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Face
Based on Brown and Levinson (1987: 61) "Face is derived from the notion of Goffman and English people which is related to the idea of being embarrassed or humiliated, or 'loosing Face'." Since Face is something that is emotionally invested, can be lost, maintained, or enhanced, a person has to pay attention to his interlocutor's Face. In other words, the speaker and the hearer must cooperate in maintaining each other's Face in interaction. The action of maintaining each other's Face called 'Face work'.
Moreover, Goffman in Renkema (1993: 13) introduces the concept of face as an image which is projected by a person in his social contacts with others. Face has the meaning as in the saying to loose fact. Based on the opinion of Goffman, every participant in the social process has the need to be appreciated by others and the need to be free and not to be disturbed. He calls the need to be appreciated as a 'positive face' and the need to be free or not to be disturbed is called as 'negative face'.
While negative face is defined as the desire of every member that he has Freedom of Action as well as freedom of imposition (the desire to not to be disturbed). For example is a father who is in the middle of giving advice to his children expects that his children do not tend to interrupt his speech (freedom of imposition).

Face Threatening Acts (FTA)
Politeness strategies are developed for the main purpose of dealing with the FTA's. We understand the notion of 'face' previously from the dramaturgical theories of Erving Goffman that individuals as social actors perform (present a public self) on the stage of everyday life. The acts that threaten either the negative or positive face of the hearer are called 'Face Threatening Acts' (FTA) (Brown and Levinson, 1987: 65). There are acts that threaten the H's Negative Face such as order, request, suggestion, advice, reminding, threat, warning, offer, promise, compliment and expression of negative emotion. Here, the speaker does not intend to avoid impeding H's Freedom of Action. For example, when you ask someone to lend you some money, you are considered threaten that person's Negative Face. It happens since you have violated his want to be free from being imposed.
In contrast, there are acts that threaten the H's Positive Face such as expression of dissatisfaction, criticisms, complaints, accusation, and insult, disagreement, out of control emotion, irreverence, and bringing bad news about H or boasting about S, raising divisive topics, and blatant non-cooperation in an activity. All these acts indicate that the speaker does not care about the addressee's feeling or wants. For example, disagreeing with someone's opinion also causes a threat to his Positive Face, as it means that you indicate that he is wrong about something.

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Concept of Face and FTA (Face Threatening Acts)

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Face Based on Brown and Levinson (1987: 61) "Face is derived from the notion of Goffman and English people which is related to the idea of being embarrassed or humiliated, or 'loosing Face'." Since Face is something that is emotionally invested, can be lost, maintained, or enhanced, a person has to pay attention to his interlocutor's Face.

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Language Framework

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ENGLISH LANG: Pragmatics - David Crystal

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Spoken Language

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A filler word is an apparently meaningless word, phrase, or sound that marks a pause or hesitation in speech.

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Spoken Language

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Grammar

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When it comes to changes in language, there's no point crying over spilt milk: researchers charting fluctuations in English grammar say the rise of certain words, such as spilled, is probably down to chance, and that resistance is futile.

Comparisons have long been drawn between evolution and changes in language, with experts noting that preferences such as a desire for emphasis can act as a type of "natural selection", affecting which words or forms of grammar are passed on between generations.

But a new study shows that another evolutionary mechanism might play a key role : random chance.

The authors of the study say that the work adds to our understanding of how language changes over centuries.

"Whether it is by random chance or selection, one of the things that is true about English - and indeed other languages - is that the language changes," said Joshua Plotkin, co-author of the research from the University of Pennsylvania. "The grammarians might [win the battle] for a decade, but certainly over a century they are going to be on the losing side."

Writing in the journal Nature, Plotkin and colleagues describe how they tracked different types of grammatical changes across the ages.

Among them, the team looked at changes in American English across more than one hundred thousand texts from 1810 onwards, focusing on the use of "ed" in the past tense of verbs compared with irregular forms - for example, "spilled" versus "spilt".

The hunt threw up 36 verbs which had at least two different forms of past tense, including quit/quitted and leaped/leapt. However for the majority, including spilled v spilt, the team said that which form was waxing or waning was not clearly down to selection - meaning it is probably down to chance over which word individuals heard and copied.

"Chance can play an important role even in language evolution - as we know it does in biological evolution," said Plotkin, adding that the impact of random chance on language had not been fully appreciated before.

The grammar of negating a sentence has changed from "Ic ne secge" (Beowulf, c. 900) to "Ic ne sege noht" (the Ormulum, c. 1100) to "I seye not" (Chaucer, c. 1400) to "I doe not say" (Shakespeare, c. 1600) before returning to the familiar "I don't say" (Virginia Woolf, c. 1900). Photograph: Cherissa Dukelow

For just six of the 36 verbs, the rise of one form over another was clearly not only down to chance, but was largely a result of active preference - akin to natural selection.

Specifically, "woke" is increasingly preferred over "waked" and "lit" more popular than "lighted", while "weaved" and "snuck" are on track to eventually overtake "wove" and "sneaked", respectively.

The study also revealed that a flower today is more likely to be "smelled" rather than "smelt" and that the neighbour's cat probably "dove" behind the sofa - although, as Plotkin notes, British felines remain more likely to have dived.

But there was a puzzle. "The prevailing view is that if language is changing it should in general change towards the regular form, because the regular form is easier to remember," said Plotkin. However, four of the six verbs show a rise in the irregular form of the past tense.

That, the team note, might at least in part be down to whether the word sounds similar to other commonly used words of the age. For example the increasing popularity of "dove" rather than "dived" in American English coincides with the development of cars, and hence the rise of soundalike "drive" and past tense "drove" in describing journeys. The team add that they suspect similar effects might be at work in a number of the verbs that currently look like they might be changing by chance alone.

The authors add that the research suggests rare words are more likely to vary over time and be subject to random chance.

The study also explores the use of negation in sentences, such as "I say not", across English texts dating from the 12th to the 16th centuries, revealing that the placement of the negative word has changed more than once due to selection, possibly because of a desire for emphasis.

"There a was period of time where double negation ... was the way to negate things, just as it is in French today," said Plotkin.

Dr Christine Cuskley, from the Centre for Language Evolution at the University of Edinburgh, agreed that similarities to commonly used irregular verbs could affect which form of past tense is on the rise.

But she said that it was likely that there were other pressures affecting which form of a past tense is favoured. What's more, Cuskley added, it is not clear if the conclusions from the latest research could be applied to other languages.

"English is weird," she said.

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Resistance to changes in grammar is futile, say researchers

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Linguists say that random chance plays a bigger role than previously thought in the evolution of language - but also that 'English is weird'

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Co-Operative Principle: Grice's Maxims

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Introduction

Communication accommodation is a communication theory which emphasis the adjustments that people does while communicating. Howard Giles, the professor of communication at the University of California, developed the theory which is and according to him is when people try to emphasis or minimize the social difference between the others whom they interact with.

Source: Jon Feingersh/Adobe Stock

The factors that lead to the accommodation activity are adjustments which can be through verbal communication or through gestures. The theory was evolved from speech adjustment theory, which demonstrates the value of psychological concepts to understand the dynamics of speech. But the theory encompasses more fields such as non-verbal and gestures.

*Interactant - The word refers the close relations between each other with their communication.

Theory

Communication accommodation theory elaborates the human tendency to adjust their behaviour while interacting. The reason behind this behaviour is explained as to control the social differences between the interactants.

People accommodate their communication activities to get approval and to set a positive image in front of the interactant. The environment in which they are interacting also affects the communication behaviour.

There are two types of accommodation process explained in this theory

Convergence- convergence is a process where people tend to adapt the other person's communication characteristics to reduce the social differences.

Divergence-the process contradicts the method of adaptation and in this context the individual emphasise is on the social difference and nonverbal differences between the interactants.

The two processes usually are dependent on the characteristics of the interactant. People accommodated their communication while interacting with a person who has higher standards and other characteristics which they believe is better than them.

And the divergent exhibits an opposite characteristic as it emphasises the difference among the close relations with each other.

Communication accommodation theory is influenced by social psychology and is guided by four major assumptions

While communicating there will be similarity and difference in the speech and behaviour. The characteristics that people exhibit are based on our experiences and the cultural backgrounds that we grew up in.

A conversation is evaluated by understanding the perception of the speech and behaviour of the other. Through evaluation people decides to accommodate and fit in.

The social status and belonging is determined by language and behaviours. While people communicate they tend to accommodate the behaviours of those who are in the higher social status than them.

Norms guide the accommodation process which varies in the degree of appropriateness. Norms define the behaviours of people and they are expected to act accordingly.

Application

The communication accommodation theory is applicable in various communication processes. In an organisation the communication accommodation can be used to communicate effectively among the employees as well as they adapt while communicating to a senior employee.

Example

Mike was a new employee in a certain organisation. While understanding about the environment, he came to know about his senior officer who apparently had an interest in painting from his co-workers.

When mike got an opportunity to interact with him, he glorified the beauty of a painting the officer has been displayed in his office which pleased the officer. In this situation mike accommodated his behaviour according to the situation and thus could create an impression on his senior officer.

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Introduction Communication accommodation is a communication theory which emphasis the adjustments that people does while communicating. Howard Giles, the professor of communication at the University of California, developed the theory which is and according to him is when people try to emphasis or minimize the social difference between the others whom they interact with.

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Classroom resources for primary and secondary teachers

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Thousands of engaging, high-quality teaching resources for the primary and secondary classroom, written & checked by experienced teachers.

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Labov, Trudgill, Cheshire, Millroy & Bernstein

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Type IPA phonetic symbols - online keyboard

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This IPA keyboard allows you to type pronunciations of English words as they appear in major English dictionaries from publishers like Longman, Oxford, etc. Dictionary transcriptions are "phonemic transcriptions". They only give you the broad-strokes view of the pronunciation - just enough to make sure you won't confuse two different words.

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English pronunciation is easy, right? Well, maybe it isn't always a piece of cake, but Tim's back in the pronunciation workshop and ready to give a helping hand. This time he's looking at an aspect of spoken English called 'schwa'. The symbol for the schwa sound looks like this /ə/.

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The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a set of symbols that linguists use to describe the sounds of spoken languages.

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Basil Bernstein

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"Every student should do the best they can."

If you're a grammar purist, that sentence may have made you cringe.

Standard English dictates the word "they," a plural pronoun, should never be used to refer to a single person. Since "student" is a singular noun, you'd need a singular pronoun like "he" or "she" to match it.

A high-school English teacher, however, wrote a convincing argument about why he'll no longer mark that usage as incorrect in his students' essays. His decision could reflect a dramatic shift in the English language.

In a column for PBS NewsHour, 38-year teaching veteran Steve Gardiner of Billings, Montana, said that forbidding the singular "they" has outlived its usefulness.

"I have burned up hundreds of red pens, and hours of time, correcting this grammatical usage based on a traditional gender binary of he and she. It's time to move on," Gardiner wrote.

"They" has gained considerable traction recently as a singular pronoun. The Washington Post added "they" to its style guide last year to accommodate "people who identify as neither male nor female." And in January, the American Dialect Society declared "they" its Word of the Year in a vote among linguists, grammarians, and lexicographers.

"It does say something about the way people are exploring gender and sexual identity, and perhaps a greater openness to accepting new ways of expressing that identity through language," Ben Zimmer, chair of the American Dialect Society's new words committee, told Business Insider in January. "It feels like an opening up of the language, allowing for a greater possibility of what these pronouns can refer to."

By accepting the singular "they," Gardiner wrote, we can finally throw away the awkward constructions English speakers have invented to circumvent the issue.

Decades ago, masculine pronouns could be used to refer to someone of either sex, like in the sentence "The writer must address his readers' concerns." In the legendary writing guide "Elements of Style," EB White and William Strunk advised rewording that sentence to "As a writer, you must address your readers' concerns," according to the New Republic's John McWhorter. It's a compromise that sacrifices the conciseness of the original, though.

As society became more inclusive, English saw the advent of more workarounds, including the clunky "he/she" and the unpronounceable "s/he." And dozens of gender-neutral pronouns have been proposed over the years - including "heesh," "thon," and "zie," although none of them came close to catching on.

Meanwhile, the history of the singular "they" goes back centuries, as McWhorter pointed out in another piece. Shakespeare used the possessive form in his "Comedy of Errors," first performed in 1594:

"There's not a man I meet but doth salute me / As if I were their well-acquainted friend"

As singular "they" creeps into the lexicons of writers and media figures, it's only a matter of time before it becomes fully accepted. Ultimately, Gardiner acknowledges the fight against the singular "they" is futile:

"Having fought this battle with students for more than three decades, I am ready to admit defeat. Every student is going to write what they want. Every broadcaster is going to say what they want. There, I even wrote it myself, and most readers probably did not notice."

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A high school teacher is changing the way he grades essays - and it reflects a dramatic shift in the English language

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If you're a grammar purist, some of these sentences may make you cringe.

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The Guardian

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Sweden adds gender-neutral pronoun to dictionary

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Pronoun ‘hen’ can be used without revealing gender – either because it is unknown, because the person is transgender, or the information is superfluous