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1. Identified some of the techniques used in the field of biotechnology and genomics.

Gene therapy- imputing different genes in place of ineffective ones to make it behave or react differently.
DNA cloning- making multiple replicas of one set of DNA, there is no change in DNA, the product is an exact replica of the first organism.
Gel electrophoresis- This is used to seperate DNA and RNA mixtures according to their size.
source- https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/biotechnology/a/intro-to-biotechnology

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1. Summarized the levels of control of gene expression in eukaryotic cells.

The levels are split into two, Transcription and Translation.
Transcription- The copying of genetic information that are used to be translated by RNA.
Translation- when mRNA is translation into proteins.
source- https://www.diffen.com/difference/Transcription_vs_Translation#:~:text=Transcription%20is%20the%20synthesis%20of,acid%20sequence%20in%20a%20protein.

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1. Identified the mechanisms used to regulate prokaryotic genes.

A number of things are used to regulate prokayotic genes, such as regulatory proteins, and chemical modification. These can help control a DNA's timing.

source-https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Gene-Regulation#:~:text=Definition&text=Gene%20regulation%20is%20the%20process,and%20chemical%20modification%20of%20DNA.

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1. Described the structure of the eukaryotic chromosome and how it is packaged inside a nucleus.

The structure of a eukaryotic chromosome is linear, to make this shape the DNA is heavily condensed into a linear shape by using histones. The DNA is wrapped tightly around them in order to fit into the nucleus.

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1. Examined the different roles of tRNA, mRNA and rRNA in the central dogma of molecular biology.

tRNA- this is the transfer RNA, it transfers the amino acids to the ribosome where translation takes place.

mRNA- this is the messenger RNA, it provides the template for the tanslation.

rRNA- this RNA provides the production of ribosomes.

source- https://byjus.com/neet/difference-between-mrna-trna-and-rrna/#:~:text=mRNA%20provides%20a%20template%20for,forms%20ribosomes%20along%20with%20proteins.

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Examined the central dogma of molecular biology, and thus be able to identify the amino acids sequence from a strand of DNA

The central dogma is the fact that genetic information always goes from DNA to RNA to protein.

The amino acid sequence goes as followed,
DNA-  A-t, G-C
RNA-  A-U, G-C

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1. Examined the steps involved in the replication of DNA in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Eukaryotes- DNA is unzipped with helicase, then the polymerase pairs the bases together with their complimentary base, Lyase puts the new strand and old strands together ending with two strands of DNA. (one half new, one half old)

Prokaryotes-  The DNA is first unzipped, although it happens in small origins unlike Eukaryotes. DNA polymerase matches the base pairs together, then gyrase is used to put the strands together resulting in 2 DNA stands. (half new half old)
source- https://byjus.com/biology/difference-between-prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-replication/

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1. Identified the chemical structure of DNA as defined by the Watson and Crick model, including the historical significance of its discovery.

Watson and Crick described the structure of DNA as two strands bound together to form a double helix, these bonds contain bases that are complimentary to the base on the other side.
This discovery was highly important because it helped biologist see how genetic information is spread.

Source- https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1962/speedread/

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1. Explained Mendel’s law of separation and law of independent assortment.

Law of Separation- states that each parent gives an repressive or dominant allele to make a diploid offspring gene.

Independent Assortment- States that offspring are given their alleles from each parent at random during crossing over.

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1. Explained the inheritance pattern of traits when more than two alleles for the trait exist; including incomplete dominance, codominance, sex linked traits, pleiotropy and polygenic traits.

When one or two traits exist, the trait that has the dominant allele is shown.

Incomplete dominance- When no trait masks the other and instead both are shown in a mixture.

Codominance-  When both traits are shown and can be seen at the same time.

Sex Linked traits- Traits that can only be present in sex chromosomes. Traits can be determined when looking at the X or Y chromosomes.
source- https://byjus.com/biology/difference-between-incomplete-dominance-and-codominance/#:~:text=Codominance%20and%20Incomplete%20dominance%20are,effects%20of%20a%20recessive%20allele.

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1. Constructed and used a Punnett square to genotypic ratios of offspring.

The Punnett square can be used to determine the genotype and phenotype of offspring, by crossing both of the parent's genotypes together.

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1. Described Gregor Mendel’s experiments and why he is considered the “father of genetics”.

Gregory Mendel's pea plant showed how dominant and recessive alleles determine an organism's phenotype. His experiment consisted of two different pea plants with different dominant traits, then breeding them together to see what traits the offspring had.

source- https://www.michigan.gov/explorelabscience/-/media/Project/Websites/explorelabscience/pdf/Lab-Teens-pdf/Gregor_Mendel_Pea_Experiment.pdf?rev=a9d1df30f6b8461b963948b367bf2d99&hash=C1217C490A1F4C8F7AB6284B1251AD03#:~:text=His%20first%20step%20was%20to,the%20offspring%20inherited%20the%20traits.

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1. Examined any changes in the chromosomal structure and number.

-During the cell cycle, DNA is condensed into chromosomes, eukaryotic ones are linear and  prokaryotic ones are circular.
Meiosis goes from diploid to haploid, ending with half the number of chromosomes at the start.

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1. Contrasted the differences between mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis- Only uses somatic cells, the two product daughter cells are identical to the first cell, only goes through the cell cycle once per replication.
Mitosis- Only uses Gamete cells, has a product of 4 daughter cells, each daughter cell is genetically different than the parent cell. Goes through the cell cycle PMAT twice.

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1. Examined how crossing over and independent assortment contribute to genetic variation.

Crossing over/ Independent assortment allows different genetic information from two different parent to make a mix of genotypes and phenotypes. Each offspring is different when made with sexual reproduction, due to crossing over.

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1. Compared and contrasted the effects of asexual and sexual reproduction on genetic variation.

Asexual reproduction- no genetic variation, does not create diversity, safer than sexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction- favors genetic variation, creates diversity in an ecosystem, riskier than asexual reproduction.

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1. Described the phases of meiosis and the major events that occur during each phase.

Prophase 1- nuclear envelope disappears chromatids go near the poles. DNA is condensed
Metaphase 1- Chromosomes are lined up in the center of the cell. Crossing over occurs here.
Anaphase- Chromatid are pulled apart towards opposite  sides of the cell.
Telephase- Nuclear envelope forms around the separated chromatin.

Prophase 2-  Chromosomes are condensed and pulled near the poles.
Metaphase 2- Chromosomes are lined up at the center side by side.
Anaphase2 -Chromatids are split and pulled to the poles of the cell.
Telophase 2 - Nuclear envelope forms around the chromatin.

source- https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/heredity/meiosis-and-genetic-diversity/a/phases-of-meiosis#:~:text=In%20meiosis%20II%2C%20the%20sister,cells%20with%20non%2Dduplicated%20chromosomes.&text=Prophase%20II%3A%20Starting%20cells%20are,opposite%20ends%20of%20the%20cell.

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1. Distinguished between the structure of a prokaryotic and eukaryotic chromosome.

Prokaryotic- single circular chromosomes on the cell membrane
Eukaryotic- Linear and located within the nucleus.

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1. Described the basic characteristics of a cancer cell.

Cancer cells are unhealthy cells that haven't matured, they reproduce at a high rate uncontrollably, this uncontrolled growth can be cause by a change in DNA.

source- https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/understanding/what-is-cancer#:~:text=Cancer%20is%20a%20disease%20caused,are%20also%20called%20genetic%20changes.

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1. Summarized and identified the major events that occur during mitosis and cytokinesis.

The major events that happen during mitosis and cytokineses nclude,

-Dna condensing in prophase
-Chromosomes are lined up vertically
-Chromatin are pulled apart and moved to opposite poles.
-Nuclear envelope is reformed
- In cytokines, the cytoplasm is split into two.

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1. Explored the process of apoptosis.

-Apoptosis, also known as cell death is what gets rid of cells our bodies don't want or need. The cell's components break down and the nucleus is destroyed.

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1. Explained the steps of the cell cycle and the stages involved in each step; including interphase and mitotic stage.

Interphase- Interphase includes three steps, G1, S, and G2 phase.
In G1 phase nutrients needed for cell growth are accumulated. In the S phase (synthesis phase) DNA is replicated in order to make an identical cell. Lastly in the G2 phase, this is the second growth phase for the cell, a nuclear envolope is formed around the nucleus.

Mitosis- Mitosis is seperated into 4 stages,
Prophase- chromosome head toward the poles and DNA is condensed.
Metaphase- Chromosomes are lined up at the center of the cell.
Anaphase- Chomatins are pulled apart and drawn towards the poles.
Telophase- A new nuclear envolope is formed and the membrane is separated.

sorces- https://www.albert.io/blog/g1-g2-phases-cell-cycle/#:~:text=So%2C%20what%20happens%20in%20G2,of%20all%20eukaryotes%20and%20prokaryotes.