordinary moderation. It need scarcely be remarked that the results have been so far very different from what was then anticipated. Of events in that quarter of the globe, with which we have so much intercourse and from which we derive our origin, we have always been anxious and interested spectators. The citizens of the United States cherish sentiments the most friendly in favor of the liberty and happiness of their fellow-men on that side of the Atlantic. In the wars of the European powers in matters relating to themselves we have never taken any part, nor does it comport with our policy to do so. It is only when our rights are invaded or seriously menaced that we resent injuries or make preparation for our defense. With the movements in this hemisphere we are of necessity more immediately connected, and by causes which must be obvious to all enlightened and impartial observers. The political system of the allied powers is essentially different in this respect from that of America. This difference proceeds from that which exists in their respective Governments; and to the defense of our own, which has been achieved by the loss of so much blood and treasure, and matured by the wisdom of their most enlightened citizens, and under which we have enjoyed unexampled felicity, this whole nation is devoted. We owe it, therefore, to candor and to the amicable relations existing between the United States and those powers to declare that we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. With the existing colonies or dependencies of any European power we have not interfered and shall not interfere. But with the Governments who have declared their independence and maintain it, and whose independence we have, on great consideration and on just principles, acknowledged, we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling in any other manner their destiny, by any European power in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States. In the war between those new Governments and Spain we declared our neutrality at the time of their recognition, and to this we have adhered, and shall continue to adhere, provided no change shall occur which, in the judgement of the competent authorities of this Government, shall make a corresponding change on the part of the United States indispensable to their security.

The late events in Spain and Portugal shew that Europe is still unsettled. Of this important fact no stronger proof can be adduced than that the allied powers should have thought it proper, on any principle satisfactory to themselves, to have interposed by force in the internal concerns of Spain. To what extent such interposition may be carried, on the same principle, is a question in which all independent powers whose governments differ from theirs are interested, even those most remote, and surely none of them more so than the United States. Our policy in regard to Europe, which was adopted at an early stage of the wars which have so long agitated that quarter of the globe, nevertheless remains the same, which is, not to interfere in the internal concerns of any of its powers; to consider the government de facto as the legitimate government for us; to cultivate friendly relations with it, and to preserve those relations by a frank, firm, and manly policy, meeting in all instances the just claims of every power, submitting to injuries from none. But in regard to those continents circumstances are eminently and conspicuously different.

It is impossible that the allied powers should extend their political system to any portion of either continent without endangering our peace and happiness; nor can anyone believe that our southern brethren, if left to themselves, would adopt it of their own accord. It is equally impossible, therefore, that we should behold such interposition in any form with indifference. If we look to the comparative strength and resources of Spain and those new Governments, and their distance from each other, it must be obvious that she can never subdue them. It is still the true policy of the United States to leave the parties to themselves, in hope that other powers will pursue the same course. . . .
Transcription courtesy of the Avalon Project at Yale Law School. Special note regarding document transcripts

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Note: The Monroe Doctrine was expressed during President Monroe's seventh annual message to Congress, December 2, 1823: . . . At the proposal of the Russian Imperial Government, made through the minister of the Emperor residing here, a full power and instructions have been transmitted to the minister of the United States at St.

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5) Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce over time.  

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5) Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce over time.  

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Crash course stipulates that the market revolution fostered Hamilton's ideal america rather than Jefferson's agrarian dream. This can be seen with the change to mass production of goods and materials like textiles. Even farming became more mechanized in nature, with the advent of the cotton gin. The assembly line helped streamline production methods, making that the go to rather then the Jeffersonian independant artisan mindset fostered before the disastrous embargo act, which spurred the market revolution. This is further stipulated by the National Museum of American History (https://americanhistory.si.edu/american-revolution/market-revolution#:~:text=In%20the%201820s%20and%201830s,transportation%20like%20the%20Erie%20Canal.) which claims that the market revolution increasingly displaced independent artists. This is supported by the latter half of the century's full conversion to industrialization. Since this deals with economics, the theme of Work, Exchange and Technology fits perfectly.

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The Market Revolution: Crash Course US History #12

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6) Explain how and why innovation in technology, agriculture, and commerce affected various segments of American society over time.  

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6) Explain how and why innovation in technology, agriculture, and commerce affected various segments of American society over time.  

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As this article explains, the market revolution established a principle of labor to be followed by the three regions of America. The north became rudimentarily industrial and manufacturing based, with elites, cheap laborers, and immigrants living in the Northeast for work in the assembly line. While the South contained a planter aristocracy spurred by the cotton gin and struggling African-American slaves. Last but not least, the West contained ambitious but relatively poor whites with agrarian infrastructure and the promise for gold and exotic animals. Since this deals with social regions of America, the theme of American and Regional Culture fits well.

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The Market Revolution

The Market Revolution of the nineteenth century radically shifted commerce as well as the way of life for most Americans.

Learning Objectives

Summarize the key technological, political, and geographic factors that contributed to the Market Revolution in the United States

Key Takeaways

Key Points

The Market Revolution was characterized by a shift away from local or regional markets to national markets.

The agricultural explosion in the South and West and the textile boom in the North strengthened the economy in complementary ways.

Eli Whitney 's cotton gin and pioneering work with metal mechanical parts contributed greatly to industrialization.

Large-scale domestic manufacturing, concentrated in the North, decreased dependence on foreign imports and resulted in an increase in wage labor.

The power of the federal government grew under Henry Clay 's American System, which led to many improvements in the form of expanded roadways and canal systems.

The rapid development and westward expansion during the Market Revolution resulted in land speculation which caused economic boom and bust.

Key Terms

wage labor: The socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer, in which the worker sells his labor under a formal or informal employment contract.

American System: A set of manufacturing methods that evolved in the nineteenth century, characterized by a system for making interchangeable parts and a high degree of mechanization that results in a more efficient use of labor compared to hand methods.

Eli Whitney: An American inventor best known for inventing the cotton gin.

Introduction: The Market Revolution

The Market Revolution (1793-1909) in the United States was a drastic change in the manual-labor system originating in the South (and soon moving to the North) and later spreading to the entire world. Traditional commerce was made obsolete by improvements in transportation, communication, and industry. With the growth of large-scale domestic manufacturing, trade within the United States increased, and dependence on foreign imports declined. The dramatic changes in labor and production at this time included a great increase in wage labor. The agricultural explosion in the South and West and the textile boom in the North strengthened the economy in complementary ways.

The South and the Cotton Gin

Commercial agriculture and domestic manufacturing became crucial sectors of the American economy. In 1793, Eli Whitney's cotton gin revolutionized the cotton industry in the South. The cotton gin (short for cotton engine) was a machine that quickly and easily separated cotton fibers from their seeds, a job that otherwise had to be performed painstakingly by hand, most often by slaves. Whitney went on to develop muskets with interchangeable parts, a technology employed by northern manufacturers in many different industries.

Advancements in the West

Many new products revolutionized agriculture in the West as well. John Deere, for example, invented a horse-pulled steel plow to replace the difficult oxen-driven wooden plows that farmers had used for centuries. The steel plow allowed farmers to till soil faster and more cheaply without having to make repairs as often. In the 1830s, Cyrus McCormick's mechanical mower-reaper quintupled the efficiency of wheat farming. Just as southern farmers had prospered after the invention of the cotton gin, farmers in the West raked in huge profits as they conquered more lands from the American Indians to plant more and more wheat. For the first time, farmers began producing more wheat than the West could consume. Rather than let it go to waste, they began to transport crop surpluses to sell in the manufacturing Northeast.

The American System

The importance of the federal government also grew during this period. Congressman Henry Clay introduced the American System to develop internal improvements, protect U.S. industry through tariffs, and create a national bank. Federal and local governments, as well as private individuals, invested in roads, canals, and railroads. The 1825 completion of the Erie Canal was a tremendous engineering feat and opened the West for trade with markets on the east coast.

Following the War of 1812, the American economy was altered from an economy partly dependent on imports from Europe to an empire of internal commerce. With a new generation of leaders, the Republican Party came to embrace the principles of government activism and the development of large-scale domestic manufacturing.

Westward invasion into American Indian territory relegated rich new farmlands to the United States. This period of rapid development in the East and expansion in the West produced a wave of land speculation that resulted in economic periods of boom and bust. These periods were characterized by patterns of high market prices followed by ruinously low prices, falling production, and bankruptcies by producers.

Transportation: Roads, Canals, and Railroads

In the nineteenth century, the construction of roads, rails, and canals dramatically improved national mobility.

Learning Objectives

Describe the revolution in transportation in the nineteenth century and its contribution to economic growth

Key Takeaways

Key Points

During the first quarter of the nineteenth century, the federal government, state governments, and private investors directed significant resources to the transportation sector.

The National Road, or Cumberland Road, was the first highway built by the federal government.

The development of the Erie Canal, extending from New York State to the Great Lakes, cut the costs of freight transport by 95 percent and contributed greatly to the wealth and stature of New York City.

Though canals offered tremendous advantages over land shipment, they could not compete with the efficiency and flexibility of the railroad.

The most prominent early railroad was the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O), which linked the port of Baltimore to the Ohio River and offered passenger and freight service as of 1830.

With improved methods of transportation came the concept of Manifest Destiny; land developers, railroad magnates, and other investors capitalized on westward settlement into American Indian land.

Key Terms

Erie Canal: The 363 mile-long canal from the Great Lake of the same name to the Hudson River.

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad: One of the oldest rail lines in the United States and the first common carrier rail line.

National Road: The first major improved highway in the United States to be built by the federal government.

Advances in Transportation

In the late eighteenth century, the U.S. population was centered on the Atlantic coast, with all major population centers located on natural harbors or navigable waterways. Water and river transportation were central to the national economy, while most overland transportation was by horse, which made it difficult to move large quantities of goods. By 1803, the country was growing rapidly with the admission of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio; however, the only means of transportation between these landlocked western states and their coastal neighbors was by foot, pack animal, or ship.

During the nineteenth century, transportation routes and means of transport underwent dramatic changes, greatly increasing national mobility. New and improved transportation technology made it easier and faster to transport goods: first national roads, then canals, and finally the railroad revolution.

Roads

In eighteenth-century America, roads were privately built, and the government played little role in their construction. Early toll roads were constructed and owned by joint-stock companies that sold stock to raise construction capital. As the nation expanded, however, the government came to see the transportation network as a public good worthy of government support.

In 1808, a government-sponsored Report on the Subject of Public Roads and Canals suggested that the federal government should fund the construction of interstate turnpikes and canals. The suggestion was controversial: Anti-Federalists opposed expanding government power, but many others were persuaded by the compelling need for overland roads for military operations as well as for general commerce. Following the report, work began on a National Road to connect the west to the eastern seaboard. In 1815, construction on the National Road (also known as the "Cumberland Road") began in Cumberland, Maryland; by 1818, the road had reached Wheeling, West Virginia (then part of Virginia). Though political strife ultimately prevented its western advance to the Mississippi River, this road became the gateway for thousands of westward-bound antebellum settlers.

Canals

In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, economic expansion spurred the building of canals to speed goods to market. Among the most important of these canals was the Erie Canal. First proposed in 1807, the Erie Canal waterway was constructed from 1817 to 1825 and was the first transportation system between New York City and the western interior of the United States. Extending from Albany, New York, on the Hudson River to Buffalo, New York, the canal cut transport costs by about 95 percent.

The Erie Canal made an immense contribution to the wealth and importance of New York City, which became the chief U.S. port, and it fostered a population surge in western New York State. It also served to increase trade throughout the nation by opening eastern and overseas markets to midwestern farm products, and it opened regions farther west to settlement. The success of the Erie Canal led to a proliferation of smaller canal routes in the region.

The Illinois and Michigan Canal was built in 1848 to connect the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico. It helped establish Chicago as the transportation hub of the United States. Most of the canal work was done by Irish immigrants who had previously worked on the Erie Canal. Towns were planned out along the path of the canal, spaced at intervals corresponding to the length that the mules could haul the barges. From 1848 to 1852, the canal was a popular passenger route, but this ended in 1853 with the opening of the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific Railroad that ran parallel to the canal. Today, much of the canal is a long, thin park with canoeing and a 62.5-mile hiking and biking trail (constructed on the alignment of the mule tow paths).

Railroads

Canals radically improved transportation, but their reign was short-lived. By the mid-nineteenth century, the canal boom was brought to a sudden end by the rapid expansion of railroads. Railroads provided a quick, scheduled, and year-round mode of transportation. Railroads were superior to water routes in that they provided a safer, less hazardous mode of transport.

Beginning in 1826, several states chartered railroads, including Massachusetts, New York, South Carolina, and Pennsylvania. The most prominent early railroad was the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O), which linked the port of Baltimore to the Ohio River and offered passenger and freight service as of 1830.

Effect on American Indians

Improved transportation increased the United States' potential to expand its borders westward. While much of the basis for westward expansion was economic, there was also another reason, which was bound up in the American belief that the country, and the American Indian "heathens" who populated it, were destined to come under the civilizing rule of Euro-American settlers and their superior technology, most notably railroads and the telegraph. While it's unclear whether that belief was a heartfelt motivation held by most Americans or simply a rationalization of the conquests that followed, the clashes-both physical and cultural-that resulted from this western migration left scars on the country that still are felt today.

The concept of "Manifest Destiny" found its roots in the long-standing traditions of territorial expansion upon which the nation itself was founded. Land developers, railroad magnates, and other investors capitalized on westward settlement into American Indian land. The Pacific Railway Act of 1862 was pivotal in helping settlers move west more quickly. Other railway initiatives would follow, subsequently creating a network linking all corners of the nation.

Factories, Working Women, and Wage Labor

Industrialization in the United States was marked by a growth in factories and an implementation of wage labor, as well as by an increase in the number of working women and deskilled workers.

Learning Objectives

Describe the early years of industrialization in the American Northeast

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Beginning with the textile industry, wage labor began to replace family labor and apprenticeship as the dominant form of labor in the United States.

Francis Cabot Lowell's Boston Manufacturing Company popularized reliance on wage labor, which involves a laborer selling his or her labor to an employer under contract. The Boston Manufacturing Company became the leading textile manufacturer in the United States and pioneered the Waltham-Lowell System.

Young women were the primary labor force in the textile industry, though children often were employed in mills, too.

In the 1830s, the Lowell Mill Girls organized strikes to protest wage reductions; these women were some of the earliest examples of labor- reform movements.

Key Terms

Deskilling: The process by which skilled labor within an industry or economy is eliminated by the introduction of technologies operated by semiskilled or unskilled workers.

wage labor: The socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer, in which the worker sells his or her labor under a formal or informal employment contract.

Waltham-Lowell System: A labor and production model employed in the United States, particularly in New England, during the early years of the American textile industry in the early nineteenth century.

Industrialization in the Northeast

As the nation deepened its technological base, artisans and craftsmen were made obsolete through the process of deskilling, as they were replaced by non-specialized workers. These workers used machines to replicate in minutes or hours work that would require a skilled worker days to complete. As New England 's textile industry took off, mill villages quickly grew into large factory towns, attracting rural workers from the surrounding countryside. The many children employed in early factories were paid very low wages because they were seen to be supplementing family income.

The Rise of the Textile Industry

At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the textile industry was rife with potential for mechanization. Prior to this period, textile production was traditionally performed at home; however, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the work was mechanized and increasingly done on an industrial scale.

Slater's Mill

In the late eighteenth century, the English textile industry had adopted technological innovations that greatly improved the efficiency and quality of textile manufacture: the spinning jenny, water frame, and spinning mule. However, these technologies were closely guarded by the British government. In 1789, Samuel Slater, an apprentice in one of the largest textile factories in England, defied British laws against the emigration of skilled laborers and smuggled his knowledge of textile machinery to the United States. In 1793, he established a cotton-spinning mill with a fully mechanized water-power system at the Slater Mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Slater's Mill was established in the Blackstone Valley, which became one of the earliest industrialized regions in the United States. At its peak, more than 1,000 mills operated in this valley. Slater went on to build several more cotton and wool mills throughout New England.

Lowell's Factories

Slater's mills ran on a business model called the "Rhode Island System." In this model, mill villages employed all members of a family. By the 1820s, this system began to be replaced by a more efficient system based upon the ideas of Francis Cabot Lowell, an American businessman who was instrumental in bringing the Industrial Revolution to the United States. Lowell's Boston Manufacturing Company dominated the textile industry in the United States in the 1820s, developing efficient and novel systems of labor and production.

Lowell, a Massachusetts merchant, was permitted to tour British textile factories in 1810. He memorized the design of textile machines, and on his return to the United States, he established the Boston Manufacturing Company. In the "Waltham-Lowell System," for the first time, both spinning and weaving occurred on site, and mill workers resided in collective company housing under strict supervision. Following his death in 1817, Lowell's associates built America's first planned factory town: the eponymous Lowell, Massachusetts.

Wage Labor and Factory Conditions

Lowell popularized the use of the wage labor, a system in which a worker sells his or her labor to an employer under contract. Wage labor displaced reliance on apprenticeship and family labor. Jeffersonian agrarians viewed wage labor as a negative force in society, arguing that the economy of the United States should be built upon agriculture rather than on industry. Jefferson reasoned that the growth of a class of wage laborers would decrease self-sufficiency in America.

Lowell's factory employed young female workers, some as young as ten years old. These workers were typically hired for contracts of one year. Though considered an improvement on the squalid conditions of factory towns in the United Kingdom, conditions in the Lowell mills were severe by modern American standards. Factories were crowded and extremely loud with poor air quality and little to no ventilation. Employees worked from 5:00 a.m. until 7:00 p.m., for as many as 80 hours per week. This model became known as the "Waltham-Lowell System."

The monotony of repetitive tasks made days particularly long. In the winter, when the sun set early, oil lamps were used to light the factory floor, and employees strained their eyes to see their work and coughed as the rooms filled with smoke from the lamps. Some factories did not allow employees to sit down. Doors and windows were kept closed, especially in textile factories where fibers could be easily disturbed by incoming breezes, and mills were often unbearably hot and humid in the summer. In the winter, workers often shivered in the cold. In such environments, workers' health suffered.

The workplace posed other dangers as well. The presence of cotton bales alongside the oil used to lubricate machines made fire a common problem in textile factories. Workplace injuries were also common. Workers' hands and fingers were maimed or severed when they were caught in machines; in some cases, limbs or entire bodies were crushed. Workers who didn't die from such injuries almost certainly lost their jobs, and with them, their income. Corporal punishment of both children and adults was common in factories; where abuse was most extreme, children sometimes died as a result of injuries suffered at the hands of an overseer.

As the decades passed, working conditions deteriorated in many mills. Workers were assigned more machines to tend, and the owners increased the speed at which the machines operated. Wages were cut in many factories, and employees who had once labored for an hourly wage now found themselves reduced to piecework, paid for the amount they produced and not for the hours they toiled. Owners also reduced compensation for piecework. Low wages combined with regular periods of unemployment made the lives of workers difficult, especially for those individuals with families to support. In New York City in 1850, for example, the average male worker earned $300 a year; it cost approximately $600 a year to support a family of five.

Early Labor Reform Movements

The long hours, strict discipline, and low wages soon led workers to organize to protest their working conditions and pay. In 1821, the young women employed by the Boston Manufacturing Company in Waltham went on strike for two days when their wages were cut. In 1824, workers in Pawtucket went on strike to protest reduced pay rates and longer hours, the latter of which had been achieved by cutting back the amount of time allowed for meals. Similar strikes occurred at Lowell and in other mill towns such as Dover, New Hampshire, where the women employed by the Cocheco Manufacturing Company ceased working in December 1828 after their wages were reduced.

In the 1830s, female mill operatives in Lowell formed the Lowell Factory Girls Association to organize strike activities in the face of wage cuts and, later, established the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association to protest the twelve-hour workday. They distributed legislative petitions, formed labor organizations, contributed essays and articles to pro-labor newspapers, and protested through turn-outs or strikes. Even though strikes were rarely successful and workers usually were forced to accept reduced wages and increased hours, work stoppages as a form of labor protest represented the beginnings of the labor movement in the United States.

The Growth of the Cotton Industry

Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin in 1793 resulted in massive growth in the cotton industry in the American South.

Learning Objectives

Describe the economic and political effects of Eli Whitney's cotton gin

Key Takeaways

Key Points

With the invention of Eli Whitney 's cotton gin in 1793, cotton became a tremendously profitable industry, creating many fortunes for white plantation owners in the antebellum South.

The cotton gin (short for "cotton engine") was a machine that quickly and easily separated cotton fibers from their seeds, a job that otherwise had to be performed painstakingly by hand, most often by slaves.

Cotton soon became the primary export in the United States and by 1860, on the eve of the Civil War, the southern states were providing two-thirds of the world's supply of cotton.

The textile boom in New England created an important domestic market for cotton producers. Cotton plantations depended on slave labor, and as a result of the boom in this industry, slavery increased dramatically in the early nineteenth century.

Due to its profound effect on American slavery, the growth of the cotton industry is frequently cited as one of the causes of the American Civil War.

Key Terms

Eli Whitney: An American inventor best known for inventing the cotton gin.

cotton gin: A machine that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds, a job that otherwise must be performed painstakingly by hand.

Cotton in the South

In the antebellum era-that is, in the years before the Civil War-American planters in the South continued to grow Chesapeake tobacco and Carolina rice as they had in the colonial era. Cotton, however, emerged as the antebellum South's major commercial crop, eclipsing tobacco, rice, and sugar in economic importance.

The Cotton Gin

In 1793, Eli Whitney revolutionized the production of cotton when he invented the cotton gin, a device that separated the seeds from raw cotton. Suddenly, a process that was extraordinarily labor-intensive when done by hand could be completed quickly and easily. The cotton gin (short for "cotton engine") quickly and easily separated cotton fibers from their seeds, a job that otherwise had to be performed painstakingly by hand-most often by slaves. Whitney's introduction of "teeth" in his cotton gin to comb out the cotton and separate the seeds revolutionized this process.

With the invention of Whitney's cotton gin, cotton became a tremendously profitable industry, creating many fortunes in the antebellum South. American plantation owners, who were searching for a successful staple crop to compete on the world market, found it in cotton.

Domestic and International Markets

As a commodity, cotton had the advantage of being easily stored and transported. A demand for it already existed in the industrial textile mills in Great Britain, and in time, a steady stream of slave-grown American cotton would also supply northern textile mills. Southern cotton, picked and processed by American slaves, helped fuel the nineteenth-century Industrial Revolution in both the United States and Great Britain.

New Orleans, Louisiana, and Galveston, Texas, were shipping points that derived substantial economic benefit from cotton raised throughout the South. Cotton soon became the primary export in the United States, and by 1860, on the eve of the Civil War, the southern states were providing two-thirds of the world's supply of cotton.

Additionally, the development of large-scale mills and metal machine tools dramatically increased textile production in northern mill towns in the early 1800s. Though cotton was primarily grown for export to Europe, this textile boom in New England created an important domestic market for southern cotton producers.

Cotton, Slavery, and the Civil War

Due to its profound effect on American slavery, the growth of the cotton industry is frequently cited as one of the causes of the American Civil War. The number of slaves rose in concert with the increase in cotton production, increasing from approximately 700,000 in 1790 to roughly 3.2 million in 1850. A congressional ban on the importation of slaves from Africa in 1808 only increased the demand for domestic slaves on cotton plantations, hindering the work of abolitionists who sought to end slavery. The domestic slave trade exploded, providing economic opportunities for whites involved in many aspects of the trade and increasing the possibility of slaves' dislocation and separation from kin and friends.

A Communications Revolution

The United States experienced a communication revolution in in the early 1800s, during which the penny press and the electrical telegraph emerged.

Learning Objectives

Identify two central components in the nineteenth century's communications revolution

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Prior to the development of the penny press, newspapers primarily serviced the business community and served as tools for political propaganda.

In 1833, the first penny paper, the Sun, was founded in New York. Penny papers were the first papers to target working and middle class audiences.

While most newspapers were controlled by political parties and reported a party line, penny papers, known for their sensational journalism, were politically independent. In 1836, Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail invented the electrical telegraph and the Morse code signaling alphabet, allowing for the wired communication of messages using electrical signals.

Improved communication systems fostered the development of business, economics, and politics by allowing for dissemination of news at a speed previously unknown.

Key Terms

Electrical Telegraph: A type of communication that uses electrical signals, usually conveyed via telecommunication lines or radio.

Advances in forms of communications greatly expanded in the United States during the early 1800s. The penny press and the electrical telegraph were among the innovations that emerged during this communications revolution.

Newspapers

In the early 1800s, newspapers were largely meant for the elite. They generally took two forms: mercantile sheets intended for the business community, which contained ship schedules, wholesale product prices, advertisements, and some foreign news; and political newspapers, which were controlled by political parties or their editors as a means of sharing their views with elite stakeholders. Journalists reported the party line and editorialized in favor of party positions.

Mass production of inexpensive newspapers became possible due to the shift from handcrafted printing to steam-powered printing. In 1833, the first "penny paper," the Sun, was founded in New York. Penny papers-specifically targeting the working class urban population-quickly became widespread. The cheap sensationalized news sources covered crime, tragedy, adventure, and gossip, and these newspapers easily shifted allegiance on political issues. The changes made during the Penny Press era set the standards for all future newspapers, and those standards are still implemented today.

Electrical Telegraph

In 1836, Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail developed an electrical telegraph capable of transmitting text messages over long distances using wire. Together, they developed the Morse code signaling alphabet system.

In 1843, the U.S. Congress appropriated $30,000 to fund an experimental telegraph line from Washington, D.C., to Baltimore, Maryland. In May of 1844, Morse made the first public demonstration of his telegraph, sending the famous message, "What hath God wrought?" The Morse-Vail telegraph was quickly deployed in the following two decades. Improved communication systems fostered the development of business, economics, and politics by allowing for dissemination of news at a speed previously unknown.

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The Market Revolution of the nineteenth century radically shifted commerce as well as the way of life for most Americans. Summarize the key technological, political, and geographic factors that contributed to the Market Revolution in the United States Key Points The Market Revolution was characterized by a shift away from local or regional markets to national markets.

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7) Explain the causes and effects of the expansion of participatory democracy from 1800 to 1848.

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7) Explain the causes and effects of the expansion of participatory democracy from 1800 to 1848.

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As Greene explains, Jackson came to power when the market revolution was occuring. Jefferson's agrarian vision of America had not come to pass and instead, a diverse and regionally distinct market economy had developed throughout America. This made it somewhat troublesome to only allow white landowning males to vote. So, Jackson and many of the state governments made it so that all white males could vote. This increased participatory democracy greatly and helped Jackson win and garner more support from his followers. Since this deals directly with the extension of the people's political power, this fits best with the theme of Politics and Power.

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Age of Jackson: Crash Course US History #14

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8) Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government from 1800 to 1848.  

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8) Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government from 1800 to 1848.  

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As Jocz explains, the Louisiana Purchase occurred during Jefferson's first term as President. After the revolution of 1800, Jefferson wanted to run his administration by abiding strictly to the constitution, unlike his Federalist opponents. When Jefferson had the chance to purchase Louisiana after Napoleon offered him the territory, he was forced to choose between his idealistic strict interpretation of the constitution and the much more beneficial purchasing of the Louisiana territory. The reason this decision was so important was because the constitution didn't have any guidelines in regards to the purchase of large land tracts like Louisiana and Jefferson thought he might be overstepping his executive power by purchasing the land. Still, he went against the Republican ideals he once championed and used the President's power to make treaties to justify his purchase of the purchase, which garnered Federalist opposition of the purchase. This executive decision would have major consequences down the line, including the rise of Jacksonian Democracy. Since this issue surrounds the purchasing of Louisiana, the theme that fits best here would be that of Geography and the Environment.

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9) Explain how and why a new national culture developed from 1800 to 1848.  

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9) Explain how and why a new national culture developed from 1800 to 1848.  

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As Mr. Locos' page explains, a new national culture developed in America due to a multitude of factors. For one, nationalism post-War of 1812 took the nation by storm in the Era of Good Feelings. The nation turned to liberal arts to express their love for the country in literature, art, and architecture, combining European beliefs with nature and rampant romanticism. African Americans also created their own culture by taking parts of their home-land cultures and combining them with American beliefs. Since this deals with the development of American culture, the them that fits best here is American and Regional Culture.

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Period 4: (1800-1848)
Chapters 9-12
Key Concepts - from College Board

The new republic struggled to define and extend democratic ideals in the face of rapid economic, territorial, and demographic changes.

Key Concept 4.1: The United States began to develop a modern democracy and celebrated a new national culture, while Americans sought to define the nation's democratic ideals and change their society and institutions to match them.

I. The nation's transition to a more participatory democracy was achieved by expanding suffrage from a system based on property ownership to one based on voting by all adult white men, and it was accompanied by the growth of political parties.
A) In the early 1800s, national political parties continued to debate issues such as the tariff, powers of the federal government, and relations with European powers.
B) Supreme Court decisions established the primacy of the judiciary in determining the meaning of the Constitution and asserted that federal laws took precedence over state laws.
C) By the 1820s and 1830s, new political parties arose - the Democrats, led, by Andrew Jackson, and the Whigs, led by Henry Clay - that disagreed about the role and powers of the federal government and issues such as the national bank, tariffs, and federally funded internal improvements.
D) Regional interests often trumped national concerns as the basis for many political leaders' positions on slavery and economic policy.

Key Concept 4.1: The United States began to develop a modern democracy and celebrated a new national culture, while Americans sought to define the nation's democratic ideals and change their society and institutions to match them.

II. While Americans embraced a new national culture, various groups developed distinctive cultures of their own.
A) The rise of democratic and individualistic beliefs, a response to rationalism, and changes to society caused by the market revolution, along with greater social and geographical mobility, contributed to a Second Great Awakening among Protestants that influenced moral and social reforms and inspired utopian and other religious movements.
B) A new national culture emerged that combined American elements, European influences, and regional cultural sensibilities.
C) Liberal social ideas from abroad and Romantic beliefs in human perfectibility influenced literature, art, philosophy, and architecture.
D) Enslaved blacks and free African Americans created communities and strategies to protect their dignity and family structures, and they joined political efforts aimed at changing their status.

Key Concept 4.1: The United States began to develop a modern democracy and celebrated a new national culture, while Americans sought to define the nation's democratic ideals and change their society and institutions to match them.

III. Increasing numbers of Americans, many inspired by new religious and intellectual movements, worked primarily outside of government institutions to advance their ideals.
A) Americans formed new voluntary organizations that aimed to change individual behaviors and improve society through temperance and other reform efforts.
B) Abolitionist and antislavery movements gradually achieved emancipation in the North, contributing to the growth of the free African American population, even as many state governments restricted African Americans' rights. Antislavery efforts in the South were largely limited to unsuccessful slave rebellions.
C) A women's rights movement sought to create greater equality and opportunities for women, expressing its ideals at the Seneca Falls Convention.

Key Concept 4.2: Innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce powerfully accelerated the American economy, precipitating profound changes to U.S. society and to national and regional identities.

I. New transportation systems and technologies dramatically expanded manufacturing and agricultural production.
A) Entrepreneurs helped to create a market revolution in production and commerce, in which market relationships between producers and consumers came to prevail as the manufacture of goods became more organized.
B) Innovations including textile machinery, steam engines, interchangeable parts, the telegraph, and agricultural inventions increased the efficiency of production methods.
C) Legislation and judicial systems supported the development of roads, canals, and railroads, which extended and enlarged markets and helped foster regional interdependence. Transportation networks linked the North and Midwest more closely than either was linked to the South.

Key Concept 4.2: Innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce powerfully accelerated the American economy, precipitating profound changes to U.S. society and to national and regional identities.

II. The changes caused by the market revolution had significant effects on U.S. society, workers' lives, and gender and family relations.
A) Increasing numbers of Americans, especially women and men working in factories, no longer relied on semi-subsistence agriculture; instead they supported themselves producing goods for distant markets.
B) The growth of manufacturing drove a significant increase in prosperity and standards of living for some; this led to the emergence of a larger middle class and a small but wealthy business elite but also to a large and growing population of laboring poor.
C) Gender and family roles changed in response to the market revolution, particularly with the growth of definitions of domestic ideals that emphasized the separation of public and private spheres.

Key Concept 4.2: Innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce powerfully accelerated the American economy, precipitating profound changes to U.S. society and to national and regional identities.

III. Economic development shaped settlement and trade patterns, helping to unify the nation while also encouraging the growth of different regions.
A) Large numbers of international migrants moved to industrializing northern cities, while many Americans moved west of the Appalachians, developing thriving new communities along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers.
B) Increasing Southern cotton production and the related growth of Northern manufacturing, banking, and shipping industries promoted the development of national and international commercial ties.
C) Southern business leaders continued to rely on the production and export of traditional agricultural staples, contributing to the growth of a distinctive Southern regional identity.
D) Plans to further unify the U.S. economy, such as the American System, generated debates over whether such policies would benefit agriculture or industry, potentially favoring different sections of the country.

Key Concept 4.3: The U.S. interest in increasing foreign trade and expanding its national borders shaped the nation's foreign policy and spurred government and private initiatives.

I. Struggling to create an independent global presence, the United States sought to claim territory throughout the North American continent and promote foreign trade.
A) Following the Louisiana Purchase, the United States government sought influence and control over North America and the Western Hemisphere through a variety of means, including exploration, military actions, American Indian removal, and diplomatic efforts such as the Monroe Doctrine.
B) Frontier settlers tended to champion expansion efforts, while American Indian resistance led to a sequence of wars and federal efforts to control and relocate American Indian populations.

Key Concept 4.3: The U.S. interest in increasing foreign trade and expanding its national borders shaped the nation's foreign policy and spurred government and private initiatives.

II. The United States' acquisition of lands in the West gave rise to contests over the extension of slavery into new territories.
A) As overcultivation depleted arable land in the Southeast, slaveholders began relocating their plantations to more fertile lands west of the Appalachians, where the institution of slavery continued to grow.
B) Antislavery efforts increased in the North, while in the South, although the majority of Southerners owned no slaves, most leaders argued that slavery was part of the Southern way of life.
C) Congressional attempts at political compromise, such as the Missouri Compromise, only temporarily stemmed growing tensions between opponents and defenders of slavery.

Related Thematic Learning Objectives (Focus of Exam Questions)
NAT-2.0: Explain how interpretations of the Constitution and debates over rights, liberties, and definitions of citizenship have affected American values, politics, and society.
NAT-4.0: Analyze relationships among different regional, social, ethnic, and racial groups, and explain how these groups' experiences have related to U.S. national identity.
POL-1.0: Explain how and why political ideas, beliefs, institutions, party systems, and alignments have developed and changed.
WXT-2.0: Explain how patterns of exchange, markets, and private enterprise have developed, and analyze ways that governments have responded to economic issues.
CUL-1.0: Explain how religious groups and ideas have affected American society and political life.
CUL-2.0: Explain how artistic, philosophical, and scientific ideas have developed and shaped society and institutions.
CUL-4.0: Explain how different group identities, including racial, ethnic, class, and regional identities, have emerged and changed over time.
NAT-1.0: Explain how ideas about democracy, freedom, and individualism found expression in the development of cultural values, political institutions, and American identity.
POL-2.0: Explain how popular movements, reform efforts, and activist groups have sought to change American society and institutions. CUL-3.0: Explain how ideas about women's rights and gender roles have affected society and politics.
POL-3.0: Explain how different beliefs about the federal government's role in U.S. social and economic life have affected political debates and policies.
WXT-2.0: Explain how patterns of exchange, markets, and private enterprise have developed, and analyze ways that governments have responded to economic issues.
WXT-3.0: Analyze how technological innovation has affected economic development and society.
WXT-1.0: Explain how different labor systems developed in North America and the United States, and explain their effects on workers' lives and U.S. society.
MIG-1.0: Explain the causes of migration to colonial North America and, later, the United States, and analyze immigration's effects on U.S. society.
MIG-2.0: Analyze causes of internal migration and patterns of settlement in what would become the United States, and explain how migration has affected American life.
WOR-1.0: Explain how cultural interaction, cooperation, competition, and conflict between empires, nations, and peoples have influenced political, economic, and social developments in North America.
WOR-2.0: Analyze the reasons for, and results of, U.S. diplomatic, economic, and military initiatives in North America and overseas.
GEO-1.0: Explain how geographic and environmental factors shaped the development of various communities, and analyze how competition for and debates over natural resources have affected both interactions among different groups and the development of government policies.

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Period 4: (1800-1848) Chapters 9-12 Key Concepts - from College Board The new republic struggled to define and extend democratic ideals in the face of rapid economic, territorial, and demographic changes. Key Concept 4.1: The United States began to develop a modern democracy and celebrated a new national culture, while Americans sought to define the nation's democratic ideals and change their society and institutions to match them.

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10) Explain the causes of the Second Great Awakening.  

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10) Explain the causes of the Second Great Awakening.  

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The 2nd Great Awakening was brought about by the Market Revolution and the rise of Democratic and Individualistic beliefs. Both of these spurred from the Era of Good Feelings, which saw a return to romanticism, individualism, expanded participatory democracy, and the rejection of rationalism. All of these factors culminated in the emotional religious fervor that swept the nation by storm (more specifically, the common folk of America). The Second Great Awakening was brought about by all of these factors. Since this deals with the development of American culture, it goes well with the theme of American and Regional Culture.

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The SECOND Great Awakening [APUSH Review Unit 4 Topic 10] Period 4: 1800-1848

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11)Explain how and why various reform movements developed and expanded from 1800 to 1848. 

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11)Explain how and why various reform movements developed and expanded from 1800 to 1848. 

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Crash Course explains how the Second Great Awakening kicked off a string of evangelical reform movements. Sobriety and the temperance movement came first, perpetuating the ideal of moral restraint and control over ones inhibitions. This theme was consistent with other reform movements as well. The moral high ground became the main goal of most reformers. They built asylums to help the mentally disabled. But, by far the most important reform movement was the abolitionist movement. This movement, although starting off as conservative with a movement to move most slaves back to their homeland, became all the more radical with the advent of William Lloyd Garrison's The Liberator. Religion and abolition came together to preach the freedom of slaves. Seeing as how this is a direct consequence of the Second Great Awakening, the theme that fits best would be the theme of American and Regional Culture.

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19th Century Reforms: Crash Course US History #15

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12) Explain the continuities and changes in the experience of African Americans from 1800 to 1848. 

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12) Explain the continuities and changes in the experience of African Americans from 1800 to 1848. 

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African Americans kept their own cultures alive while adapting to the American cultures. They might've had to go to protestant churches, but many of them still followed their own religions, like Islam. They also resisted their masters in many ways. Many slaves revolted outright, like Nat Turner when he lead his own revolution inspired by the Haitian revolution. Others revolted by practicing their culture, trying to learn how to read and write, and sabotaging their machines of work. Since this deals specifically with the society of African-American slaves in the first half of the 19th century, the theme that fits best here is Social Structures.

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African Americans in the Early Republic [APUSH Review Unit 4 Topic 12] Period 4: 1800-1848

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13) Explain how geographic and environmental factors shaped the development of the South from 1800 to 1848.  

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13) Explain how geographic and environmental factors shaped the development of the South from 1800 to 1848.  

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As Khan Academy explains, the advent of the Cotton gin allowed the Southerners to plant cotton, despite it's harmful effects on soil. Cotton became a crop that yielded lots of money from abroad and from the North so it was reaped in mass and a cotton kingdom of sorts was formed. At its' head, the richest of plantation owners stood and at the bottom of the ladder was the poor, slaveless yeomen farmers  and the slaves themselves. Those who lived in the deep south often reaped the benefits of the cotton empire while many others in the southwest had a hard time finding profit with farms atop of the mountains. Since this deals directly with the effects of geography on the social structure of the south, the theme that fits best here would be Geography and the Environment.

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The Cotton Kingdom (article) | Khan Academy

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If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website.

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14) Explain the extent to which politics, economics, and foreign policy promoted the development of American identity from 1800 to 1848. 

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14) Explain the extent to which politics, economics, and foreign policy promoted the development of American identity from 1800 to 1848. 

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Liberal arts was at an all time high during the Era of Good Feelings and it gave way to multiple products, like the Patent Model. This model, made in 1837, shows captures the time period and its very essence. The creator of this model rode the high of romanticism and the resurgence of liberal art that came from rampant nationalism. They created this piece to capture that which was mentioned previously and the market revolution of the time. Showing the rise of industry and new ideas that fueled the nation. This is important because it shows the American view on nationalism, the market revolution, and liberal arts that came about from the War of 1812 and the Era of Good Feelings. Since this focuses on the changes in America as a whole, the theme that fits best here is American and National Identity.

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2) Explain the causes and effects of the Seven Years’ War (the French and Indian War).  

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2) Explain the causes and effects of the Seven Years’ War (the French and Indian War).  

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The Ohio company wanted rights to the Ohio River Valley, which the French and the Native Americans also lay claim to. As a result, rising tensions led to Washington's failure at Fort Necessity and kicked off the ensuing war. Much like the Civil War, which started with a fort attack and a loss for the victors of the war. Also like the Civil War, the victors of the war got defeated and humiliated in the first half of the war during the French and Indian War. Britain only started winning in the latter half and when they did, they imposed radical legislation on the colonies, much like the Union imposing Reconstruction legislation on the South after the Civil War. This is indicative of the theme of America in the World, as it shows how the Seven Years War between Britain and France changed North America.

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The Seven Years War and the Great Awakening: Crash Course US History #5

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3) Explain how British colonial policies regarding North America led to the Revolutionary War.  

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3) Explain how British colonial policies regarding North America led to the Revolutionary War.  

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As oversimplified stipulates, British re-involvement in North America after an age of salutary neglect led to the Revolutionary War. The mere fact that Britain tried to tax the colonists with the Sugar and Stamp Act and regulate their expansion with the Proclamation of 1763 led to massive patriotism and opposition in North America. Enlightenment ideas stipulated the growing democracy in America. Britain's prior neglect of America allowed Americans to form their own, albeit small and rudimentary democratic bodies of government. So, when Britain tried to destroy that form of government through intervention, America declared war. Although some might argue that the revolutionary war was strictly due to America's dislike for taxation, they'd be disregarding years of prior representative democratic legislative bodies built within America that developed the idea of natural rights which the British were infringing upon. As such, this exemplifies the theme of Politics and Power in America as it shows the development of governmental bodies.

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The American Revolution  - OverSimplified (Part 1)

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4) Explain how and why colonial attitudes about government and the individual changed in the years leading up to the American Revolution.  

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4) Explain how and why colonial attitudes about government and the individual changed in the years leading up to the American Revolution.  

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Thomas Paine's Common Sense exemplified the how and the why of colonial attitudes in regards to government and the individual. Published in 1776, right before the advent of the Revolutionary War, this document fueled the colonies and their fervor for independence. An enlightenment thinker, Paine wrote about natural rights and how the Americans should seize those rights being tread upon by the British government. It also talks about the coming of war and reality of independence. This exemplifies the theme of American and Regional Culture as it shows just how the ideas of enlightenment took form in the ideal American government.

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O! ye that love mankind! Ye that dare oppose not only the tyranny but the tyrant, stand forth! Every spot of the old world is overrun with oppression. Freedom halth been hunted round the Globe. Asia and Africa have long expelled her. Europe regards her like a stranger, and England hath given her warning to depart.

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5) Explain how various factors contributed to the American victory in the Revolution.  

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5) Explain how various factors contributed to the American victory in the Revolution.  

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As oversimplified explained, the British were maintaining a costly overseas war that they weren't all that committed too. Not only that, but when the French got involved after Saratoga, the British had to deal with them more than the Americans. French aid during the war was one of the main reasons as to why America won the latter battle. Although some may cite the aid of Spain and the Netherlands as well (https://wonderopolis.org/wonder/how-did-the-americans-win-the-revolutionary-war#:~:text=Ultimately%2C%20the%20Americans%20prevailed%20due,the%20Revolutionary%20War%20was%20overwhelming.) it was ultimately the aid of the French that turned the war in America's favor. This exemplifies the theme of America in the World as it shows how the Americans won the war against the British with the aid of the French.

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The American Revolution - OverSimplified (Part 2)

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6) Explain the various ways the American Revolution affected society.  

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6) Explain the various ways the American Revolution affected society.  

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Different social groups formed. More specifically, the Patriots and the Loyalists. As described in the video, the Patriots full heartedly supported America while the Loyalists, a good 10-20% of the populous, supported their motherland. This led to mass anti-loyalist violence before and during the Revolutionary war. Patriotism became the early form of nationalism. Most of the Loyalists ended up moving back to England after the war's end. As such, this is a good example of the theme of Migration and Settlement, since Loyalists moved out of America and back to England upon the Revolutionary War. This is also a good example of the development of the theme of social structures between the patriots and the loyalists.

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What Happened Immediately After the American Revolution Ended

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7) Describe the global impact of the American Revolution.  

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7) Describe the global impact of the American Revolution.  

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After the American Revolution, the mercantilist economy met its end. American and English trade soured for a few years before going back to normal. America and France became allies and the world was shown that the British weren't invincible. This shows the theme of Work, Exchange and Technology because of the stagnant trade relations between Britain and America.

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Like the earlier distinction between "origins" and "causes," the Revolution also had short- and long-term consequences. Perhaps the most important immediate consequence of declaring independence was the creation of state constitutions in 1776 and 1777. The Revolution also unleashed powerful political, social, and economic forces that would transform the post-Revolution politics and society, including increased participation in politics and governance, the legal institutionalization of religious toleration, and the growth and diffusion of the population. The Revolution also had significant short-term effects on the lives of women in the new United States of America. In the long-term, the Revolution would also have significant effects on the lives of slaves and free blacks as well as the institution of slavery itself. It also affected Native Americans by opening up western settlement and creating governments hostile to their territorial claims. Even more broadly, the Revolution ended the mercantilist economy, opening new opportunities in trade and manufacturing.

The new states drafted written constitutions, which, at the time, was an important innovation from the traditionally unwritten British Constitution. Most created weak governors and strong legislatures with regular elections and moderately increased the size of the electorate. A number of states followed the example of Virginia, which included a declaration or "bill" of rights in their constitution designed to protect the rights of individuals and circumscribe the prerogative of the government. Pennsylvania's first state constitution was the most radical and democratic. They created a unicameral legislature and an Executive Council but no genuine executive. All free men could vote, including those who did not own property. Massachusetts' constitution, passed in 1780, was less democratic but underwent a more popular process of ratification. In the fall of 1779, each town sent delegates--312 in all--to a constitutional convention in Cambridge. Town meetings debated the constitution draft and offered suggestions. Anticipating the later federal constitution, Massachusetts established a three-branch government based on checks and balances between the branches. Unlike some other states, it also offered the executive veto power over legislation. 1776 was the year of independence, but it was also the beginning of an unprecedented period of constitution-making and state building.

The Continental Congress ratified the Articles of Confederation in 1781. The Articles allowed each state one vote in the Continental Congress. But the Articles are perhaps most notable for what they did not allow. Congress was given no power to levy or collect taxes, regulate foreign or interstate commerce, or establish a federal judiciary. These shortcomings rendered the post-war Congress rather impotent.

Political and social life changed drastically after independence. Political participation grew as more people gained the right to vote. In addition, more common citizens (or "new men") played increasingly important roles in local and state governance. Hierarchy within the states underwent significant changes. Locke's ideas of "natural law" had been central to the Declaration of Independence and the state constitutions. Society became less deferential and more egalitarian, less aristocratic and more meritocratic.

The Revolution's most important long-term economic consequence was the end of mercantilism. The British Empire had imposed various restrictions on the colonial economies including limiting trade, settlement, and manufacturing. The Revolution opened new markets and new trade relationships. The Americans' victory also opened the western territories for invasion and settlement, which created new domestic markets. Americans began to create their own manufacturers, no longer content to reply on those in Britain.

Despite these important changes, the American Revolution had its limits. Following their unprecedented expansion into political affairs during the imperial resistance, women also served the patriot cause during the war. However, the Revolution did not result in civic equality for women. Instead, during the immediate post-war period, women became incorporated into the polity to some degree as "republican mothers." These new republican societies required virtuous citizens and it became mothers' responsibility to raise and educate future citizens. This opened opportunity for women regarding education, but they still remained largely on the peripheries of the new American polity.

Slaves and free blacks also impacted (and were impacted by) the Revolution. The British were the first to recruit black (or "Ethiopian") regiments, as early as Dunmore's Proclamation of 1775 in Virginia, which promised freedom to any slaves who would escape their masters and join the British cause. At first, Washington, a slaveholder himself, resisted allowing free blacks and former slaves to join the Continental Army, but he eventually relented. In 1775, Peter Salem's master freed him to fight with the militia. Salem faced British Regulars in the battles at Lexington and Bunker Hill, where he fought valiantly with around three-dozen other black Americans. Salem not only contributed to the cause, but he earned the ability to determine his own life after his enlistment ended. Salem was not alone, but many more slaves seized upon the tumult of war to run away and secure their own freedom directly.

Between 30,000 and 100,000 slaves deserted their masters during the war. In 1783, thousands of Loyalist former slaves fled with the British army. They hoped that the British government would uphold the promise of freedom and help them establish new homes elsewhere in the Empire. The Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, demanded that British troops leave runaway slaves behind, but the British military commanders upheld earlier promises and evacuated thousands of freedmen, transporting them to Canada, the Caribbean, or Great Britain. But black loyalists continued to face social and economic marginalization, including restrictions on land ownership. In 1792, Black loyalist and Baptist preacher David George resisted discrimination, joining a colonization project that led nearly 1,200 former black Americans from Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone, in Africa.

The fight for liberty led some Americans to manumit their slaves, and most of the new northern states soon passed gradual emancipation laws. Manumission also occurred in the Upper South, but in the Lower South, some masters revoked their offers of freedom for service, and other freedmen were forced back into bondage. The Revolution's rhetoric of equality created a "revolutionary generation" of slaves and free blacks that would eventually encourage the antislavery movement. Slave revolts began to incorporate claims for freedom based on revolutionary ideals. In the long-term, the Revolution failed to reconcile slavery with these new egalitarian republican societies, a tension that eventually boiled over in the 1830s and 1840s and effectively tore the nation in two in the 1850s and 1860s.

Native Americans, too, participated in and were affected by the Revolution. Many Native American tribes and confederacies, such as the Shawnee, Creek, Cherokee, and Iroquois, sided with the British. They had hoped for a British victory that would continue to restrain the land-hungry colonial settlers from moving west beyond the Appalachian Mountains. Unfortunately, the Americans' victory and Native Americans' support for the British created a pretense for justifying the rapid, and often brutal expansion into the western territories. Native American tribes would continue to be displaced and pushed further west throughout the nineteenth century. Ultimately, American independence marked the beginning of the end of what had remained of Native American independence.

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Like the earlier distinction between "origins" and "causes," the Revolution also had short- and long-term consequences. Perhaps the most important immediate consequence of declaring independence was the creation of state constitutions in 1776 and 1777.

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8) Explain how different forms of government developed and changed as a result of the Revolutionary Period.  

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8) Explain how different forms of government developed and changed as a result of the Revolutionary Period.  

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As described by my chapter 9 reflection, anti-central government sentiment gave rise to the Articles of Confederation. It established a loose confederacy of states and a weak government that could not tax those states and could not print money. It failed as perpetuated by Shay's rebellion. Which, made way for the more comprehensive and all-in-all better form of government given by the constitution. A bicameral-legislative body, a judicial branch and a President to head it off, it was the peak of Republican ideals mixed with Democratic practices. As such, this represents the theme of Politics and Power, since it shows the development of the American government.

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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9) Explain the differing ideological positions on the structure and function of the federal government.  

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9) Explain the differing ideological positions on the structure and function of the federal government.  

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As Lin Manuel Miranda's exaggerated historical musical shows, many people had various ideas on the function and structure of the federal government. Mostly, there were two camps: pro-central government Federalists and pro-state government Anti-Federalists. Although Hamilton hilariously holds monarchial ideals of government, he supports the Federalists and writes the many lengthy federalist papers to defend it. Again, this pertains to the theme of Politics and Power since it pertains to the political debate surrounding the developing of the American government.

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10) Explain the continuities and changes in the structure and functions of the government with the ratification of the Constitution.  

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10) Explain the continuities and changes in the structure and functions of the government with the ratification of the Constitution.  

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The Constitution created a better government than the Articles of Confederation. With the Constitution, taxes were able to be collected from the people. As a result the inflated and messy economy was able to be reorganized through taxation. The Articles of Confederation, on the other hand, only served to promote the inflammatory spending without the ability to tax the people. Shay's rebellion and the Whiskey rebellion both perpetuate the clear differences between the Articles and the Constitution. The Articles didn't allow Congress to raise an army and as such, the local militia had to deal with Shay's rebellion in a bloody manner. However, with the Constitution Congress was able to raise an army and intimidate the Whiskey rebellion into submission without bloodshed. As such, the Constitution's higher government authority makes it far better than the restrictive Articles of Confederation. This showcases (again) the theme of politics and power in the United States as it shows the differences between two early governmental structures in America.

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Comparing the Articles and the Constitution - The U.S. Constitution Online - USConstitution.net

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The United States has operated under two constitutions. The first, The Articles of Confederation, was in effect from March 1, 1781, when Maryland ratified it. The second, The Constitution, replaced the Articles when it was ratified by New Hampshire on June 21, 1788.

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11) Explain how and why competition intensified conflicts among peoples and nations from 1754 to 1800.  

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11) Explain how and why competition intensified conflicts among peoples and nations from 1754 to 1800.  

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As Mr. Locos's helpful notes outline, the competition for New World resources culminated in the Seven Years War between Britain and France. Both of them wanted North America and it's fine resources, (beaver fur, tobacco, etc)  and their world war over the Ohio River Valley only proved that. As such, this is a good example of the theme of Geography and the Environment because it shows just how the harvesting of natural resources spurred aggressive competition which became worldwide conflict.

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Period 3: (1754-1800)
Chapters 5-8
Key Concepts - from College Board

British imperial attempts to reassert control over its colonies and the colonial reaction to these attempts produced a new American republic, along with struggles over the new nation's social, political, and economic identity.

Key Concept 3.1: British attempts to assert tighter control over its North American colonies and the colonial resolve to pursue self-government led to a colonial independence movement and the Revolutionary War.

I. The competition among the British, French, and American Indians for economic and political advantage in North America culminated in the Seven years' War (the French and Indian War), in which Britain defeated France and allied American Indians.
A) Colonial rivalry intensified between Britain and France in the mid-18th century, as the growing population of the British colonies expanded into the interior of North America, threatening French-Indian trade networks and American Indian autonomy.
B) Britain achieved a major expansion of its territorial holdings by defeating the French, but at tremendous expense, setting the stage for imperial efforts to raise revenue and consolidate control over the colonies.
C) After the British victory, imperial officials' attempts to prevent colonists from moving westward generated colonial opposition, while native groups sought to both continue trading with Europeans and resist the encroachments of colonists on tribal lands.

Key Concept 3.1: British attempts to assert tighter control over its North American colonies and the colonial resolve to pursue self-government led to a colonial independence movement and the Revolutionary War.

II. The desire of many colonists to assert ideals of self-government in the face of renewed British imperial efforts led to a colonial independence movement and war with Britain.
A) The imperial struggles of the mid-18th century, as well as new British efforts to collect taxes without direct colonial representation or consent and to assert imperial authority in the colonies, began to unite the colonists against perceived and real constraints on their economic activities and political rights.
B) Colonial leaders based their calls for resistance to Britain on arguments about the rights of British subjects, the rights of the individual, local traditions of self-rule, and the ideas of the Enlightenment.
C) The effort for American independence was energized by colonial leaders such as Benjamin Franklin, as well as by popular movements that included the political activism of laborers, artisans, and women.
D) In the face of economic shortages and the British military occupation of some regions, men and women mobilized in large numbers to provide financial and material support to the Patriot movement.
E) Despite considerable loyalist opposition, as well as Great Britain's apparently overwhelming military and financial advantages, the Patriot cause succeeded because of the actions of colonial militias and the Continental Army, George Washington's military leadership, the colonists' ideological commitment and resilience, and assistance sent by European allies.

Key Concept 3.2: The American Revolution's democratic and republican ideals inspired new experiments with different forms of government.

I. The ideals that inspired the revolutionary cause reflected new beliefs about politics, religion, and society that had been developing over the course of the 18th century.
A) Enlightenment ideas and philosophy inspired many American political thinkers to emphasize individual talent over hereditary privilege, while religion strengthened Americans' view of themselves as a people blessed with liberty.
B) The colonists' belief in the superiority of republican forms of government based on the natural rights of the people found expression in Thomas Paine's Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence. The ideas in these documents resonated throughout American history, shaping Americans' understanding of the ideals on which the nation was based.
C) During and after the American Revolution, an increased awareness of inequalities in society motivated some individuals and groups to call for the abolition of slavery and greater political democracy in the new state and national governments.
D) In response to women's participation in the American Revolution, Enlightenment ideas, and women's appeals for expanded roles, an ideal of "republican motherhood" gained popularity. It called on women to teach republican values within the family and granted women a new importance in American political culture.
E) The American Revolution and the ideals set forth in the Declaration of Independence reverberated in France, Haiti, and Latin America, inspiring future independence movements

Key Concept 3.2: The American Revolution's democratic and republican ideals inspired new experiments with different forms of government.

II. After declaring independence, American political leaders created new constitutions and declarations of rights that articulated the role of the state and federal governments while protecting individual liberties and limiting both centralized power and excessive popular influence.
A) Many new state constitutions placed power in the hands of the legislative branch and maintained property qualifications for voting and citizenship.
B) The Articles of Confederation unified the newly independent states, creating a central government with limited power. After the Revolution, difficulties over international trade, finances, interstate commerce, foreign relations, and internal unrest led to calls for a stronger central government.
C) Delegates from the states participated in a Constitutional Convention and through negotiation, collaboration, and compromise proposed a constitution that created a limited but dynamic central government embodying federalism and providing for a separation of powers between its three branches.
D) The Constitutional Convention compromised over the representation of slave states in Congress and the role of the federal government in regulating both slavery and the slave trade, allowing the prohibition of the international slave trade after 1808.
E) In the debate over ratifying the Constitution, Anti-Federalists opposing ratification battled with Federalists, whose principles were articulated in the Federalist Papers (primarily written by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison). Federalists ensured the ratification of the Constitution by promising the addition of a Bill of Rights that enumerated individual rights and explicitly restricted the powers of the federal government.

Key Concept 3.2: The American Revolution's democratic and republican ideals inspired new experiments with different forms of government.

III. New forms of national culture and political institutions developed in the United States alongside continued regional variations and differences over economic, political, social, and foreign policy issues.
A) During the presidential administrations of George Washington and John Adams, political leaders created institutions and precedents that put the principles of the Constitution into practice.
B) Political leaders in the 1790s took a variety of positions on issues such as the relationship between the national government and the states, economic policy, foreign policy, and the balance between liberty and order. This led to the formation of political parties - most significantly the Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.
C) The expansion of slavery in the deep South and adjacent western lands and rising antislavery sentiment began to create distinctive regional attitudes toward the institution.
D) Ideas about national identity increasingly found expression in works of art, literature, and architecture.

Key Concept 3.3: Migration within North America and competition over resources, boundaries, and trade intensified conflicts among peoples and nations.

I. In the decades after American independence, interactions among different groups resulted in competition for resources, shifting alliances, and cultural blending.
A) Various American Indian groups repeatedly evaluated and adjusted their alliances with Europeans, other tribes, and the U.S., seeking to limit migration of white settlers and maintain control of tribal lands and natural resources. British alliances with American Indians contributed to tensions between the U.S. and Britain.
B) As increasing numbers of migrants from North America and other parts of the world continued to move westward, frontier cultures that had emerged in the colonial period continued to grow, fueling social, political, and ethnic tensions.
C) As settlers moved westward during the 1780s, Congress enacted the Northwest ordinance for admitting new states; the ordinance promoted public education, the protection of private property, and a ban on slavery in the Northwest Territory.
D) An ambiguous relationship between the federal government and American Indian tribes contributed to problems regarding treaties and American Indian legal claims relating to the seizure of their lands. E) The Spanish, supported by the bonded labor of the local American Indians, expanded their mission settlements into California; these provided opportunities for social mobility among soldiers and led to new cultural blending.

Key Concept 3.3: Migration within North America and competition over resources, boundaries, and trade intensified conflicts among peoples and nations.

II. The continued presence of European powers in North America challenged the United States to find ways to safeguard its borders, maintain neutral trading rights, and promote its economic interests.
A) The United States government forged diplomatic initiatives aimed at dealing with the continued British and Spanish presence in North America, as U.S. settlers migrated beyond the Appalachians and sought free navigation of the Mississippi River.
B) War between France and Britain resulting from the French Revolution presented challenges to the United States over issues of free trade and foreign policy and fostered political disagreement.
C) George Washington's Farewell Address encouraged national unity, as he cautioned against political factions and warned about the danger of permanent foreign alliances.

Related Thematic Learning Objectives (Focus of Exam Questions)
MIG-2.0: Analyze causes of internal migration and patterns of settlement in what would become the United States, and explain how migration has affected American life.
WOR-1.0: Explain how cultural interaction, cooperation, competition, and conflict between empires, nations, and peoples have influenced political, economic, and social developments in North America.
NAT-1.0: Explain how ideas about democracy, freedom, and individualism found expression in the development of cultural values, political institutions, and American identity.
POL-2.0: Explain how popular movements, reform efforts, and activist groups have sought to change American society and institutions.
CUL-1.0: Explain how religious groups and ideas have affected American society and political life.
CUL-3.0: Explain how ideas about women's rights and gender roles have affected society and politics.
POL-3.0: Explain how different beliefs about the federal government's role in U.S. social and economic life have affected political debates and policies.
WXT-2.0: Explain how patterns of exchange, markets, and private enterprise have developed, and analyze ways that governments have responded to economic issues.
NAT-2.0: Explain how interpretations of the Constitution and debates over rights, liberties, and definitions of citizenship have affected American values, politics, and society.
POL-1.0: Explain how and why political ideas, beliefs, institutions, party systems, and alignments have developed and changed.
WXT-1.0: Explain how different labor systems developed in North America and the United States, and explain their effects on workers' lives and U.S. society.
CUL-2.0: Explain how artistic, philosophical, and scientific ideas have developed and shaped society and institutions
MIG-1.0: Explain the causes of migration to colonial North America and, later, the United States, and analyze immigration's effects on U.S. society.
CUL-4.0: Explain how different group identities, including racial, ethnic, class, and regional identities, have emerged and changed over time.
GEO-1.0: Explain how geographic and environmental factors shaped the development of various communities, and analyze how competition for and debates over natural resources have affected both interactions among different groups and the development of government policies.
NAT-3.0: Analyze how ideas about national identity changed in response to U.S. involvement in international conflicts and the growth of the United States.
WOR-2.0: Analyze the reasons for, and results of, U.S. diplomatic, economic, and military initiatives in North America and overseas.

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Period 3: (1754-1800) Chapters 5-8 Key Concepts - from College Board British imperial attempts to reassert control over its colonies and the colonial reaction to these attempts produced a new American republic, along with struggles over the new nation's social, political, and economic identity.

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12) Explain how and why political ideas, institutions, and party systems developed and changed in the new republic.  

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12) Explain how and why political ideas, institutions, and party systems developed and changed in the new republic.  

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As crash course explains, the differing ideals of elite and common, North and South, and loose and strict interpretations of the constitution formed the original parties of the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans. Democratic-Republicans leaning more towards the pro-farmer/pro-state-government side of things while the Federalists lent more towards pro-elites/pro-strong central government. These ideas developed from the outset of Washington's cabinet and they were fostered by Hamilton (federalist) and Jefferson (Democratic-Republican). They eventually grew to become much more than those goals, changing throughout the periods. The Federalist party fell by the War of 1812. The Democratic-Republican party split into the Democrats and the Whigs, who later became the Republicans on the cusp of the Civil War. These everchanging parties embodied and continue to embody the various beliefs of the people during their times. As such, this falls greatly in the theme of Politics and Power in America as it explains the development of the early two-party system.

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Where US Politics Came From: Crash Course US History #9

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13) Explain the continuities and changes in American culture from 1754 to 1800.  

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13) Explain the continuities and changes in American culture from 1754 to 1800.  

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As this Britannica article says, the American culture remained largely independent even before the Seven Years War due to an age of salutary neglect by England. However, when the Seven Years War ended and England took a more active role in the colonies, the outcry that came afterwards fueled an enlightenment movement. This enlightenment movement changed the American perception of government and freedom. Government's should be ruled by the people and should serve the people, or so the enlightenment of the ideas stipulated. These ideas were further expanded upon and applied after the Revolutionary War in order to build a new Republican government. As such, this is a good example of American and Regional Culture since it describes the shift of American mindsets from 1754 to 1800.

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Learn about the important events, places, and people of the American Revolution, such as the Stamp Act, the Boston Tea Party, Paul Revere's Ride, the signing of the Declaration of Independence, and more.

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14) Explain how and why migration and immigration to and within North America caused competition and conflict over time.  

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14) Explain how and why migration and immigration to and within North America caused competition and conflict over time.  

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The History Channel's video on the French and Indian War explains how French and English colonization of America led to a competition for rapid colonization in order to gain complete control of all of the New World's fine resources. This resulted in the 7 years war, and when England tried to impose taxes on the colonists in order to regulate trade, that caused the Revolutionary War. This is a good example of the theme of America in the World as it shows how the Seven Years War shaped America as a whole.

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The French and Indian War Explained | History

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15)Explain the continuities and changes in regional attitudes about slavery as it expanded from 1754 to 1800.  

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15)Explain the continuities and changes in regional attitudes about slavery as it expanded from 1754 to 1800.  

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As digital history explains, slavery remained an ingrained institution in the Southern colonial agrarian economy from 1754 and through to 1800. Slaves did help fight for American freedom but they didn't get much out of it. Despite liberals like Jefferson who wanted to free slaves, the major opinion on the rights of African-Americans was that they should continue to be enslaved. Northern sentiments were naturally better, but only slightly due to their lack of "need" for slaves. Since this focuses on the social issue of slavery in the late 18th century, the theme that best fits is the theme of Social Structures.

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Slavery, the American Revolution, and the Constitution

African American soldiers served with valor at the battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill. In November 1775, however, Congress decided to exclude blacks from future enlistment out of a sensitivity to the opinion of southern slave holders. But Lord Dunmore's promise of freedom to slaves who enlisted in the British army led Congress reluctantly to reverse it decision, fearful that black soldiers might join the redcoats.

African Americans played an important role in the revolution. They fought at Fort Ticonderoga and the Battle of Bunker Hill. A slave helped row Washington across the Delaware. Altogether, some 5,000 free blacks and slaves served in the Continental army during the Revolution. By 1778, many states, including Virginia, granted freedom to slaves who served in the Revolutionary war.

The American Revolution had profound effects on the institution of slavery. Several thousand slaves won their freedom by serving on both sides of the War of Independence. As a result of the Revolution, a surprising number of slaves were manumitted, while thousands of others freed themselves by running away. In Georgia alone, 5000 slaves, a third of the colony's prewar total, escaped. In South Carolina, a quarter of the slaves achieved freedom.

Both the British and the colonists believed that slaves could serve an important role during the revolution. In April 1775, Lord Dunmore (1732-1809), the royal governor of Virginia, threatened that he would proclaim liberty to the slaves and reduce Williamsburg to ashes if the colonists resorted to force against British authority. In November, he promised freedom to all slaves belonging to rebels who would join "His Majesty's Troops...for the more speedily reducing the Colony to a proper sense of their duty...." Some eight hundred slaves joined British forces, some wearing the emblem "Liberty to the Slaves." The British appeal to slave unrest outraged slave holders not only in the South but in New York's Hudson Valley. Later, Sir Henry Clinton (1738-1795) promised protection to all slaves who deserted from the rebels. Clinton's promise may well have contributed to the collapse of the British cause in the South. By suggesting that the Revolution was a war over slavery, he alienated many neutrals and even some loyalists.

Meanwhile, an American diplomat, Silas Deane (1737-1789), hatched a secret plan to incite slave insurrections in Jamaica. Two South Carolinians, John Laurens (1754-1782) and his father Henry (1724-1792), persuaded Congress to unanimously approve a plan to recruit an army of 3000 slave troops in South Carolina and Georgia. The federal government would compensate the slaves' owners and each black would, at the end of the war, be emancipated and receive $50. The South Carolina legislature rejected the plan, scuttling the proposal. In the end, however, and in contrast to the later Latin American wars of independence and the U.S. Civil War, neither the British nor the Americans proved willing to risk a full-scale social revolution by issuing an emancipation proclamation.

The Constitution and Slavery

On the 200th anniversary of the U.S. Constitution, Thurgood Marshall, the first African American to sit on the Supreme Court, said that the Constitution was "defective from the start." He point out that the framers had left out a majority of Americans when they wrote the phrase, "We the People." While some members of the Constitutional Convention voiced "eloquent objections" to slavery, Marshall said they "consented to a document which laid a foundation for the tragic events which were to follow."

The word "slave" does not appear in the Constitution. The framers consciously avoided the word, recognizing that it would sully the document. Nevertheless, slavery received important protections in the Constitution. The notorious Three-fifths clause--which counted three fifths of the slave population in apportioning representation--gave the South extra representation in the House and extra votes in the Electoral College. Thomas Jefferson would have lost the election of 1800 if not for the Three-fifths compromise. The Constitution also prohibited Congress from outlawing the Atlantic slave trade for twenty years. A fugitive slave clause required the return of runaway slaves to their owners. The Constitution gave the federal government the power to put down domestic rebellions, including slave insurrections.

The framers of the Constitution believed that concessions on slavery were the price for the support of southern delegates for a strong central government. They were convinced that if the Constitution restricted the slave trade, South Carolina and Georgia would refuse to join the Union. But by sidestepping the slavery issue, the framers left the seeds for future conflict. After the convention approved the great compromise, Madison wrote: "It seems now to be pretty well understood that the real difference of interests lies not between the large and small but between the northern and southern states. The institution of slavery and its consequences form the line of discrimination."

Of the 55 Convention delegates, about 25 owned slaves. Many of the framers harbored moral qualms about slavery. Some, including Benjamin Franklin (a former slave owner) and Alexander Hamilton (who was born in a slave colony in the British West Indies) became members of antislavery societies.

On August 21, 1787, a bitter debate broke out over a South Carolina proposal to prohibit the federal government from regulating the Atlantic slave trade. Luther Martin of Maryland, a slaveholder, said that the slave should be subject to federal regulation since the entire nation would be responsible for suppressing slave revolts. He also considered the slave trade contrary to America's republican ideals. "It is inconsistent with the principles of the Revolution," he said, "and dishonorable to the American character to have such a feature in the constitution."

John Rutledge of South Carolina responded forcefully. "Religion and humanity have nothing to do with this question," he insisted. Unless regulation of the slave trade was left to the states, the southern-most states "shall not be parties to the union." A Virginia delegate, George Mason, who owned hundreds of slaves, spoke out against slavery in ringing terms. "Slavery," he said, "discourages arts and manufactures. The poor despise labor when performed by slaves." Slavery also corrupted slave holders and threatened the country with divine punishment: "Every master of slaves is born a petty tyrant. They bring the judgment of heaven on a country."

Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut accused slave holders from Maryland and Virginia of hypocrisy. They could afford to oppose the slave trade, he claimed, because "slaves multiply so fast in Virginia and Maryland that it is cheaper to raise then import them, whilst in the sickly rice swamps [of South carolina and Georgia] foreign supplies are necessary." Ellsworth suggested that ending the slave trade would benefit slave owners in the Chesapeake region, since the demand for slaves in other parts of the South was increase the price of slaves once the external supply was cut off.

The controversy over the Atlantic slave trade was ultimately settled by compromise. In exchange for a 20-year ban on any restrictions on the Atlantic slave trade, southern delegates agreed to remove a clause restricting the national government's power to enact laws requiring goods to be shipped on American vessels (benefiting northeastern shipbuilders and sailors). The same day this agreement was reached, the convention also adopted the fugitive slave clause, requiring the return of runaway slaves to their owners.

Was the Constitution a pro-slavery document, as abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison claimed when he burned the document in 1854 and called it "a covenant with death and an agreement with Hell"? This question still provokes controversy. If the Constitution temporarily strengthened slavery, it also created a central government powerful enough to eventually abolish the institution.

Discussion Topic: Did the framers of the Constitution miss an opportunity to put slavery on the path to eventual extinction?

In June 1787, the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery - the world's first antislavery society - asked its president, Benjamin Franklin, to deliver an anti-slave trade resolution to the Constitutional Convention. The resolution declared: "In vain will be Americans' Pretentions to a love of liberty or regard for national character while they share in the profits of a Commerce that can only be conducted upon Rivers of human tears and blood."

Franklin never presented that resolution or any other antislavery materials to the convention. He explained that he "thought it advisable to let them lie over for the present."

In 1790 Franklin did send a petition to Congress on behalf of the Society asking for the abolition of slavery and an end to the slave trade. The petition, signed on February 3, 1790, asked the first Congress, then meeting in New York City, to "devise means for removing the Inconsistency from the Character of the American People," and to "promote mercy and justice toward this distressed Race."

The petition was denounced by pro-slavery congressmen and sparked a heated debate in both the House and the Senate. The Senate took no action on the petition, and the House referred it to a select committee for further consideration. The committee claimed that the Constitution restrains Congress from prohibiting the importation or emancipation of slaves until 1808 and then tabled the petition. On April 17, 1790, just two months later, Franklin died in Philadelphia at the age of 84.

Petition from the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery, signed by Benjamin Franklin, President of the Pennsylvania Society,
February 3, 1790, Records of the United States Senate, Center for Legislative Archives.

Inquiry Questions: Speaking Out Against Slavery

1. Why do you think that antislavery northern delegates like Franklin were reluctant to speak out openly against slavery at the Constitutional Convention?

2. Why, in contrast, were slave owners, like George Mason of Virginia and Luther Martin of Maryland, more willing to speak out against the Atlantic slave trade?

3. Why did delegates feel that they had to placate South Carolina and Georgia at a time when those states were faced by a serious military threat from the Spanish in Florida and from the powerful Creek Indian confederacy?

Additional Activity: Analyzing a Primary Source - Pennsylvania Ends Slavery

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Slavery, the American Revolution, and the Constitution African American soldiers served with valor at the battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill. In November 1775, however, Congress decided to exclude blacks from future enlistment out of a sensitivity to the opinion of southern slave holders.

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16) Explain how the American independence movement affected society from 1754 to 1800. 

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16) Explain how the American independence movement affected society from 1754 to 1800. 

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This site greatly explains the societal impacts of the independence movement. Nationalism and patriotism increased sharply, the Loyalist Anglican Clergy fell in America, and ideas of Republic, Democracy, and natural rights lay at the forefront of many American minds. As such, this fits the theme of America and National Identity.

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Freedom of religion was an important issue for the colonists as the Anglican Church was seen as yet another vehicle of oppression by England. In this cartoon, a new Bishop arriving from England is driven away. The angry mob shouts: "No Lords Spiritual or Temporal in New England!"

Liberty, republicanism, and independence are powerful causes. The patriots tenaciously asserted American rights and brought the Revolution. The Revolution brought myriad consequences to the American social fabric. There was no Reign of Terror as in the French Revolution. There was no replacement of the ruling class by workers' groups as in revolutionary Russia. How then could the American Revolution be described as radical? Nearly every aspect of American life was somehow touched by the revolutionary spirit. From slavery to women's rights, from religious life to voting, American attitudes would be forever changed.

Some changes would be felt immediately. Slavery would not be abolished for another hundred years, but the Revolution saw the dawn of an organized abolitionist movement. English traditions such as land inheritance laws were swept away almost immediately. The Anglican Church in America could no longer survive. After all, the official head of the Church of England was the British monarch. States experimented with republican ideas when drafting their own constitutions during the war. All these major changes would be felt by Americans before the dawn of the nineteenth century.

The American Revolution produced a new outlook among its people that would have ramifications long into the future. Groups excluded from immediate equality such as slaves and women would draw their later inspirations from revolutionary sentiments. Americans began to feel that their fight for liberty was a global fight. Future democracies would model their governments on ours. There are few events that would shake the world order like the success of the American patriotic cause.

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societal impacts of the american revolution

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Societal Impacts of the American Revolution [ushistory.org]

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Societal Impacts of the American Revolution

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1) Explain the context for the colonization from 1607 to 1754.  

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1) Explain the context for the colonization from 1607 to 1754.  

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This article talks about the economic interests that led England (and other European countries) to lay claim to the colonies. The basis for commercial expansion was England's mercantilist belief, through which they establish the Jamestown colony to generate profit. From there, other colonies were established for material wealth and for sanctuary from religious persecution (in the case of the Puritans). This greatly exemplifies the theme of Migration and Settlement since it shows why England pursued colonization of North America.

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Essay by Dr. Bryan Zygmont The early decades of the seventeenth century was a time of great cultural collision between several European powers in North America and the indigenous peoples who had occupied the continent for millennia. Whereas generations of previous scholars have referred to this historical era as "Colonial America," more recent writers have instead embraced the term "American Colonies."

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1) Explain the context for European encounters in the Americas from 1491 to 1607.

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1) Explain the context for European encounters in the Americas from 1491 to 1607.

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This article explains how the Europeans developed a taste for exotic Asian goods like spices, drugs, silk, etc. They wanted an easier and less costly way to obtain these goods, rather trading with countries in Asia. Christopher Columbus ventured off to find an alternate trade route to the Indies. Instead, he found America in 1492. Thus, he kicked off an era of colonization within America. Other countries like England and France desired similar alternative trade. A good example was the French explorer Jacques Cartier who claimed holdings in South America when trying to navigate a maritime passage to Asia and return to France with gold. This fits with the Work, Exchange and Technology theme as it describes the factors behind why trade with Natives and European redistribution began.

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The European colonization of the Americas was the process by which European settlers populated the regions of North, Central, South America, and the islands of the Caribbean. It is also recognized as the direct cause for the cultures of the various indigenous people of those regions being replaced and often eradicated, initially between 1492-1620 CE, with others arriving in larger numbers between c. 1620 - c. 1720 CE, and still others afterwards up through the early 20th century CE. As more Europeans arrived, more land was required by them, steadily forcing Native Americans onto reservations as the immigrants enlarged their settlements.

The first European community in North America was established c. 980 - c. 1030 CE by the Norse Viking Leif Erikson (b. c. 970 - c. 980 CE) in Newfoundland at the site known today as L'Anse aux Meadows. This settlement was temporary, however, and the Norse left to return to Greenland after a little over a year, inspiring no further expeditions to the site. Although Norse artifacts have been found along the east coast of North America - suggesting further explorations - this has not been established as evidence of a widespread Norse presence in the Americas.

European colonization of the region is therefore cited as beginning with Christopher Columbus (l. 1451-1506 CE) whose voyages to the West Indies, Central and South America, and other islands of the Caribbean between 1492-1504 CE introduced the so-called New World to European interests. Columbus was not attempting to discover the Americas but was seeking a new maritime route to Asia after the closure of the overland trade routes (known as the Silk Road) by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 CE; an event which launched the so-called Age of Discovery. Columbus, sailing for Spain, opened the way for Spanish colonists to settle in the region he had explored, which would later lead to the Spanish Conquest of Central and South America throughout the 16th century CE.

The region of modern-day Brazil was claimed for Portugal in 1500 CE by the Portuguese aristocrat and mariner Pedro Álvares Cabral (l. c. 1468 - c. 1520 CE) while parts of modern-day Canada were claimed for France after its exploration by the Florentine seaman and explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano (l. 1485-1528 CE, who mapped the entire eastern seaboard of North America) in 1524 CE, leading to the establishment of the colony of New France in 1534 CE.

The Dutch Republic of the Netherlands founded the colony of New Netherland in North America (present-day region of the states of Connecticut, Delaware, New Jersey, New York, and surrounding environs) in 1614 CE, and Sweden had established their own, New Sweden, in part of modern-day Delaware by 1638 CE. Other nations such as Russia, Germany, and Scotland also attempted to establish themselves in the New World without success.

Among the most significant plants introduced by the indigenous people to the colonists of North America was tobacco.

The wealth Spain acquired from their colonies and the enslavement and sale of indigenous people encouraged England to establish their own presence in the New World. The first two colonies - Popham and Roanoke Colony - failed but the third, Jamestown, founded in Virginia in 1607 CE, succeeded. The Plymouth colony followed, founded in 1620 CE in Massachusetts and, afterwards, the basic regions of European control in the Americas, in spite or periodic conflicts, were established until the French and Indian War (1754-1763 CE) which resulted in significant reformation and English control of the entire eastern seaboard of the modern-day United States.

The colonization is recognized as initiating the Columbian Exchange, a modern-day term coined in 1972 CE by the historian Alfred W. Crosby, jr. of the University of Texas at Austin, referring to the cross-cultural transmission of animals, crops, disease, technology, cultural values, and human populations between the Americas, West Africa, and Europe.

Among the most significant plants introduced by the indigenous people to the colonists of North America was tobacco which, because it was labor-intensive and required considerable arable land to cultivate, resulted in hostilities between the Europeans and natives as more and more land was taken, deforestation as land was cleared, and the institutionalization of slavery by c. 1640 CE, already established by the Spanish in Central and South America earlier as part of the feudal encomienda system of forced labor.

The history of the conquest and colonization of the Americas was later written by the victors, which cast their efforts in a noble light in the interests of exploration, civilization, and conversion of the indigenous people to Christianity. In the modern era, this narrative has been challenged and initiatives proposed to recognize the cultural losses and human rights abuses of the Native Americans and West Africans by the European colonizers but, so far, nothing significant has come of these efforts.

Columbus, Portugal, & the Spanish Conquest

Trade between Europe and Asia had been ongoing since 130 BCE when the Han Dynasty of China (202 BCE - 220 CE) opened the routes known in the modern day as the Silk Road. Although there were contentions over these routes through the years, and different monarchies or tribes took control of them in whole or in part, they remained open, and goods traveled back and forth along them until the fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottomans in 1453 CE; afterwards, the Ottoman Empire closed the Silk Road to the West.

Columbus and his crew made the first voyage in three ships; he returned in 1493 CE at the head of 17 ships full of colonists, soldiers, priests, and large Mastiffs to intimidate the native people. Columbus, as per his agreement with Ferdinand and Isabella, became governor of the new colony and established the encomienda system whereby Spanish settlers marked out a sizeable tract of land and offered the Native Americans protection, primarily from themselves, in return for labor.

In 1500 CE Cabral claimed the region of modern-day Brazil, and a colony would be established there by 1530 CE. The Portuguese had no more regard for the indigenous people of the region than Columbus had earlier and almost instantly enslaved them. Finding that the people had no immunity to European diseases and died quickly and also that they did not seem to be able to endure hard manual labor, they imported slaves from West Africa. By this time (c. 1540 CE), between Columbus' efforts and Cabral's, an estimated 90% of the indigenous population was dead.

Columbus had promised Ferdinand and Isabella a wealth of gold from the New World which he had not delivered and so others were sent to find it. Hernán Cortés (l. 1485-1547 CE) is among the most infamous of these, conquering the Aztec Empire of Mexico between 1519-1521 CE and sending his commander Pedro de Alvarado (l. c. 1485-1541 CE) to subdue the Maya to the north in 1523 CE; a mission which the earlier conquistador Cordoba had failed to accomplish and which would not be completed until 1697 CE when the conquistador Martín de Ursúa (l. 1653-1715 CE) crushed the last of the Maya resistance.

By that time, the cultures of the Yucatec and Quiché (or K'iche') Maya had been destroyed or driven underground. The books and icons of the Maya of Yucatán, Mexico were burned by the bishop Diego de Landa at Mani in 1562 CE, and the holy book of the Quiché, the , written c. 1554-1558 CE, states at the outset it is being written in secret to preserve what has already been lost to the Spanish conquerors.

The conquest continued elsewhere and in all directions as part of the ongoing European quest for gold, which eventually established Spanish claims from the present-day southern west regions of the United States through Central and South America. In the region of modern-day Venezuela, Francisco Pizarro (l. c. 1476-1541 CE), conquered the Inca in 1532 CE and the last of their resistance was crushed by 1572 CE. Once the indigenous people had been killed, sold into slavery, or otherwise removed, Spanish colonists established themselves on their lands.

France & the Netherlands

Cartier named the new territory Canada from an Iroquois word (Kanata) for "village".

The colony of New France was founded in modern-day Canada by the French explorer Jacques Cartier (l. 1491-1557 CE) in 1534 CE. France would also claim land holdings in the regions of modern-day South America, the Caribbean, the state of Louisiana, and elsewhere. Cartier's mission, like Columbus', was to navigate a maritime passage to Asia and return to France with gold. On his first voyage, he and his crew kidnapped two of the sons of an Iroquois chief, Donnacona. He returned in 1535 CE with three ships, the two sons (who had been allowed to be taken by their father in return for various goods), and plans for settlement which were fully implemented on his third voyage in 1541 CE. He named the new territory Canada from an Iroquois word ( Kanata) for "village".

He was sure, based on what he thought Donnacona had said, that Canada was a land teeming with gold, and his reporting this to the French authorities (and finally kidnapping Donnacona so he could tell them himself) guaranteed more colonists and profiteers arriving in the region after 1542 CE. The French were not interested in enslaving the indigenous people since they already had learned by this time that they did not make good slaves and found it more profitable to have the natives work for them in supplying animal furs and other goods to be sold in Europe.

The Dutch would also lay claim to parts of lower Canada, as well as the modern-day region of the Hudson River Valley in New York State, through the efforts of the Dutch East India Company which, like the others, was seeking a route to Asia (this elusive route, never found because it did not exist, came to be known as the Northwest Passage) and colonized North America along the way. The explorer Henry Hudson (Hendrick Hudson, l. c. 1565-1611 CE) mapped and claimed the regions for the Dutch East India Company in 1609 CE, and colonies would be established by 1614 CE with New Amsterdam (Manhattan) added in 1624 CE.

Early English Colonies

England, impressed by the wealth Spain was able to acquire from the New World, considered establishing their own colonies there but, first, found it easier to have privateers (state-sponsored pirates) stop Spanish vessels returning from the Americas and seize their cargo, among them Sir Francis Drake (l. c. 1540-1596 CE), known to the Spanish as "the Dragon" for the ferocity of his attacks on settlements in Panama and continual strikes against their ships.

The English understood, however, that it would be more efficient and effective to launch ships against the Spanish from the coasts of the Americas than their own and so Queen Elizabeth I of England (r. 1558-1603 CE), who had funded Drake's missions, tasked her friend and confidante Sir Walter Raleigh (l. c. 1552-1618 CE) with sending an expedition to claim any lands in the Americas not yet under the flag of a European nation.

Raleigh placed the captains Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe in charge of two ships and sent them off in 1584 CE (known as the Amadas-Barlowe Expedition) to find a suitable spot. They returned later that year and reported to Raleigh who told Elizabeth that they had found a bountiful land, filled with friendly natives, which he called Virginia in honor of Elizabeth, the virgin queen.

The first settlement was established in 1585 CE on Roanoke Island, because the ships could not reach the mainland owing to a storm, under the leadership of Ralph Lane (d. 1603 CE). The indigenous people were, at first, friendly, but when the colonists' supplies grew low and the natives had tired of helping them for nothing in return, Lane attacked and killed their chief. Afterwards, low on food and outnumbered by the natives, the colonists accepted a ride back home with Francis Drake who was passing by after another raid on the Spanish.

A second expedition was sent in 1587 CE under a John White who brought his family along with 117 settlers, mostly families, all of whom were promised land. As before, the colonists began to run out of food, but this time the indigenous people were not so friendly, and no help was offered. White returned to England for supplies and, owing to bad weather and other delays, did not return until 1590 CE when he found all the colonists gone, giving Roanoke the epithet of "the lost colony".

One of the causes for the delay which prevented White from returning sooner was the threat of Spanish ships which were under the directive to end the privateering of Englishmen like Drake. Deciding to strike at the source of the trouble, Spain assembled its entire armada - 132 ships carrying 17,000 soldiers and 7,000 sailors - for an invasion of England in 1588 CE. They were met by Drake and others who sent flaming ships into their midst, firing their boats, and a sudden storm then broke their formations; only half of the fleet managed to return to Spain.

Elizabeth I died in 1603 CE, and the throne was assumed by James VI of Scotland who became James I of England (r. 1603-1625 CE). With the Spanish threat removed, new plans were underway to colonize the New World and two expeditions were launched in 1606 CE; one funded by the London Company (also known as the Virginia Company) and the other by the Plymouth Company, both of which received charters from King James I to establish colonies in separate regions of North America. The Plymouth Company's expedition would found the Popham Colony in the region of modern-day Maine in 1607 CE, but it failed after a little over a year. The Virginia Company's colony would become Jamestown, also founded in 1607 CE, which struggled but survived to become the first permanent English colony in North America.

Conclusion

The Jamestown colony barely survived the first few years, losing 80% of its population in only a few months, primarily because those who made up the expedition were either upper-class aristocrats who refused to work for their food or lower-class laborers who had no skill in farming. The colony was saved first by Captain John Smith (l. 1580-1631 CE), a soldier, sailor, and adventurer who famously pronounced "he who does not work, shall not eat" and managed to organize the survivors to fend for themselves while also establishing a cordial relationship with the indigenous people of the Powhatan tribe, without whose help the colonists would have starved to death.

Smith returned to England in 1609 CE, and the colony suffered from his absence, enduring what is known as the Starving Time during which they resorted to cannibalism. A ship, the Sea Venture, was en route to bring them aid when it was blown off course and wrecked in Bermuda in 1609 CE. With no help coming and no supplies, the colonists were going to abandon the settlement and return to England when, in 1610 CE, ships arrived carrying supplies and the three men who would turn the colony's fortune's around: John Rolfe (l. 1585-1622 CE, who would later marry the famous Pocahontas, l. c. 1596-1617 CE), Sir Thomas Gates (l. c. 1585-1622 CE, the future governor), and Thomas West, Lord De La Warr (l. 1577-1618 CE).

De La Warr prevented the desperate colonists from leaving and organized the colony while Gates handled daily administration and Rolfe introduced a new seed blend of tobacco he felt would do well in the Virginian soil and be popular back in Europe. Rolfe was correct, and the tobacco crop not only saved the colony but encouraged others in England to come to the New World. The crop also, unfortunately, required extensive lands for cultivation for maximum profit and a later arrival, Sir Thomas Dale (l. c. 1560- 1619 CE), orchestrated the removal of the Powhatan tribe. Indentured servitude provided the necessary labor for the crop at first but, when this proved problematic, was eventually replaced by institutionalized slavery.

In 1619 CE, the House of Burgesses was first convened, the first assembly of Englishmen in North America to gather and establish laws. This event is traditionally recognized as the earliest expression of democracy in the New World, even though it has become clear that the Native American tribes had been practicing a democratic form of government for centuries prior to this date.

The success of Jamestown encouraged the founding of the Plymouth colony in 1620 CE by the Puritan Separatists under Edward Winslow (l. 1595-1655 CE) and William Bradford (l. 1590-1657 CE) who characterized themselves as pilgrims seeking a holy land in which they could worship freely. Jamestown would eventually be abandoned and forgotten, but Plymouth colony, though it would only last until 1691 CE, would live on in the national imagination, inspiring the images of grateful pilgrims and helpful natives as the foundational myth of what would become the United States of America.

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The European colonization of the Americas was the process by which European settlers populated the regions of North, Central, South America, and the islands of the Caribbean. It is also recognized as the direct cause for the cultures of the various indigenous people of those regions being replaced and often eradicated, initially between 1492-1620 CE, with others arriving in larger numbers between c.

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2) Explain how and why various European colonies developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754.

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2) Explain how and why various European colonies developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754.

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Crash Course explains how Jamestown started off as monetary New England colony that fell off due to lack of experience with the New World. It developed and held out for a few more years under the leadership of John Smith, showing England that North America could be colonized. So, the Chesapeake colony was established soon afterward, growing tobacco(since they were more southern) and expanding their agricultural gains through indentured servitude. Then came the smaller, proprietary colony of Maryland and the larger, more famous, Puritan Massachusetts Bay colony. There were also the free, Quaker Pennsylvania which did not impose religious order unlike the Massachusetts Bay colony. As such, this video greatly exemplifies the theme of Social Structures since it shows the development of social spheres through various colonies. Whether those spheres be free of religious obligation like Pennsylvania or fraught with it like the Bay Colony.

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When is Thanksgiving? Colonizing America: Crash Course US History #2

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2) Explain how and why various native populations, in the period before European contact, interacted with the natural environment in North America.  

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2) Explain how and why various native populations, in the period before European contact, interacted with the natural environment in North America.  

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Heimler explains the agricultural and hunter-gatherer groups of Native Americans. He cites the Anasazi as people who used the South American environment to cultivate crops like Maize. He also talks about how midwestern Natives couldn't farm due to the arid climate, so they lived off of hunting buffalo and other animals. Finally, in the Northeast, Native Americans hunted and cultivated crops (since the animals were plentiful and the environment was well suited for tobacco cultivation).
Heimler also touches upon the base power structure of Natives and how they created rudimentary government spheres.
This fits in with the theme of Geography and the Environment as it describes how the Natives adapted to and used their environment to shape different, complex societies. Also, it covers the theme of American and National Identity since Heimler describes the values of Natives in North America.

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3) Explain how and why environmental and other factors shaped the development and expansion of various British colonies that developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754. 

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3) Explain how and why environmental and other factors shaped the development and expansion of various British colonies that developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754. 

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As outlined by my notes from chapter 2 and 3( https://docs.google.com/document/d/1hoMYSiaYfywrftvDRsZY5LZ1Vqt3_UIms0mZjfp89Ow/edit) the economic distinction between the New England and Southern Colonies is the same distinction between the future 1800s Northern and Southern states. While the New England colonies relied more on trade and fishing for economic gain while the Chesapeake and southern colonies relied on tobacco cultivation. Similarly the Northern states dealt with exportation and industry/manufacturing while the Southern states delved with agriculture and cotton-farming. One might argue that these two are incomparable, since Northern states also delved into manufacturing. However, the origins of such manufacturing began in the New England colonies with the building of ships for England. As such, this exemplifies the theme of Geography and the Environment because it shows how the different colonies adapted and used their environment.

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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3)Explain the causes of exploration and conquest of the New World by various European nations.

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3)Explain the causes of exploration and conquest of the New World by various European nations.

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My reflection in the notes explains how conquest in the New World was caused by the need to outcompete other European nations. This competition was mainly over the control of maritime trade. Portuguese conquest of Africa allowed them to control African supplies, which spurred Spain to action in hopes of finding an alternative trade route to Asia. Instead, they found and colonized America. Exploiting Native Americans for their agricultural advancements. In the second chapter of my notes (https://docs.google.com/document/d/1LLu5PPuip7XzR-dc_mjsmujvD-z1-dX36UTrSvVKUuU/edit) I cite the defeat of Spain armada in 1588 as a reason why England was able to explore and conquest the New World in latter years. Of course, this battle was spurred by initial Spanish conquest of the New World, which promoted conflict since they controlled New World trade. One might argue that the conquest of the New World was strictly for the purpose of trade, but they would be wrong due to the resounding amount of conflict before and during the conquest for the purpose of controlling the New World, proving the competitive nature of said conquest. This exemplifies the theme of America in the World and Migration and Settlement as it describes European political strife over the New World and it exhibits why and how Spain and England  came to America.

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.