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Coming from a poor background, Charles Finney was originally planning to become a lawyer and enter the middle class, however, after an intense religious experience, Finney decided to enter the ministry.

Finney conducted sermons and revivals that stressed the importance of conversion and preached that God would welcome anyone who accepted the Holy Spirit.

Finney’s main argument was that man was a moral free agent who could choose to be saved.

His welcoming ideas accelerated the Protestant Revival and the Second Great awakening.

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Evangelism was a response to the enlightenment ideas of rationalism over emotion and spirit.

It was a branch of Christinaity that directly clashed with the Calvinist ideas or predestination by stating that anybody who believed the atonement of their sins by Jesus Christ would be saved, regardless of background.

This notion greatly accelerated the Second Great Awakening as more people were motivated to convert.

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The Second Great Awakening transformed America into a Christian society,

Sects and denominations began the revival by spreading their message of salvation throughout New England and later, some of the southern regions.

These electrifying revivals and their preachers reshaped the spiritual landscape throughout America, using messages of fellowship.

These revivals converted many nonbelievers into devout followers of the Christian religion.

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The Second Great Awakening cemented America as a Christian nation. As revivals sparked up around the country, both North and South, many were converted to the idea of Evangelism.

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Dix’s traumatic childhood experiences with an abusive father lead her to become a young woman with a strong sense of moral purpose.

As a result, she set out to improve some of America’s public institutions, namely the schools.

She also became a successful author, writing about social issues and moral improvement.

Dix also prompted the establishment of mental asylums when she discovered that insane women were jailed. Due to her efforts, many states improved their prisons and public hospitals.

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Horace Mann was a prominent advocate for the increasing of elementary education along with better quality of education.

As the secretary of the Board of Education for Massachusetts, he lengthened the school year and established a curriculum of math, reading, and writing that is still used to this day.

This movement to improve public education was largely supported by women, whom Mann hired as teachers and educators.

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Educational Advances and Prison Reform p. 367

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Educational Advances and Prison Reform p. 367

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The 19th Century was a time of reform and along with abolitionism and women's rights, America had a lot to reform when it came to education and public institutions such as hospitals and prisons. This changed America forever as the nation started becoming more grounded and developing its own identity.

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Lucretia Mott, along with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, organized the Seneca falls convention.

She, similar to Stanton, was an early abolitionist. Mott was a quaker and later became a women’s rights activist when she was excluded from the World Anti-Slavery Convention due to her being a woman.

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Stanton was the well educated daughter of a prominent New York judge.

She was the mother of 7 children.

Stanton was a prominent abolitionist and advocate of women’s rights, making her a notable reformer

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The declaration of Sentiments was in a way, a parody of the Declaration of Independence. It emphasized the irony in the Declaration of Independence that promised an egalitarian republican ideology in the new nation to all men but somehow, women were excluded.

This document asserted that women were equal contributors to society and as a result, the rights that men hold should be extended to women as well.

Through this document,the Seneca Falls reformers, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucrecia Mott rejected the notion that women were inferior.

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In 1848, women’s rights activists Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucrieta Mott organized a convention for women’s rights activists in Seneca Falls, New York.

A total of seventy women and thirty men attended the Seneca Falls convention.

They wanted to extend to women the egalitarian republican ideology written in the Constitution. One such right was the right of suffrage.

Despite their efforts, many men dismissed the convention as nonsense and even many women rejected the message.

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As reform movements such as abolitionism, temperance, and transcendentalism grew, women were at the forefront of many of these movements. They soon realized that they did not have equal rights in the nation and soon, the fight for women's rights began which is still going on today, with the debate on bodily autonomy and the wage gap.

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Native New Yorkers took alarm as the waves of German and Irish immigrants started coming in, and they organized the nativist movement whose goal was to push back the immigrants and advocate for anti-immigrant measures.

They mounted a cultural and political resistance against the immigrants. B’hoys assaulted Irish youth in the streets of New York while employers denied jobs to both German and Irish immigrants and the temperance movement picked up steam to denounce the German fondness of beer.

In 1644, the Republican and Whig parties also took advantage of voters by focusing on the issues of temperance, anti-Catholicism, and Nativism.

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A wave of German and Irish immigrants flooded over to the United States and by the 1850s, they were a major presence throughout the American Northeast.

New York in particular had been the center of the Protestant revival, otherwise known as the Second Great Awakening and as a result, there was major resistance throughout New York against these immigrants who were Catholic.

The Democratic party also gave these immigrants a foothold in domestic politics.

The Nativist party grew as a response to fears of these immigrants potentially disrupting the social, political, and economic state of America, and they thought that the interests of the established inhabitants should come first.

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The Know-Nothing Party was an American political party that gained particular prominence and relevance in the 1850s, as a result of growing anti-immigrant and anti-Catoholic sentiments.

As an influx of German and Irish immigrants appeared in America, many Americans feared that they would pose a threat to the economic and political security of Protestan America.

The party was inherently nativist and when members of the party were asked about their allegiance, they were told to reply that they knew nothing, hence their name.

They eventually were established as a true political party, being renamed the American party and they pushed for anti-immigration reform legislation. However, as sectional tension boiled over in the mid 1850s, the party dissolved as there was internal turmoil, especially regarding the issue of slavery.

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Immigration and Nativism in Cities p. 356-357

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Immigration and Nativism in Cities p. 356-357

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Due to conflicts in Europe, a wave of German and Irish immigrants came to America in the early to mid-1800s. These immigrants changed the culture of America forever as they brought foreign culture to the relatively new America, cementing the nation as a home for many cultures. However, at first, these immigrants were met with harsh xenophobia and racism.

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Commercialized Sex grew particularly quickly as people transitioned from living in rural settings to living in urban areas.

Women who were having a hard time getting by with simple jobs often turned to prostitution as an extra source of income. By the 1850s, there were around five hundred brothels in New York alone.

This new outlook on sex also influenced men to engage freely in sex, even while married. Married men kept mistresses in separate apartments while “sporting men” were free to have sex with anybody they chose. Illicit sex soon became seen as a right for men.

Commercialized sex in urban settings also had other implications, men were more eager to form homoerotic relationships. It even affected the style of clothes people began wearing in the cities.

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The temperance movement was a social reform campaign that aimed to reduce America’s drinking. It started around the early 1800s.

The movement had a variety of causes such as religious sentiments, general concern for social ills, and physical health considerations, making it appealing to many average middle-class people.

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In 1834, the Female Moral Reform Society was formed and Lydia Finney, the wife of revivalist Charles Grandison Finney, as its leader.

This society aimed to curb the growth of prostitution and to protect single women from corruption. In addition to this, they rejected the sexual double standard and chastised promiscuous behavior from men.

This society grew to 555 chapters and had 40,000 participating members by 1840. They employed only women as agents and provided guidance to young women who were employed.

They also dedicated a significant amount of effort in helping young girls out of brothels by founding homes for runaway girls and prostitutes. They were also responsible for the passage of a law that made seduction a crime in New York and Massachusetts.

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Living in an urban setting, working men could partake in a variety of blood sports, such as rat or terrier fights and one-on-one boxing matches at Sportsmen Hall. They could also drink and have fun playing billiards and bowling.

Theatrical performances were also popular in the city as a form of entertainment. However, by far the most popular form of theater were minstrel shows, in which white actors in black face performed comic routines often using racist caricatures and social criticism.

Minstrelsy began in around 1830 when white actors put on blackface and performed songs and danced. A famous example was the Jim Crow character performed by John Dartmouth Rice.

Minstrelsy grew enormously popular in around 1840 which stereotyped African Americans as lazy and irresponsible. Minstrelsy began poking fun at other social issues and stereotyped the Irish, Germans, and Women and was an overall problematic form of entertainment that perpetuated stereotypes that still exist today.

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Changing Values and Urban Pop Culture (address changing sexual values) p. 354-356 and 367

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Changing Values and Urban Pop Culture (address changing sexual values) p. 354-356 and 367

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As Americans began moving into urban settings from rural areas, the culture began changing. Concepts and ideas that deviated from the status quo emerged and many considered these immoral, such as the new view on sex or immigrants. However, the changing culture in urban settings would influence America for the coming years.

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Despite these challenges to their faith, the Mormons, under Brigham Young, were able to establish the state of Utah after the US annexed the Northern Mexican territories.

There were several challenges however, especially regarding the issue of polygamy, and this caused the Mormon War. Later President Buchanan offered a pardon to Utah citizens as he feared the abolition of polygamy would set the precedent for the abolition of slavery.

Eventually, the practice of polygamy was outlawed when Utah was admitted into the Union in 1896. However, Mormonism and the Church of Latter Day remains one of the few successful religious and social experiments, and the sect even remains relevant today.

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Mormonism emerged from religious ferment among the puritan families along the Erie Canal. They believed in a world of wonders, supernatural powers, and visions of the divine, all of which were beliefs not traditional to normal Protestants sects.

Because of this, the Mormon sect drew heavy criticism due to their seemingly bizarre beliefs such as polygamy, the practice of allowing or having multiple wives.

As a result, the Mormons were dubbed a common enemy and they often had a hard time settling in communities in the US such as Missouri and Illinois as they were quickly forced out.

The last straw was when local Christians from Nauvoo, Illinois, the settlement of the Mormons, became enraged at their practice of polygamy, and they murdered Joseph Smith shortly after he was arrested.

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The Mormons and their leader, Joseph Smith were ostracized for their practice of Mormonism.

One day, an anti-Mormon mob stormed the jail Joseph Smith was held and they murdered him to death.

Subsequently, Brigham Young, Smith’s leading disciple, led 6500 Mormons from Illinois to the soon-to-be Utah Territory which was not claimed by the United States yet. This trail spanned 1500 miles from Illinois to Utah and was known as the Mormon trail.

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Brigham Young was an American religious leader and the second president of the Church of Latter Day Saints.

Young was responsible for leading the Mormon exodus westward to the new Utah territory, following multiple religious disputes with Christian officials in Illinois.

The 6500 or so Mormons who fled from the United States settled in the Great Salt Lake Valley region of Utah and they quickly developed an agricultural Mormon society.

In 1848, when the United States acquired Mexico’s northern territories, they created a new Utah territory and named Brigham Young the governor. Young and his associates ruled with an iron fist to ensure the longevity of Mormonism.

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Mormonism was significant as it represented one of the first times people deviated from the standard social and religious ideas and succeeded. The Mormons were a hated group by many as they believed in foreign concepts that were deemed immoral, however, they managed to stay true to their beliefs and establish a home in Utah.

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Brook Farm was a community run and organized by George Ripley, a former unitarian minister.

He and his wife directed this community of Transcendentalists, aiming to combine the worker with the thinker, free of the pressures and competition present when residing within civilized society.

They believed in individualism and liberating the self from society. The community was initially successful, attracting a number of intellectuals and teachers.

They were quite notable for their remarkable school as they aimed to provide equality between the students and the teachers. However, the community gradually fell apart and eventually failed, with all of the buildings being sold.

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John Humphrey Noyes embraced the pious Shakers as the pioneers of Socialism.

Noyes was inspired to create a utopia where sex and marriage were disregarded, something that was seen as radical, drawing inspiration from the Shakers. Noyes also incorporated the protestant idea of perfectionism, the idea that Christ had already returned to Earth and that perfection could be achieved by humans.

This led Noyes to reject marriage, also inspired by the Shakers’ celibacy and this idea of perfectionism as Noyes felt that marriage led to jealousy and quarreling, and that society could do better without it.

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The American Fourierism movement grew alongside the Shaker movement.

Charles Fourier started this movement with an eight-stage theory of social evolution that predicted the decline of capitalist values and individual property rights.

Fourier believed that his system of socialism would free workers from their capitalist chains.

They also saw through gender roles and believed Fourierism would liberate both men and women from slavish and menial labor.

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The United Society of Believers in Christ’s Second Appearing, also known as the Shakers because of the ecstatic dances, was the first successful American communal movement.

Ann Lee Stanley believed that she was the reincarnation of Christ and lead a few followers to establish a church.

Following her death, the Shakers honored her as the second coming of Christ and they held radical social thought.

They separated themselves from the world and were celibate.

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Utopias (explain several different examples) p. 349-352

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Utopias (explain several different examples) p. 349-352

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Utopias were made of rural farmers and artisans seeking refuge from the economic depression, others were simply religious idealists. Utopias were seen as symbols of social protest and experimentation that advocated for socialism and unconventional forms of marriage, gender roles.

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Leaves of Grass was a collection of wild, exuberant first published in 1855.

Walt Whitman created this collection of poems as he was also inspired by Emerson's transcendentalist philosophy.

This continued the trend of individualist thought.

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Henry David Thoreau found great inspiration from Emerson’s philosophy of the natural world and sought inspiration from there.

Thoreau worked heavily in writing about the justification for independent thinking.

Thoreau advocated a thorough-going individuality

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Emerson was the leading voice of the aforementioned transcendental ideology.

He encouraged his fellow citizens to break free from tradition and expand their spiritual awareness.

He also encouraged American artists to find inspiration in American society instead of drawing from the old European.

Emerson emerged as an influential voice in the escape of American society who influenced a number of artists, writers, and scholars.

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Transcendentalism was an intellectual movement centered in religious New England.

Ralph Waldo Emerson was the leading voice for this school of thought which advocated for human passion and the mysteries of existence while rejecting rational thought.

They also believed in the idea of individualist self-realization through nature and the divine.

This ideology grew wildly popular through Emerson’s passionate writings and lectures and primarily took inspiration from European romantic philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and Samuel Taylor.

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Changes in Art and Literature p. 346-349

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Changes in Art and Literature p. 346-349

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As the enlightenment and rational thought spread, people began fighting this, especially through mediums such as art and poetry. American society was heavily influenced by this as the new nation started developing a new identity separate from Europe.