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What is a Microsystem and who does it involve?

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What is a Microsystem and who does it involve?

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A microsystem consist of a smaller group of people for example, like a basketball team, a family and/or a friend group. All of us are in our own little Microsystems and you can even be in more then one Microsystem at a time between family and friends (for example). This was a reliable source because i was able to gather a lot of information and was able to define microsystems well.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/microsystem

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Microsystem

A microsystem is a setting with particular physical characteristics, resources, patterns of activities, roles, and interpersonal relations experienced by the developing person. A key feature of this definition is the word experience. A microsystem is not only defined by the features that might be noted by an objective observer, but also by how a person perceives the setting and his or her role in it. People function in multiple microsystems such as a family, workplace, friendship group, and religious or community social group. As people mature, they become involved in a larger number of microsystems with varying patterns of resources and expectations for behavior. Moreover, in many societies, as people mature they have increasing control over the microsystems in which they choose to participate.

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Parenting

Parenting, which occurs at a child's microsystem level, has immediate and continuous impact on a child's daily life as well as their experiences and opportunities for learning. Parenting is the building block for forming secure relationships. Warm and sensitive parenting has been shown to have more positive effects on child development in general, and specifically with skills that support school readiness for young children. Factors such as parental educational attainment, access to resources and parenting style can all impact the formation of secure relationships.

Specific and tangible encouragement needs to be provided to families to support their own educational achievement and access to employment resources as well as tools that help parents create a warm and supportive environment for young children. The opportunities and experiences available in early environments help shape a child's development and learning. Families need to be provided with resources and support to create healthy environments in which their children can flourish.

Parental responsiveness and structured, responsive parenting have been shown to be associated with school readiness and appear to have a positive effect on readiness (Dotterer et al., 2012). By providing high quality and appropriate parenting education parents can learn the value of being warm and responsive and establish skills to implement a parenting style that can positively impact readiness. Parents can also support their child's readiness by teaching and modeling important skills, such as autonomy, communication and self-directedness in social and play interactions at preschool. When parents are active participants in learning they show their child the value of education, and they promote their child's learning (Sheridan et al., 2010). Through education and support to parents the environments and interactions experienced by young children can be improved and impacted in positive ways.

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Evaluating Providers

At the level of the provider and "microsystems of care," there should be multiple opportunities to evaluate and improve current practice. This can include self-assessment, peer-review, evaluation by a supervisor, or review by an external oversight authority. There are three key points of performance that can be considered:

1.

Attitudes

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How does the provider feel about the values and principles of person-centered care?

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In what ways are they threatened or enthused by these ideas?

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How does the provider regard the process and value of creating individual plans?

2.

Knowledge

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Does the provider understand the principles of a person-centered approach?

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Has the provider received appropriate education and training in person-centered approaches to assessment, planning, and service delivery?

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Can the provider identify the elements and phases of the planning process?

3.

Skills and Abilities

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Can the provider conduct a person-centered assessment that leads to a formulation?

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Can the provider develop an effective alliance with the individual seeking services that supports their participation in planning and recovery?

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Can the provider work to develop, organize, document, and implement a plan that is responsive to the identified goals and objectives and is sensitive to the unique preferences and needs of the individual?

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Do individuals and families report feeling like they were treated with dignity and respect and supported in their own personal vision of recovery, wellness, and resilience?

Core competencies for providers need to be established and providers need to be evaluated as to their attitude, knowledge, and skills. The ability of a provider to develop person-centered individual plans should be one of those competencies. The IOM's Crossing the Quality Chasm report notes: "All health professionals should be educated to deliver patient-centered care as members of an interdisciplinary team, emphasizing evidence-based practice, quality improvement approaches, and informatics." If we are to achieve the reality of a consistent person-centered approach to providing mental health and addictive disorders service, this is an essential part of "Making It Happen."

In many cases this will necessitate additional education and training for the existing workforce as these represent a new set of expectations and skills from what has been the prevailing standard of care. There is also a pressing need to evaluate and change the curriculum in current pre-degree professional programs as well as consideration of the post-degree pre-licensure training for those who are preparing to enter the mental health and addictive disorders service workforce. Lastly, we must recognize the important role in today's service-delivery system of para-professionals and peers-many of whom sorely lack adequate education and training to meet their substantial responsibilities. Hopefully this book can make a contribution to this education and training agenda.

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Abstract

The bioecological model identifies schools as one of the microsystems that is a critical partner in children's learning and overall development. Children have important interactions with other people and with the physical environment in school buildings. This chapter's focus is the physical environment. Research is presented concerning the role of general building condition and design, as well as specific attributes (noise, density, lighting, and the ambient environment) in student academic and behavioral outcomes. In addition, gaps in the research and methodological issues are discussed as well as recommendations for future work in this field.

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2.4 MHC Fiber Typing

Frozen sternohyoid muscle was cryosectioned (Model CM30505, Leica Microsystems, Nussloch, Germany) at 10 μm and air dried to polylysine slides (VWR International). Muscle fiber type was determined by assessing the expression of the four main MHC isoforms (type 1, 2A, 2X, and 2B). Muscle sections were defrosted and hydrated in phosphate buffered solution (PBS) followed by incubation in 1% BSA PBS solution for 15 min, washed, and blocked in 5% goat serum and 1% BSA PBS solution for a further 15 min and washed in PBS before adding primary antibodies. Primary monoclonal myosin antibodies were developed by S. Schiaffino and obtained from the Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank which was developed under the auspices of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and maintained by University of Iowa, Department of Biology, Iowa City, USA. One slide was incubated with a cocktail of primary monoclonal antibodies for MHC 1 (BAF8), MHC 2A (SC71), MHC 2B (BFF3) diluted in 1% BSA PBS solution at a concentration of 1:100, 1:100, 1:25, respectively. A serial slide was incubated with a cocktail of antibodies which included a pan-MHC antibody (BF35) which targeted all MHC isoforms except pure 2X fibers, and laminin (rabbit anti-laminin l9393: Sigma) which helped identify the fiber perimeters. The antibodies were diluted in 1% BSA PBS solution at a concentration of 1:50 and 1:500, respectively. Sections were placed in a humidity chamber and incubated over night at 4 °C with primary antibodies. The following day, the slides were washed with PBS before applying the secondary antibodies. A cocktail of secondary antibodies against MHC 1 (AlexaFlour 350-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG 2b, A21140: Invitrogen), MHC 2A (Dylight594-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG ₁, 115-515-205: Jackson), MHC 2B (AlexaFlour 488-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgM, A21142: Invitrogen) diluted in 1% BSA PBS solution at concentration of 1:500, 1:500, 1:250, respectively, was incubated against the corresponding primary antibodies for 1 h at room temperature in a humid incubating chamber. Another cocktail of secondary antibodies which targeted the pan-MHC antibody (Dylight594-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG ₁ 115-515-205) and laminin (FITC-conjugated goat anti-rabbit, F9887: Sigma) were diluted in 1% BSA PBS solution at a concentration of 1:50 and 1:500, respectively. Sections were incubated with secondary antibodies for 1 h at room temperature in a humid incubating chamber. Slides were washed in PBS and images were quickly captured.

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Microelectrodes

Silicon microelectrode arrays were supplied by the Center for Wireless Integrated Microsystems at the University of Michigan. Both styles of microelectrodes had identical penetrating profiles with shanks that were 300 μm wide × 12 μm thick and 3.45 mm in length including a tapered tip (Fig. 1). Surface area measurements were calculated from SolidWork (Dassault Systèmes SolidWorks Corp., Concord, MA) models of the implanted portion of the two styles of microelectrode arrays. To facilitate handling, the microelectrodes were attached to a 0.25-mm diameter stainless steel wire with a UV-curable, medical-grade adhesive (MD-1187-M, Dymax, Torrington, CT) at the bond pads. All electrodes were cleaned by immersion in 70% ethanol and rinsed several times in sterile DI water, followed by sterilization with ethylene oxide. Sterilized samples were allowed to outgas for at least 48 h prior to implantation.

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Microsystem

The final and most intimate level of the environment is the microsystem, which is the immediate space and people around an individual at a given point of time. Obviously, over time, this changes as the person living with dementia moves from one space or place to another. This level of the environment includes the elements of the physical environment described by Lawton, such as size of space, dimensions, surface materials, type of lighting, acoustic and thermal properties. It also includes what Windley and Scheidt (1980) refer to as environmental attributes such as legibility, meaning, privacy, comfort, control, sociality, accessibility, density, meaning, quality/esthetics, and sensory stimulation. As with the other environmental systems, there are interpersonal (other people-residents, care partners, family, and guests) and organizational aspects (the model of care and types of activities that are offered) that have to be considered as well. Several of the environmental attributes described by Windley and Scheidt (1980) are closely related to the elements of well-being described earlier in the chapter. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to provide an exhaustive analysis of each one, so several will be selected for which there is research evidence to support their efficacy.

Legibility refers to the ability to orient oneself to location, time, and activity, and is related to the well-being concept of autonomy: environmental characteristics that support ability to be successful in one's daily activities. Environmentally, cues need to be distinctive and meaningful to be effective. Early research demonstrated that personalized cues at bedroom entrances supported successful identification of residents' own room from others' bedrooms in the assisted living community (Namazi, Rosner, & Rechlin, 1991). Direct visual access to frequent and important destinations, such as the bathroom, increased independent use of the bathroom by eightfold (Namazi & Johnson, 1991). High color contrast between the toilet and the surrounding walls and floor, and adding a low wattage light over the toilet both serve to enhance its visibility, especially at night (see Fig. 14.3).

There is some evidence that there are benefits to having spaces that clearly look and function like familiar spaces (a living room, a dining room, and a kitchen) versus unfamiliar (nurses station) or undefined (large multipurpose rooms that serve for meals and social activities and unplanned time) (Verbeek et al., 2009). Seeing a space that looks like a dining room with tables that are preset with placemats makes it easier for the individual living with dementia to understand that this is where one has meals. There is also evidence that high color contrast at the place setting and lighting levels of at least 25-foot candles can increase caloric intake by 500 kcal over a 30-day calorie count (Calkins & Brush, 2003). Another aspect of legibility has to do with how information in the environment is presented. For example, lack of space around the bathroom sink, so that all grooming supplies are jumbled in a drawer, will increase the likelihood of loss of self-care independence. Having space for grooming essentials that is easily visible, potentially with items clearly labeled, possibly even with simple sequencing instructions for the steps for brushing one's teeth, are all features that will support functional independence.

Privacy relates to the ability to have control over space (or information) and is related to the well-being constructs of both autonomy (control) and security. In traditional institution-centric design, rooms are much more likely to be shared between two to four (especially in older buildings) residents, bathrooms might be shared between two rooms or might be centrally located down the hallway, and there are separate shower/bathing rooms, which are often designed to accommodate more than one person bathing/showering at a time. All of these design characteristics severely compromise the ability of an individually to have privacy, or control over one's own space (also known as territoriality) (see also Chapter 1, Concepts, Theories, and Research Approaches, of this volume). This trend has been changing over the past decade, and increasingly bedrooms are being designed as private rooms, sometimes sized to accommodate a second person if a roommate is preferred (or offering a door directly to an adjoining room). These rooms also typically have private bathrooms, increasingly with three fixtures (sink, toilet, and shower). This arrangement (private room with 3-fixture bathroom) can provide not only greater privacy, but also an enhanced sense of security for self and possessions, and a greater sense of identity or personhood. There is some evidence that having a well-defined personal territory (such as a private bedroom) reduces resident-to-resident aggression and anxiety (Calkins & Cassella, 2007).

Equally important as privacy is sociality, or the extent to which the environment encourages people to engage with each other and in meaningful activities, which relates to connectedness in the well-being framework. Here again, having a household design is a benefit, as people can more easily engage in familiar domestic activities, especially related to cooking and meals (AHRQ, 2009; Verbeek et al., 2009). While planning and preparing a full meal might be difficult for some individuals living with dementia, being able to assist, either by setting the table, or by doing discrete food preparation activities, or by just sitting and talking with care partners as they prepare the meal can add meaning and purpose to one's day. Environmentally, having a table close by or a counter at table height (30″) facilitates engaging with meal preparation. In other areas, how chairs are grouped impact successful conversation: chairs at right angles placed no more than 30″ apart facilitate conversation, whereas chairs that are placed side by side or are further apart make conversation more difficult (see Fig. 14.4).

It is equally important to have props that support engagement: dementia often causes apraxia, which reduces the ability to self-initiate activities. Therefore, having items that can be easily accessed and used to engage with others is important. This is a primary focus on Montessori-based programming that is becoming more common in countries like Australia, Canada, and the United States (Bourgeois, Brush, Elliot, & Kelly, 2015). Windows should be planned with views to interesting outdoor, activity-oriented scenes-gardens that offer color year-round, plants that attract wildlife, bird-feeders, etc. Direct and largely unrestricted access to outdoor spaces, again planned to offer many things to do, can also support sociality.

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Ecological Systems Model of Creativity Development

The Ecological Systems Model of Creativity Development suggests that four systems-the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem-have a far-reaching impact on an individual's development of creativity ( Yeh, 2004). The microsystem specifies inherent and learned personal characteristics: mainly knowledge, dispositions, and skills. These personal characteristics are the most fundamental to the generation of a creative product, and they directly affect the four stages of the creative process, namely, preparation, incubation, insight, and evaluation. Based on information processing theory, the main tasks in each of stages are defined as illustrated in Fig. 1. Notably, the four stages are interactive and can be a cycled process before a creative product is successfully produced. The mesosystem, meanwhile, consists of family and school experiences. These two subsystems interact with each other and greatly influence the creative potential of a person throughout his or her childhood and even into his or her teens. However, as the creative person grows up, these influences may become more indirect and perhaps less influential. The exosystem is comprised of organizational factors that relate to an individual's work, including the people, events, and things within an organization. This system mainly interacts with the creative person and influences the creative process both directly and indirectly. Finally, the macrosystem refers to a social culture and milieu, including the values, laws and customs within a culture. This system has a substantial impact on the evaluation of a creative product. From a mature adult perspective, the four layers of the system interact with one another to shape one's creativity. However, only the microsystem and exosystem directly influence the current creative process (see Fig. 1).

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3.11.2 Example 2: A technical book

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Area 1: Title and statement of responsibility

Based on instructions 1.1B1 and 1.1 F1, the title proper and the statement of the responsibility are copied as:

Just Java 2 / Peter van der Linden

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Area 2: Edition

This is the sixth edition of the book, so the text 6th ed. should be added after the first two elements (rule 1.2B1):

Just Java 2 / Peter van der Linden. - 6th ed.

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Area 4: Publication, distribution, etc.

As seen on the title page verso, the book is published in Santa Clara by Sun Microsystems Press and has a copyright date of 2004. To distinguish the place the abbreviated (appendix B) state name will be used after Santa Clara. Rule 1.4F6, which is not discussed above, advises the cataloguer to use c in front of a date if it concerns the copyright. The rest of the elements are transcribed as advised in rules 1.4C1, 1.4D1 and 1.4F1:

Just Java 2 / Peter van der Linden. - 6th ed. - Santa Clara, Calif. : Sun Microsystems Press, c2004

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Area 5: Physical description

Checking the book, we find a few figures and photographs, which will be recorded as illustrations. The first pages are numbered i-xxiii and the rest 1-816 and the size of the book is almost 24 x 18 cm. According to the rules 2.5B2, 2.5B5, 2.5C1 and 2.5D1 the record becomes:

Just Java 2 / Peter van der Linden. - 6th ed. - Santa Clara, Calif. : Sun Microsystems Press, c2004. - xxiii, 816 p. : ill. ; 24 cm.

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Area 6: Series

As in the previous example, this book is not part of a series, so nothing is transcribed.

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Area 7: Notes

An index is included at the end of the book and thus the record becomes (rule 1.7B18):

Just Java 2 / Peter van der Linden. - 6th ed. - Santa Clara, Calif. : Sun Microsystems Press, c2004. - xxiii, 816 p. : ill. ; 24 cm.

Includes index.

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Area 8: Standard number and terms of availability

No special terms of availability are stated in the book, so the final bibliographic record is (rule 1.8B1):

Just Java 2 / Peter van der Linden. - 6th ed. - Santa Clara, Calif. : Sun Microsystems Press, c2004. - xxiii, 816 p. : ill. ; 24 cm.

Includes index.

ISBN 0131482114

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Ecological systems model of creativity development

This is the most recently proposed confluence model; it suggests that four systems - the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem - have a far-reaching impact on an individual's development of creativity. The microsystem specifies inherent and learned personal characteristics: mainly knowledge, dispositions, and skills. These personal characteristics are the most fundamental to the generation of a creative product, and they directly affect all stages of the creative process. The mesosystem, meanwhile, consists of family and school experiences. These two subsystems interact with each other and greatly influence the creative potential of a person throughout his or her childhood and even into his or her teens. However, as the creative person grows up, these influences may become more indirect and perhaps less influential. The exosystem is comprised of organizational factors that relate to an individual's work, including the people, events, and things within an organization. This system interacts with the creative person and influences the creative process both directly and indirectly. Finally, the macrosystem refers to a social milieu, including the values, laws, and customs within a culture. This system has a substantial impact on the evaluation of a creative product. From a mature adult perspective, the four layers of the system interact with one another, but only the microsystem and macrosystem directly influence the current creative process.

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A microsystem is a setting with particular physical characteristics, resources, patterns of activities, roles, and interpersonal relations experienced by the developing person. A key feature of this definition is the word experience. A microsystem is not only defined by the features that might be noted by an objective observer, but also by how a person perceives the setting and his or her role in it.

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What is a Macrosystem and who does it involve?

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What is a Macrosystem and who does it involve?

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A Macrosystem is a system of people that involve a lot of people in it.  Whether it's people that work for a company or people that are supporting a company from the outside for example like investing in the company. Macrosystems consist of government systems, big cooperation's, people/teams/groups that have a large following. Majority of the world is revolved by some Macrosystems decisions and some decisions can effect you in a positive or a negative way depending on there decisions.  I used this source because it helped me with making examples of what a macrosystem is and what it consist of.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/macrosystem#:~:text=The%20macrosystem%20refers%20to%20the,and%20relationships%20among%20the%20systems.

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Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model

Bronfenbrenner (1979, 1986, 1995) has proposed a socio-ecological model of child development that is helpful in considering child-rearing practices in different cultural contexts. Although the model has recently been expanded to include biological influences (Bronfenbrenner, 1995; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1997), we will limit consideration to the socio-ecological model as shown in Figure 1 . The four systems in this model are the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem and the macrosystem.

At the center of the microsystem is the child with his or her unique individual characteristics (age, gender, physical capacities, etc.). The microsystem is the setting in which the child experiences direct interactions with others, including family, school, church, etc. Bronfenbrenner has pointed out that most of the research on socio-cultural influences in a child's life has focused on microsystems. He also points out that the interactions within a microsystem are two-way influences, with the child as active participant, and not-as is sometimes wrongly assumed-as though the child were merely a passive recipient of these influences (Marjoribanks, 1996).

As children grow up, they become involved in an increasing number of microsystems, all of which form part of what Bronfenbrenner has termed the mesosystem. The mesosystem involves the interconnectedness of all the various microsystems. For example, there are connections among family, school, and work. Children who grow up in an enriched family environment are more likely to begin school ready to learn, and those who do well in school are more likely to be successful in seeking a job. Likewise, children who grow up in a disadvantaged family environment are likely to experience repercussions in other areas of their lives.

The family, including its child-rearing practices, is an important element of the mesosystem. There have been many recent comparisons between parenting practices in different countries (Bornstein 1991a, 1991b; Bronstein, 1994; Clark 1980; Davison, 1989; Gfellner, 1990; Keller, Chasiotis, & Runde, 1992; Keller & Scholmerich, 1988; Kelley & Tseng, 1992; Mizuta, Zahn-Waxier, Cole & Hiruma, 1996; Tulloch, 1997). Other studies have focused on parenting practices in just one country, such as India (Sharma, 1996), Malaysia (Yaman, 1996), Taiwan (Chung, 1994), and the People's Republic of China (Liang & Sugawara, 1992).

The importance of considering interaction between variables within a mesosystem can be illustrated by the results of a study by Best, House, Barnard, and Spicker (1994). They compared the impact of gender on parent-child interactions in France, Germany, and Italy. They found that French girls and Italian boys were more affectionate toward their parents than were the other groups of children. French and Italian parents and children were found to be more interactive, in general, than the German dyads. It was also found that French and Italian fathers engaged in more playful activities than mothers, but the opposite was found among the Germans. In this study, both gender and ethnicity proved to be important and interconnected variables when comparing parent-child interactions in these countries.

Studies of school achievement and the development of literacy skills in children have also shown that wider systemic variables are involved, including health-related issues (Puchner, 1993), and maternal care during pregnancy (Negussie, 1990). Hence the importance in cross-cultural comparisons, of considering the interconnectedness of many different variables within the mesosystem.

The next layer, exosystem, includes a wide range of elements, which, though not directly experienced by the child, can have a significant impact on the microsystems which affect the child. For example, a parent's workplace is not an immediate concern of a child as long as the parent's work provides a means of support for the family. However, if a parent loses a job, which is part of the exosystem, it will inevitably impact the child and other family members. Likewise, the lack of public daycare and early education services have a negative impact on child rearing, particularly in socieites in which parents are expected to participate in the labor market.

The macrosystem in Bronfenbrenner's model is a still larger cultural context in which the previous systems are embedded. A country's form of government, system of laws, and economic and educational systems form part of the macrosystem. Though an individual child may seem to be far removed from government policies or international agreements, they can and often do have some impact on the child's life. For example, as indicated previously, a study sponsored by the National Academy of Sciences (1994) documented the tragic effects of war on the lives of children in the countries of the former Yugoslavia. Brofenbrenner's model is focused on the child, but with slight modification one can create a parallel family model which can serve as a conceptual tool for planning family programs or parenting interventions in a country, or locality.

In this revised model, the family, with its internal processes and resources, is at the center. However, as in Brofenbrenner's original model, it is linked in turn with ever larger environments, on which parenting professionals must also act if they are to be effective in supporting families. For this reason, it is unrealistic, for example, to blame individual families for failure or treat antisocial behavior as if it were a question only of individual psychology. This is not to deny that frequently, and not least with families at risk, the careful, individual accompaniment of the family through its internal processes is absolutely necessary. Educators cannot afford, however, to be unaware, of the influence of the immediate community (the mesosystem) in which the family is inserted nor of the larger sociocultural and economic support system (the exosystem) that hold a particular society together, nor indeed of the overarching system of laws, state institutions and the broader cultural representations of the child (the macrosystem) that inform the actions of societies and their governments (McGoldrick, Giordano, & Pearce, 1996).

Two conclusions may be drawn from the above model. First, that a general, parent education program, no matter how expertly developed, needs adaptation if it is to fit different milieus. The homes in our cities and countryside are nested in larger, more powerful relationship systems which differ considerably, particularly at meso-system (neighborhood) and exosystem (socio-economic context) levels. Second, the nesting of homes in neighborhood and socio-economic systems indicates that parent education cannot by itself solve the problems posed by poverty and demoralized communities. Parent education needs to be supported by adequate health, social and public education services, caring schools, outreach to parents, as well as by pathways into the mainstream economy.

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3.4 THE EXTENDED AMYGDALA

The extended amygdala is another basal forebrain functional-anatomical macrosystem that is slowly making its way into the general neuroscience textbooks. The concept of the extended amygdala originated with the rediscovery of pioneering comparative and developmental studies by J. B. Johnston (1923), who noted in studies of human embryos and lower vertebrates that the centromedial amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis form a continuum. Johnston also realized that columns or islands of cells forming a partly interrupted continuum are still evident in the stria terminalis in adult mammals, including humans. But Johnston's groundbreaking work was soon forgotten, until it was rediscovered and amplified by de Olmos (de Olmos and Ingram, 1972), who identified a histochemically distinct continuum in adult mammals comprising the centromedial amygdala, bed nucleus of stria terminalis, and similarly organized neural tissue extending between them within the sublenticular (subpallidal) part of the basalis region. The rediscovery of the extended amygdala is reviewed in Basic Science Box 3, and its importance as an output channel for the greater limbic lobe will be discussed in Chapter 5. Suffice it to say, as in the case of the ventral striatopallidal system, that the groundbreaking discovery of the subpallidal neuronal continuum between the amygdala and the bed nucleus of stria terminalis was made possible by a newly developed silver method-in this case, that of Jose de Olmos (1969), which for some reason has a specific chemical affinity for part of the extended amygdala.

BASIC SCIENCE BOX 3

Discovery of the Extended Amygdala

As just indicated the idea of a centromedial amygdala-bed nucleus of stria terminalis continuum, which originated with J. B. Johnston's pioneering studies almost a century ago, was quickly forgotten, in all likelihood because it proved difficult to identify and illustrate the attenuated cellular continuities between the centromedial amygdala and the bed nucleus of stria terminalis. An additional breakthrough was needed, and, as is often the case in neuroanatomy, it came with a histotechnical advance-in this case, in the form of de Olmos's (1969) cupric silver method. For some unknown reason the cupric-silver method exhibits chemical specificity for a special type of neuron and neuropil, restricted to the central amygdaloid nucleus, the lateral bed nucleus of stria terminalis, and identical neuronal elements bridging the gap between these two structures, not only in the sublenticular region as shown in Fig. A but also in the stria terminalis.

The sublenticular and supracapsular (within the stria terminalis) parts of the extended amygdala were subsequently detected in a number of mammals including the monkey and the human, using various tracer techniques and immunohistochemical methods (Alheid and Heimer, 1988; Alheid et al., 1995; Heimer et al., 1999; Martin et al., 1999; Alheid, 2003; McDonald, 2003; de Olmos, 2004). An impressive panoramic view of the sublenticular extended amygdala, illustrated in Fig. B, has been obtained in the monkey using autoradiography following injections of a radioactive tracer in the centromedial amygdala (see also Amaral et al., 1989).

Although the existence of a sublenticular extended amygdaloid continuum in the human has been described by several authors (de Olmos et al., 1985), it has been more difficult to obtain a panoramic view of this comparable to that obtained in the monkey, where the central extended amygdaloid continuum is nicely exposed in regular coronal sections. This is in part because the sublenticular extended amygdaloid components in the human are more widely separated by fiber bundles, as is reflected in the schematic drawing of the isolated extended amygdala in Fig. 3.10.

A somewhat similar situation exists in regard to the extended amygdaloid continuum within the stria terminalis-that is, the supracapsular extended amygdala. Many scientists, starting more than a century ago with Ziehen (1897), have described single cells and small clusters of cells in different parts of the stria terminalis in many mammals, including the human (Sanides, 1958; Strenge et al., 1977; Heimer et al., 1999), but it has been difficult to illustrate the extended amygdaloid continuum in the stria terminalis in a panoramic fashion. However, Alheid et al. (1998) were finally able to do this using immunohistochemical detection of MAP-2 (microtubule-associated protein type 2) in sections cut parallel to the plane of the stria terminalis. In these preparations, continuous columns of exended amygdaloid neurons, represented largely by the MAP-2 immunoreactive dendrites, were detected in the stria terminalis of the rat (Fig. C).

There is no denying the relative attenuation of the preceding continuums by comparison to the two major parts of the extended amygdala: the bed nucleus of stria terminalis and the centromedial amygdala. Nonetheless, these neuronal columns, however attenuated, evoke the image of a continuous ring-like structure, as illustrated in Fig. 3.10. Furthermore, it is important to realize that the existence of the extended amygdala as a macroanatomical basal forebrain structure, distinct from the striatopallidal system, is also based on additional criteria, including developmental, connectional, and histochemical (see previous references cited). Notwithstanding some transitional areas between the striatopallidal system and the extended amygdala-the caudomedial shell region of the accumbens being a prime example-prominent developmental, connectional, and histochemical features distinguish these two macrosystems, and the differences are bound to have functional consequences.

The extended amygdala has many distinct anatomical and histochemical characteristics, which distinguish it from surrounding areas and which have served as a basis for its identification in the brain of a large number of mammals, including the human (de Olmos, 1985, 2004; Martin et al., 1991; Heimer et al., 1999). Whereas the ventral striatopallidal system occupies the main rostral and subcommissural parts of the basalis region (Figs. 3.1A and B), the components of the extended amygdala, which are colored yellow and green in Fig. 3.1, are located more caudally, in the sublenticular part of the basalis region (Figs. 3.1C and D).

The best way to appreciate the three-dimensional structure of the extended amygdala is to imagine it isolated from the rest of the brain, as a ring formation encircling the internal capsule (Figs. 3.1D and 3.10). The term extended amygdala emphasizes the fact that the central and medial nuclei of the amygdala in the temporal lobe (Fig. 3.1D, Ce and Me in Fig. 3.10) are continuous rostrally and medially with the lateral and medial parts of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (Figs 3.1B and C, BSTL and BSTM in Fig. 3.10). The centromedial amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis are joined by cell groups or columns of neurons both alongside the stria terminalis (supracapsular bed nucleus of stria terminalis in Fig. 3.1D, BSTS/st in Fig. 3.10) and beneath the internal capsule and globus pallidus (sublenticular extended amygdala, Fig. 3.1C, SLEA in Fig. 3.10). The discovery of the extended amygdala is reviewed in Basic Science Box 3.

As indicated in the introduction to this chapter, one of the most obvious consequences of this paradigm shift in thinking about amygdalar organization is that the amygdala cannot be conceived of as a well-defined, uniform functional-anatomical unit restricted to the temporal lobe. To the contrary, it is absolutely essential to understanding the concept of the extended amygdala to realize that the cortical-like laterobasal complex and cortical nucleus of the amygdala (Fig. 3.10) are not part of the extended amygdala. This important consideration applies not only to the notion of the extended amygdala but also to fully appreciating the concept of the "greater limbic lobe," (to be discussed in Chapter 4), within which are included the laterobasal complex and cortical amygdaloid nucleus but not the centromedial amygdala. These fundamental organizational principles are consistent with Brockhaus's original subdivision of the amygdala into an "amydaleum proprium" and "supra-amygdaleum" (Brockhaus, 1938), and, likewise, they are consistent with the prescient work of Johnston (1923). Clearly, the concept of the extended amygdala was foreshadowed in the descriptions of the human brain by these pioneering neuroanatomists (Heimer et al., 1999).

The amygdala is widely recognized for its importance in emotional processing (Klüver and Bucy, 1937; Weiskrantz, 1956)-that is, for evaluating sensory stimuli in terms of their emotional and motivational significance (Gloor, 1997). The laterobasal-cortical amygdala, in particular, is characterized by multisensory input from higher-order cortical association areas and is therefore in an excellent position to serve as a "sensory-emotional" interface (Zald, 2003). The extended amygdala, in turn, receives much of its input from the laterobasal amygdala but also from other parts of the limbic lobe, and it is characterized by projections (Fig. 3.10) to hypothalamic and brainstem autonomic and somato-motor structures (primarily from the central extended amygdala in yellow color) and to the endocrine-related medial hypothalamus (primarily from the medial extended amygdala in green color). Thus, the extended amygdala, apparently, is a complex of effector systems-that is, "emotional-motor" interfaces, for some of the emotional circuits in the brain (Alheid and Heimer, 1988; Heimer et al., 1997). The prevailing view in the past had been that the bed nucleus of stria terminalis is above all a relay in the downstream projections from the centromedial amygdala. In the concept of the extended amygdala, however, the bed nucleus of stria terminalis and the centromedial amygdala are part of one and the same macrostructure and the outputs from both, and the intervening parts of the sublenticular region, are functionally comparable. Since extended amygdala is also characterized by very dense, intrinsic (short and long associative) connections, it represents a strategically placed effector complex capable of coordinating activities in multiple limbic lobe regions for the development of behavioral responses through its output channels (Alheid and Heimer, 1988; Heimer et al., 1999).

Extended amygdala is a hotbed for neuropeptides and neuropeptide receptors. Receptors (e.g., for vasopressin, oxytocin, androgens) and neuropeptides (e.g., cholecystokinin, angiotensin, somatostatin, neurotensin, opioid peptides) that have attracted special attention in neuropsychiatric disorders are highly characteristic for one or both of its divisions. It is also worth mentioning that CRF (corticotrophin-releasing factor) containing neurons, which are especially prominent in the central division of the extended amygdala, are highly relevant in physiologic responses to stress, which is generally considered to be an important contributing factor in many neuropsychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia, major depression, and anxiety disorders (see Basic Science Box 4).

BASIC SCIENCE BOX 4

The introduction of the concept of the extended amygdala has not proceeded entirely without resistance. Indeed, whether it is a useful idea at all was propelled into a heated debate upon the publication of a paper by Larry Swanson and his colleagues (Canteras et al., 1995). Although this debate was renewed many times subsequently (Heimer, 1997; Swanson and Petrovich, 1998; de Olmos and Heimer, 1999; Dong et al., 2001; Swanson, 2003; Alheid, 2003; Zahm et al., 2003), it seems appropriate to conclude this review of the extended amygdala with a summary of the major arguments. However, one might have thought that much of the steam would have dissipated from the controversy, since, as McDonald (2003) has indicated, "Golgi, immunohistochemical and tract tracing investigations conducted during the 1980s and the late 1970s corroborated Johnston's concept that the central and medial nuclei (of the amygdala) do extend rostromedially to become continuous with the BST (bed nucleus of stria terminalis)." In other words, if it is deemed useful to keep the terms central and medial amygdaloid nuclei as part of the neuroanatomical nomenclature (and everybody, including Swanson and his colleagues, do seem to use these terms to their advantage), and if everybody agrees with Johnston and McDonald that the central and medial amygdaloid nuclei extend rostromedially to become continuous with the bed nucleus of stria terminalis, the controversy surrounding the choice of the term extended amygdala for this continuum appears at first glance to be exaggerated.

According to Swanson and his collaborators, the centromedial amygdala and bed nucleus of stria terminalis are integral parts of the striatopallidal system, with centromedial amygdala representing a striatal structure and the bed nucleus of stria terminalis its pallidal target. As indicated by Alheid (2003), it may be appropriate to ask "what's in the name." Does it make sense, as suggested by Swanson (2003), to regard the centromedial amygdala as a striatal structure and the bed nucleus of stria terminalis as pallidum but qualify the viewpoint with the caveat that "limited regions of the former may be pallidal, and limited regions of the latter may be striatal"? Why not, then, just accept the centromedial amygdala-bed nucleus of stria terminalis continuum as a macroanatomical system in its own right? Both Alheid and Swanson reminded us of the fact that extensive morphological and histochemical similarities in regard to neuronal units and some of the major connections characterize all of the topographically distinct cortico-subcortical telencephalic systems. Alheid had already eloquently drawn attention to these similarities in 1988 (Alheid and Heimer, 1988) when he also included the septum-diagonal band nuclei in this comparison. Zahm (2003, 2006) has recently referred to these basic similarities as the "generalized corticofugal template," based on the original description of Alheid and Heimer (1988).

There is also general agreement that there are major differences between neurochemical and neuroanatomical organizations of the ventral striatopallidal system and the extended amygdala. Whereas the striatopallidum, including the ventral striatopallidal system, is widely known for its involvement in parallel cortico-subcortical reentrant circuits (Heimer et al., 1982; Alexander et al., 1986; Groenewegen et al., 1990; Zahm and Brog, 1992; Joel and Weiner, 1994), one of the distinguishing features of the extended amygdala is the massiveness of its system of internal associative connections (Alheid and Heimer, 1988). This and other characteristic features of the extended amygdala, which have been prominently reported in many publications, including a recent series of papers by Shammah-Lagnado et al. (Shammah-Lagnado, 1999; Shammah-Lagnado et al., 2000, 2001), provided the anatomical basis for the suggestion that the extended amygdala is well suited to coordinate activities of the many forebrain regions that project to this strategically placed ring formation (Heimer et al., 1999).

As regards long intrinsic connections, Swanson (2000) refers to a paper by Usuda et al. (1998), which, like a few other papers (Haber et al., 1990; Heimer et al., 1991; Van Dongen et al., 2005), has described intrastriatal association fibers. However, the relative scarcity and limited reach of such intrastriatal connections, compared to the dense and pervasive associative system within the extended amygdala, seem more like "exceptions that prove the rule"-in other words, that the striatopallido-thalamic projection systems are above all characterized by a "narrow topography" (Alheid, 2003).

As for histochemical differences between the ventral striatopallidal system and the extended amygdala, a large number of receptors and neuroactive substances that characterize one or both subdivisions of the extended amygdala (central and medial) are more or less absent in the ventral striatopallidal system. Especially significant in this context is the nearly complete absence of parvalbumin immunoreactive interneurons in the extended amygdala, in comparison to their common occurrence in the striatum, including the ventral striatum (Zahm et al., 2003). Such neurons are a critical determinant of striatal electrophysiology (Koos and Tepper, 1999).

Swanson and his colleagues (Alvarez-Bolado et al., 1995; Swanson, 2000, 2003) have argued that the centromedial amygdala and bed nucleus of stria terminali are derived from the lateral ganglionic eminence (their "striatal" ridge) and medial ganglionic eminence (their "pallidal" ridge), respectively. Our published commentary on this issue (Heimer et al., 1997), however, noted that Song and Harlan (1993, 1994) and Bulfone et al. (1993) report a common origin for much of the extended amygdala, a notion that received additional support from another developmental study (Nery et al., 2002) in which the authors conclude that the centromedial amygdala, bed nucleus of stria terminalis and caudal accumbens derive from a caudal ganglionic eminence, that they regard as distinct from both the medial and the lateral ganglionic eminence. This study, likewise, revealed that only a very small percentage of the cells derived from what they refer to as the caudal ganglionic eminence (the apparent origin for the extended amygdala) express parvalbumin, which is consistent with Zahm's observation discussed in the previous paragraph.

Considering the above-mentioned differences between the extended amygdala and the ventral striatopallidal system, and with special consideration of the above-mentioned developmental studies, it is difficult to argue that these differences are insignificant. But the fact remains-and this point has been acknowledged on both sides of this controversy (Alheid in 1988, Swanson in 2000)-that the global structure of the cortico-subcortical telencephalic relationships (the "generalized corticofugal template") is similar for striatopallidum, extended amygdala, and septal-preoptic system (see Chapter 5). It is also safe to conclude that this dispute will serve to facilitate our understanding of this part of the brain in the sense that the debate will likely stimulate the execution of additional studies designed to reveal additional features of these macrosystems, as well as further differentiations and subdivisions within the systems. In the meantime, it appears that a growing number of scientists have accepted the extended amygdala, for example, as a useful concept in investigations of drug addiction (Koob and Le Moal, 2006) and several other specific emotional and motivational behaviors ranging from fear and anxiety to sexual and appetitive behavior (McGinty, 1999).

Thus, a large number of intriguing functional-anatomical and pharmacological correlations support the potential relevance of the extended amygdala in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders. Scientists advancing theories of drug abuse and addiction have focused their interest on the large forebrain continuum represented by the extended amygdala and the shell of the accumbens (Koob, 1999). The recent focus on the bed nucleus of stria terminalis and its potential role in fear, stress, and anxiety (Walker et al., 2003), furthermore, is likely to facilitate the acceptance of the extended amygdala as a theory of great practical and heuristic value in the appreciation of emotional behavior and neuropsychiatric disorders.

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Influential Levels and Methods of Curriculum Evaluation

Curriculum evaluation is influential on four different levels: societal or macro (system, nation, or state), institutional or meso (school), instructional (classroom) or micro (classroom), and individual or nano. In each case, the evaluation questions differ, as do the purposes and methodologies used. Typically, on the macro and meso levels, evaluation questions are oriented toward curricular policy, accountability and judgmental issues, aiming to construct general knowledge in the form of best practices and prescriptive models. On the micro and nano levels in contrast, curriculum evaluation often concentrates mainly on the unique characteristics of the curriculum in specific contexts, and relates to curricular needs, processes, and outcomes, as well as the webs of its contextual relationships in order to generate contextual knowledge in the form of lessons learned and principles.

Methodologically, when embedded in a positivist worldview, mostly within the instrumental orientation, curriculum evaluation applies methods and techniques to obtain objective and generalizable facts. Mandating a rigorous separation of facts and values and aiming to generalize and predict, the inquiry process adopts a clinical distance, which we usually find in the more traditional research approaches, often applying the same methods as in controlled life science experiments. The main procedures are asking questions, developing a study design, defining variables, developing instruments, collecting data as objectively as possible, analyzing data, and arriving at conclusions or recommendations through a process of synthesis. In these processes, there is substantial emphasis on achieving precision, reliability, and validity. The typical inquiry methods focus mainly on quantifiable indicators of success and failure. Within the adaptive situated orientation, some methods also incorporate qualitative measures, particularly in the descriptive part of the evaluation, and case analysis is also likely to be performed (Stake, 1995).

In terms of the emerging and emancipatory orientation, however, since the evaluation process is designed to learn from events as they occur and to help promote and accelerate change, the methodological mindset accepts the fact that prior to an investigation one cannot know all it will entail or uncover. The methods therefore become part of a continuous interplay with new emerging data as the data collection and analysis progresses. The key processes of the evaluative inquiry in this context are: asking questions; identifying and challenging values, assumptions, and beliefs; reflection; dialogue; collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data; action planning and implementation (Preskill and Preskill, 1997). Qualitative and quantitative measurement can both be applied depending on the specific issues investigated (Stake, 2004). The data is not objective but understood in terms that invoke the interpreters' values. Informal logic thus guides the evaluation methodology within the emerging and emancipatory culture, countering formal logic within the inductive-deductive framework of the instrumental orientation to curriculum evaluation (Scriven, 1994).

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The basal forebrain macrosystems

Besides the frontal networks, the description of the basal forebrain and brainstem macrosystems with which the FLs sustain privileged connections compounded another important mesocircuit development ( Saper, 1987). The basal forebrain macrosystems are distributed along a longitudinal midline extension of neural tissue that lies underneath the intercommissural plane between the olfactory tubercle and the isthmus of the brainstem. They make up one of the most complex regions of the brain, whose anatomy has been elucidated only in the past few decades (Heimer et al., 1991). These macrosystems encompass (a) the ventral striopallidum, (b) the extended amygdala, and (c) the septo-preoptic-hypothalamic continuum (Heimer et al., 1999). These systems are recipients of ascending projections originating in discrete brainstem nuclei that are responsible for setting the fundamental states of mind and behavior, such as approach-avoidance tendencies (Moll et al., 2012) and sleep-wake cycles (Fischer et al., 2016). The basal forebrain macrosystems have eventually taken over the once fashionable "limbic system" concept, which has never been clearly defined in either anatomic or functional terms (Heimer, 2008). This "new anatomy" (de Oliveira-Souza et al., 2011) disentangles a number of paradoxes, such as the occurrence of a "classic frontal lobe syndrome" in cases of encephalitis (Poeck and Pilleri, 1965) and other pathologic processes of the basal forebrain (Flynn et al., 1988; Gorman and Cummings, 1992) and brainstem (Omar et al., 2007) in which the FLs are anatomically spared (Fig. 16.1).

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Practice

At the heart of social justice advocacy is the commitment to influencing factors across the macrosystem, including societal values and sociopolitical structures and policies. Yet, this should not preclude health service psychologists from introducing advocacy efforts at the micro-level in their direct interactions with clients. Therefore, the tenets of social justice advocacy work invite several meaningful implications for individual therapy practice. According to Goodman et al. (2004), social justice advocacy work can permeate the individual therapy context via the application of key six principles from multicultural and feminist theories: (a) ongoing self-examination, (b) power sharing, (c) giving voice, (d) cultivating critical consciousness, (e) fostering patient strengths, and (f) empowering clients with tools to work toward social change. For example, increasing clients' critical consciousness can cultivate healing by reducing clients' tendencies to internalize self-blame (French et al., 2019); as they become more aware of how their lives are impacted by oppression and marginalization, they can come to show themselves compassion when they encounter setbacks and obstacles. Critical consciousness is also believed to facilitate psychological liberation from oppressive forces, which is essential for members from marginalized groups. Health service psychologists could also help clients develop skills to pursue social change efforts via assertiveness training, role playing, and behavioral rehearsal. Additionally, principle (f) highlights the value of partaking in a collaborative, community-based process that involves engaging consumers as stakeholders (Marshall Lee et al., 2019). This can look like including key stakeholders in medical decision-making and in mental health service delivery. Although these strategies are not replacements for necessary efforts to enact macrosystemic change, they do reflect how social justice principles, such as equity of services, access to services, and equitable participation, can be implemented in individual therapy.

Feminist ideologies have touted that meaningful engagement involves working mutually with consumers to end power differentials (Cornwall and Jewkes, 1995). Therefore, one way to infuse social justice advocacy into the therapy domain is to promote psychologist-consumer exchanges that explore implicit and explicit challenges, such as discrimination, stigma, and financial, food, housing, and employment insecurities. Encouraging empowerment self-agency, acknowledging power differentials and perceived inequities, and working collaboratively with individual consumers to remove barriers to optimal mental and physical health treatment can result in longstanding positive change.

Psychological advocacy in practice at the macro-level can focus on policy initiatives aimed at reducing the social determinates of physical and mental health. The World Health Organization (WHO) describes the social determinants of health as the environments in which people "are born, grow, live, work, and age" and suggests these determinants are influenced by the allocation of money, power, and resources. When considering physical and mental health as determined by these societal conditions, macro-level governmental law and policy making responsibility for policy impact on health and health equity is substantial. These efforts should be drafted to create sustainable vocational, educational, residential, financial, legal, and mental health programs. Psychologists can be involved with lobbying, political representation, and grassroots efforts aimed at improving governmental mental and physical health policies.

By virtue of their training, psychologists are uniquely positioned to establish collaborative relationships that respect compromise and diverse perspectives. They must become personally involved in policy to affect change and can do so by putting these skills to work. Cultivating relationships with legislators in a consistent and intentional manner in addition to opening themselves up to entering the political arena and engaging in debate can lead to influential change (Lorion and Iscoe, 1996).

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Bronfenbrenner (1979, 1986, 1995) has proposed a socio-ecological model of child development that is helpful in considering child-rearing practices in different cultural contexts. Although the model has recently been expanded to include biological influences (Bronfenbrenner, 1995; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1997), we will limit consideration to the socio-ecological model as shown in Figure 1 .

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Similarities and Differences between Macrosystems and Microsystems?

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Similarities and Differences between Macrosystems and Microsystems?

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Similarities are that microsystems dump into Macrosystems everyday and are involved greatly. You can be the head of a Macrosystem and still be a part of many Microsystems including like your family or friend group. The difference is that the two are extremely different from each other when it comes to what is at risk when there is a huge disagreement in a Macrosystem (for example) compared to a disagreement in a Microsystem. People don't realize when a Microsystem is broken apart but when a Macrosystem is broken apart it becomes National News. This source really helped me understand how small groups of people dump into bigger groups every single day of there lives without even noticing it.

https://study.com/academy/answer/what-is-the-difference-between-a-macrosystem-and-an-exosystem.html

https://findanyanswer.com/what-is-the-difference-between-microsystem-and-macrosystem

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Why are Macrosystem and Microsystem important to each other?

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Why are Macrosystem and Microsystem important to each other?

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People don't seem to realize how much the two systems rely on each other everyday. Without Macrosystems, some microsystems then become homeless or out of a job. And without Microsystems, all Macrosystems lose there employees or shareholders. The two wouldn't be able to operate without the two groups relying on each other and blending in every single second of the day. This source was helpful because i was able to compare and contrast the both systems and breakdown differences and similarities.

https://thesportjournal.org/article/21st-century-sport-microsystem-or-macrosystem/

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Authors: Dean Culpepper & Lorraine Killion

Corresponding Author:
Dean Culpepper, Ph.D.
P.O. Box 3011
Commerce, TX 75429
dean.culpepper@tamuc.edu
903.886.5573

Dean Culpepper is an Assistant Professor at Texas A&M University-Commerce in the Health and Human Performance Department and Lorraine Killion is an Associate Professor at Texas A&M University-Kingsville in the Health and Physical Education Department. Both are active as Sport Psychology Consultants working with elite athletes and teams to increase human performance.
21st Century Sport: Microsystem or Macrosystem?
ABSTRACT
The culture of sport is well defined, and its impact on individuals and cultures can be studied by using an Ecological Systems Theory (ES) approach. ES was developed by Uri Bronfenbrenner to name how particular contexts and their processes overlap, influence, and are influenced by individual members (3, 4, 5). Sport has traditionally been viewed as a microsystem in ES. Sport and the structure of sport have taken on a new character with self-perpetuating motivations and thus may no longer be set apart (16) for individuals live in Sport all the time. The purpose of this research was to examine moral reasoning across groups and settings to support the shift from sport as set aside to an all-pervasive environment. 315 subjects completed a demographic form, the Hahm-Beller Values Choice Inventory, and the DIT-2. Qualitative follow-up interviews were then conducted among groups to determine themes. A MANOVA (Wilks' Lambda=.430, p

Keywords: sport macrosystem, sport moral reasoning, twenty-four hour sport

INTRODUCTION
A young person growing up does not live in a single value world, rather in multiple value worlds which often overlap and collide. Rather than one distinct and clear message, there are multiple messages conveyed, some in agreement yet many in conflict. Developmental psychologist Uri Bronfenbrenner developed a language of ecologies to name how particular contexts and their processes overlap, influence, and are influenced by individual members (3, 4, 5).

Ecological Systems now referred to as Bioecological System Theory (BST) was formulated to explain how the inherent qualities of a child and the characteristics of the external environment (which the child finds himself) interact to influence how the child will grow and develop. Through his theory, Bronfenbrenner stressed the importance of studying a child in the context of his multiple environments, also known as ecological systems in the attempt to understand his individual development (4, 19).

A child finds himself simultaneously enmeshed in different ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological system moving outward to the larger school system and the most expansive system which is society and culture. Each of these systems inevitably interacts with and influence each other and every aspect of the child's life (4, 19). The BST organizes contexts of development into five levels of external force which interlock. The levels are categorized from the most intimate level to the broadest, with the most intimate being the microsystem (19).

The microsystem is the smallest and most immediate environment in which the child lives. As such, the microsystem comprises the daily home, school or daycare, peer group or community environment of the child. Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family members, classmates, teachers and caregivers, in which influences go back and forth. How these groups or individuals interact with the child will affect how the child grows (19). Similarly, how the child reacts to people in his microsystem will also influence how they treat the child in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and relationships will understandably foster the child's improved development (4, 19).

The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which the developing child finds himself a part of. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as such, involves linkages between home and school, between peer group and family, or between family and church (19). If a child's parents are actively involved in the friendships of their child, invite friends over to their house and spend time with them, then the child's development is affected positively through harmony and like-mindedness. However, if the child's parents dislike their child's peers and openly criticize them, then the child experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, probably affecting his development negatively (4,19).

The exosystem, on the other hand, pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings, one of which may not contain the developing child but affects him indirectly nonetheless. For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an indifferent boss at the workplace may take it out on his children and mistreat them at home (19,4).

The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the child that still exercises significant influence on the child (19). It is composed of the child's cultural patterns and values, specifically the child's dominant beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems (4). According to Boemmel and Briscoe (1) and Ryan, et al. (13), the macrosystem has a cascading influence on the interactions of the other systems. This influence can be seen through the effective collaboration between parents (home environment) and teachers (school environment). Nitzbert (20) further explored the integration of the child to family, school, and the community, with the community emphasizing social relationships through social affiliations.
This model is helpful in demonstrating a young person's exposure to multiple sets of values and is no more apparent than in the world that young adults live in today with the influence of sport. According to Bronfenbrenner, individual lives within multiple microsystems, each of which has proximal processes (language, interactions, and practices) by which members interact and so learn the lessons of the ecology (i.e., play, love, math, reading, competition, or teamwork) (8) . Each microsystem is influenced by its macrosystem. The macrosystem is the overarching patterns of several microsystems; thus football is a microsystem in the macrosystem of NCAA athletics.

However, sport, with the rise of 24 hour ESPN and non-stop coverage, may be more than a microsystem (14). Sport and the structure of sport have taken on a new character with self-perpetuating motivations and thus may no longer be set apart (16) for individuals live in Sport all the time. This is certainly true with athletes who have shown lower scores on moral reasoning tests (14). If sport is becoming a macrosystem, then similar scores should appear in other microsystems similar to sport. These include the management of sport, kinesiology, or other academic areas in which sport is the primary focus (15).

The purpose of this research was to examine whether sport has taken on the characteristics of a macrosystem by examining sport moral reasoning and general moral reasoning across groups and settings.

METHOD
Instruments
The DIT-2 is a device for activating moral schemas (to the extent that a person has developed them) and for assessing these schemas regarding importance judgments. The DIT -2 has dilemmas and standard items, and the subject's task is to rate and rank the items regarding their moral influence. Validity for the DIT has been assessed regarding seven criteria cited in over 400 published articles (12, 17, 18). Reliability-Cronbach's alpha is in the upper .70s / low .80s. Test-retest reliability is about the same. The DIT-2 scores are significantly correlated with developmental capacity measures of Moral Comprehension.

The Hahm-Beller Values Choice Inventory (HBVCI) is designed to evaluate moral reasoning in the sport milieu. Participants read twenty-one short standard sport scenarios and assess each situation based on a five point Likert Scale from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree. The HBVCI is the only inventory specifically focused on sport and developed using moral theory as a guide (6). To date, over 80,000 individuals have been assessed using the HBVCI from ninth grade through adult populations, including longitudinal studies at the United States Military Academy at West Point, the Air Force Academy at Colorado Springs, to youth, interscholastic, and intercollegiate athletes and coaches and the general non-competitive population (6). The HBVCI has a high reliability and validity, with reported Cronbach alphas from .74 to .88 (9).

Participants
The study was approved by the university's Institutional Review Board and subjects signed a consent form before data collection. Subjects were recruited and put into one of three groups, control (majors other than sport science), sport science majors, and athletes. A total of 315 (N=315; 174 females, 141 males, and 63 athletes) participated in the study.

Procedures
Subjects completed a demographic form, DIT-2, and the Hahm-Beller Values Choice Inventory (HBVCI). Athletes were administrated the survey in both their athletic team setting and in a classroom setting outside of sport or sport classes. Qualitative follow-up interviews were then conducted among groups to determine themes.

RESULTS
Demographic information is listed in Table 1, and descriptive data for the scales is listed in Table 2. A MANOVA (Wilks' Lambda=.430, p<.005> Qualitative interviews revealed that athletes and Sport Science majors spent similar amounts of time thinking, watching, reading, exercising, and discussing sport.

CONCLUSIONS
Athletes and Sport Science Majors scored significantly lower on both sport moral reasoning (HBVCI) and conventional moral reasoning (DIT-2) than the control group. The scores for the athletes are comparable to prior research conducted by Hahm, Beller, & Stoll (10) as well as the control group in this study. This study; however, looked at the inclusion of Sport Science majors after controlling for athletic participation and found that these majors scored the same as athletes on both surveys regarding moral reasoning. While not necessarily surprising, these findings tend to support the idea that being involved in a sport culture may have the same effect as athletes who participate in competition. Research has established that a steady decline in moral reasoning occurs the longer an athlete stays in competition. This study found the same effect by being involved in a sport culture where it becomes a macrosystem which instills cultural beliefs in an individual. These findings may suggest that those involved in sport (whether participating in it or studying it) are operating in a milieu differently from those who are not. They are functioning in an all-pervasive structure or meaning-making system that does shape and has formed how they reason morally. Thus separating oneself from the structure of sport may be challenging and since it is acting as a macrosystem. If sport was just a microsystem, then it suggests both athletes and those who study sport may score differently in an environment outside of sport.

DISCUSSION
The laws of the Macrosystem determine culture and beliefs, and these beliefs may manifest themselves in illegal gains, strategies, and actions all perceived to be legal. We have not adequately examined the entire picture of the current competitive model and suffer a blindness to the hard, real facts that a Sport Macrosystem promotes the, "If I don't get caught, it isn't wrong" mentality. The professional world of sport is vast and long reaching. Future research should further examine moral reasoning and the macrosystem in executives of sport leagues, teams, and other well-defined business structures.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT
The Sport Macrosystem has the potential to move in directions that are not anticipated if it is not addressed. This becomes especially true if athletes ignore and officials can't enforce rules and regulation. There have been studies and educational resources to address these concerns such as Winning with Character (2). Yet the focus should be on a comprehensive plan in both physical education and youth sports. Physical Education can provide a cultural and supporting environment that is supportive and reinforces positive behavior. Youth sports need to address the behaviors of professional athletes where professionalism and amateurism can be addressed and discussed, and a clear distinction has to be made. Coaches in youth sport can help in these areas since research (11) has shown that an unequal balance of strength and power can result in serious long-term consequences. Research of bullying and negative behavior in schools has been documented (7, 11). These negative behaviors seen in schools could contribute and manifest to the darker sides of sports.

REFERENCES
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21st Century Sport: Microsystem or Macrosystem?

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Authors: Dean Culpepper & Lorraine Killion Corresponding Author: Dean Culpepper, Ph.D. P.O. Box 3011 Commerce, TX 75429 dean.culpepper@tamuc.edu 903.886.5573 Dean Culpepper is an Assistant Professor at Texas A&M University-Commerce in the Health and Human Performance Department and Lorraine Killion is an Associate Professor at Texas A&M University-Kingsville in the Health and Physical Education Department.