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- The paintings in antebellum America portrayed the power of nature through the nation's wildest and most spectacular areas.

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- The first school for America painters, the Hudson River School, was located in New York

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- Thomas Cole
- Frederic Church
- Thomas Doughty
- Asher Durand
- Albert Bierstadt
- Thomas Moran

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- British Writer: Sir Walter Scott - historical novels set in eighteenth-century England and Scotland

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- Were mainly sentimental novels by and for women

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- James Fenimore Cooper
- Wrote more than thirty novels
- Master of adventure and suspense
- Most important novels = "Leatherstocking Tales"
- Seen as evocation of the ideal of the independent individual with a natural inner goodness and the fear of disorder

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- Walt Whitman
- Made own newspaper: "The Long Islander"
- First volume of work: "Leaves of Grass"
- Poems = celebration of democracy
- Expressed the soaring spirit of individualism

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- Ran away as child and sailed the world
- Important Work: "Moby Dick"
- Story of courage and strength of the individual will, while a tragedy of pride and revenge

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- First book: "Tamerlane and Other Poems"
- Evoked images of individuals rising above the narrow confines of intellect and exploring the deeper world of the spirit and the emotions
- World contained pain and horror

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- Southern novelists produced historical romances/romantic eulogies of the plantation system of the upper South
- William Gilmore Simms: became a strong defender of slavery
- Other Southern writers focused on the world of the backwoods rural areas
- Painfully realistic
- Example: Mark Twain

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- New England writers and philosophers
- Theory of the individual that rested on a distinction between what they called "reason" and "understanding"
- Reason - the individual's innate capacity to grasp beauty and truth through giving full expression to the instincts and emotion
- Understanding - use of intellect in the narrow, artificial ways imposed by society
- Emerged in Massachusetts with Ralph Waldo Emerson as the leader
- He was a nationalist
- Henry David Thoreau was also an important leader who strove to live a simple life: He did not like slavery at all

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- Nature was a source of human inspiration
- Defended nature since there was an "essential unity between humanity and nature

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- Individuals would gather to create a new form of social organization
- Residents would share labor equally
- Experiment ended up being a failure
- Many experiments similar to this one occurred throughout America

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- Transcendentalism fostered expressions of feminism
- Margaret Fuller - responsible for raising issues of gender
- She brought forth gender issues and wrote about them
- Redefinition of gender roles: important to the Oneida Community
- All residents were married to each other. The community carefully monitored sexual behavior, women were protected from unwanted childbearing
- This community was proud of this movement - which freed women from man's lust
- Redefinition of gender roles: important to the Shakers
- Commitment to complete celibacy - Shakers had to choose the faith voluntarily
- Contact between men and women was very limited, there was sexual equality, and women had more power (in the big picture of things)
- They were trying to make a society separated and protected from the chaos and disorder that characterized American life

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- Result of efforts by Joseph Smith
- He published the "Book of Mormon"
- Plot: A lost tribe of Israel had a successful civilization in America who had waited patiently for Jesus. Overtime, they became unfaithful and God punished them with dark skin (American Indians were their descendants)
- Smith wanted to model a society after this one.
- Tried unsuccessfully for twenty years to establish a "New Jerusalem," due to the skepticism of others.
- Smith was arrested and killed - followers migrated to current-day Salt Lake City. There they were able to establish their community
- Mormonism reflected a belief of human perfectibility
- Mormons had an intense interest in human genealogy
- Mormons found security and order in their society, while the rest of America was moving forward at a rapid pace.

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Painting by Thomas Cole that Depicts the Beauty of Nature

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Painting by Thomas Cole that Depicts the Beauty of Nature