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The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was founded in 1886 as a federation of various skilled trade unions in the United States. It was formed by Samuel Gompers and other labor leaders who sought to create an organization focused on promoting the interests of skilled workers through collective bargaining and labor reforms. The AFL prioritized higher wages, shorter work hours, and improved working conditions for its members. It advocated for the use of strikes and boycotts as tools to achieve these goals. The AFL's formation marked a shift towards a more focused and organized labor movement, with an emphasis on skilled workers and craft unions.

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The Knights of Labor was a labor organization founded in 1869 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, by Uriah S. Stephens. It aimed to unite workers from different industries into a single labor organization, advocating for better working conditions, higher wages, and the abolition of child labor. The Knights of Labor welcomed workers regardless of their skill level, gender, or race, making it one of the first inclusive labor organizations in the United States. It gained significant momentum in the 1880s, reaching its peak membership of over 700,000 members.

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Scientific management, also known as Taylorism, emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as an approach to improve industrial efficiency and productivity. It was developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, an American engineer. Taylor aimed to optimize work processes by applying scientific methods and principles to tasks and labor management. Scientific management focused on analyzing work tasks, determining the most efficient methods, and establishing standardization and time-based performance measurements. It emphasized breaking down tasks into smaller, specialized units and implementing strict control and supervision over workers. Scientific management was implemented primarily in manufacturing industries, such as factories and assembly lines, and aimed to maximize efficiency, reduce waste, and increase productivity. While it brought about significant improvements in efficiency, it also sparked debates about worker autonomy, job satisfaction, and labor rights.

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The Panic of 1873, also known as the "Long Depression," was a severe economic crisis that originated in the United States but had global repercussions. It was triggered by a series of events, including over-speculation in railroads and real estate, a decline in agricultural prices, and the collapse of prominent banking and investment firms. The panic began with the failure of the investment firm Jay Cooke & Company in September 1873 and quickly spread to the broader economy, leading to bank failures, business closures, and widespread unemployment. The panic was fueled by economic imbalances, the contraction of credit, and a loss of confidence in the financial system. It lasted for several years and had profound social and economic consequences, highlighting the vulnerabilities of the industrializing economy and prompting calls for financial reforms and government intervention.

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The Panic of 1873: The Great Depression of the 19th Century

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The new consumer culture emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in industrialized societies. It was driven by various factors, including the growth of mass production, urbanization, and rising disposable incomes. The new consumer culture was characterized by increased access to a wide range of goods and products, the rise of advertising and marketing, and changing social norms around consumption. It was fueled by the desire for social status, convenience, and the idea of progress. Advances in transportation, communication, and manufacturing technologies played a significant role in enabling the production, distribution, and consumption of goods on a larger scale. This consumer culture transformed societies, shaping lifestyles, identities, and economic patterns.

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The working class emerged as a result of industrialization and the shift from agrarian economies to urban, industrialized societies. It involved the labor force composed of individuals who worked in factories, mines, and other industries. This transition took place primarily during the 18th and 19th centuries, fueled by technological advancements and the growth of capitalism. The working class emerged due to the need for labor in expanding industries and the migration of people from rural areas to cities in search of employment opportunities. The conditions and treatment of the working class varied, with many facing long hours, low wages, and harsh working conditions. The formation of labor unions and social movements played a crucial role in advocating for workers' rights and improvements in their working and living conditions.